EARTH SCIENCE
Earth Processes or an organic acid to form a weak
GEOLOGIC PROCESS
-This are the internal (endogenous) and
external (exogenous) forces that shape the
Earth's feature.
-Exogenous processes on the surface of the
Earth are caused by external agents such as
weathering, erosion, mass wasting.
WEATHERING
-Rocks undergo natural process known as
weathering, which involves changes in its
physical and chemical properties.
-Physical or mechanical weathering and
chemical weathering are process that lead to
soil formation.
-Physical and mechanical weathering occurs
when physical forces break rocks into
smaller pieces without changing the rock's
composition.
PHYSICAL WEATHERING
Physical weathering caused by the
following:
-Frost wedging. The mechanical breakup of
rock due to the expansion of freezing water
in cracks.
-Pressure (stress) release - It is also known
as unloading which occurs when overlying
materials that cause stress
-Salt crystal growth (Salt crystallization) -
The disintegration of rocks is caused by salt
solution that seep into cracks and joints in
the rocks
-Water (hydraulic) action - The
disintegration of rocks is caused by water
from powerful waves that move rapidly into
cracks in the rock.
-Thermal stress. Rock expands when heated
and contracts when it cools.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING
Chemical athering caused by different
chemical reaction such as :
 Carbonation - It occurs when water
(rain) combines with carbon dioxide
carbonic acid. This acid reacts with
calcium carbonate (limestone)
present in the rock and forms
calcium
 Hydrolysis. It refers to the reaction
between water and the silicate and
carbonate minerals present in rock.
 Oxidation. It involves the reaction
between oxygen (in air to water) and
metal (such as iron) present in the
rock.
BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING
Living organism may contribute to
mechanical as well as chemical weathering.
The activity of organism, including plants,
burrowing animals, and humans can cause
physical breakdown of rock. The attachment
of lichens and mosses to the rock surface
can cause physical or chemical breakdown.
Erosion
This is a surface process which involves the
removal of soil, sediment, and rock
fragments from the landscape.
The natural agents of erosion include
gravity, wind, running water, glaciers,
eroded surface.
Solution - is a transport mechanism waves
and rain. It is responsible for: (1) the
creation of hills and valleys; (2) removal of
sediments from the areas that were once
glaciated; (3) shaping the shorelines of lakes
and coastline, and (4) movement of material
slope from elevated sites.
3 PROCESS INVOLVED IN EROSION
 Detachment (from the ground)
 Entrainment/deposition
 Transport (via wind or water)
AGENT OF EROSION
 Plucking
 Cavitation
 Raindrop impact
 Abrasion
Plucking - occurs when ice freezes onto the
surface and cracks
Cavitation - caused by moving water with
high velocity like high waterfalls.
EARTH SCIENCE
Raindrop impact - characterized by the force
of a raindrop falling on the soil and
weathered rock surface
Abrasion- due to excavation of surface
particles by material carried by erosion
agent.
Entrainment- the process of particle lifting
by the agent of erosion
Transport- happens once a particle is
entrained through various mechanisms such
as suspension, saltation, traction and
solution.
MECHANISM OF TRANSPORT
Suspension - where the particles are carried
by the medium without touching the surface
of their origin.
Saltation - is where the particle moves from
the surface to the medium in quick
continuous repeated cycles. Suspension can
occur in air, water and ice while saltation is
only in active in air and water.
Traction - occurs where all erosional
mediums is characterized by the movement
of particles by rolling, sliding and shuffling
along the that occurs only in aquesou
environment
Deposition
occurs when the transported particles fall out
of the transporting medium and settle on a
surface. It is caused by particle precipitation
and flocculation which actively present in
water.
PROCESS IN DEPOSITION
Precipitation - A process where dissolved
ions become solid because of changes in
temperature or chemistry of the water.
Flocculation - a chemical process where salt
causes the aggregation of minute clay
particle into larger masses that are too heavy
to remain suspended.
Mass movement or Mass wasting
• It is the geomorphic process by which soil
and rock move downslope due to the
gravitational force
Factors that affect the occurrence of mass
wasting include:
1. Change in slope angle
2. Weakening of material by
weathering
3. Increased water content
4. Change in vegetation overloading
TYPES OF MASS MOVEMENT
1. Creep - it is a slow downhill
movement of soil
2. Flow - characterized by mass
movement of material containing a
large amount of water
3. Landslide - it is also called landslip,
which is a rapid movement of a large
mass
4. Topples - it is occurs when block of
rocks pivot and fall away from a
slope.
5. Slump - is the downward movement
of a block of material along a curved
surface (shaped like a spoon).
6. Falls - also know as a rockfalls it is
occurs when a rocks or rocks
fragments fall freely through the air.
7. Debris avalanche - it is a variety of
every rapid to extremely rapid debris
flow.
Magma rising
A volcano, is a conical shaped hill or
mountain from the accumulation of lava and
rock fragments emitted through a volcanic
vent.
There are three processes in the
asthenosphere, that is responsible for the
formation of magma - increasing
temperature, decreasing pressure, and
addition of water.
Lava is a magma that flows into the earths
surface. Lava and rock fragments come out
EARTH SCIENCE
from an opening called a vent located in a
crater.
A crater bowl-shaped depression at the tip of
the volcano that was by itself formed by
volcanic activity.
There are cases where volcanoes collapse or
magma reaches the surface through a linear
fission rather than through a central vent.
-Caldera is formed when a volcano collapses
into a shallow, empty magma chamber
below the volcano.
-Lava plateaus are formed from the
accumulation of low - viscosity
-Geysers are formed from a violent eruption
of underground water
-Hot springs are formed when the circulating
heated ground water rises to the earth's
surface.
-Mud volcanoes are formed when chemical
reactions with heated, acidic waters from the
hot springs convert rocks to viscous clay.
TYPES OF VOLCANOES
Volcanoes differ in different ways, either in
shape, size, materials that make the cone,
and activity.
Based on activities, volcanoes are classified
as active, dormant, or extinct.
-Shield Volcano looks like a warriors shield
-Stratovolcano also known composite
volcano
-Cinder volcano is the smallest type of
volcano due to its eruptions.
-Domes form from the slow extrusion of
highly-viscous silicic lava.
Volcanism or Volcanic Eruption is the
emission of material from deep in the earth.
Subduction zone, when the weaker crust is
being pulled in the magma chamber and
breaks, it also forms volcanoes. A push and
pull event.
Endogenic Processes
Products Of Volcanic Eruption
Most eruptions are directed vertically but
there are cases where sideways (lateral
blasts) occur.
(Tephra) are particles of all sizes that are
blast into the air by volcanic eruption
There are three principal volcanic gases
released during volcanic eruptions (carbon
dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and water vapor.)
(Lava) is the viscous material that flows out
of the volcano during eruption. Is can travel
to several kilometers depending on the type
of eruption
(Pyroclastic flows) are mixtures of hot gases
and ash
(Lahars) are mudflows formed when fine-
grained tephra mixes with water forming
streams
MINERAL METAMORPHISM
Metamorphism is the change or minerals
due to heat, pressure, and reaction with
chemically active fluids
(Rock cycle). It is a process that describes
how rocks change from one form to another.
Deformation of Crust
Rock deformation- process where rocks
change due to stress
Compression- occurs when tectonic plates
are pushed together
TYPES OF MOUNTAINS AND THEIR FORMATIONS
Volcano mountains- also known as
volcanoes
Fold mountains- the blocks position under it
Hanging wall- blocks position over the fault
Foot wall- the common types of mountain
Reverse fault- horizontal sudden slip
Srike slip fault- hanging wall has moved up
Dome mountain- built from magma
EARTH SCIENCE
Fault-block mountains- blocks of rocks 5. Moderate
material slide along fault
6. Strong
Earthquakes
7. Very strong
Earthquakes- sudden shaking or trembling
8. Severe
Focus- location on the fault
9. Violent
Epicenter- geographic location
10+ Extreme
TYPES OF EARTHQUAKES

Volcanic earthquake- due to volcanic Mercalli Intensity Scale- Guiseppe Mercalli

activity
Richter Scale- Charles F. Richter (1934)
Tectonic earthquake- results from the
LAYERS OF THE EARTH
movement of plates\
Earth’s crust- outer layer of the planet’s core
Earthquake waves are energy that is released
when earthquakes occur
Continental crust- thicker layer of
the earth’s crust
Seismic waves- vibrations
Oceanic crust- thinner layer
Seismographs- recorded on instrument
Earth’s mantle- thickest layer of the earth
Seismogram- printed record

TWO MAIN TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES

Upper mantle- semi-fluid

1. Surface waves- travel along the surface Lower mantle- solid

2. Body waves- travel through the earth’s Earth’s core-

interior
Outer core- liquid layer
TYPES OF SURFACE WAVES
Inner core- solid layer
1. Rayleigh waves- move both vertically &
horizontally Plate tectonic

2. Love waves- moves sideways with no The Great San Francisco Earthquake (April
vertical movements 18, 1906)

TYPES OF BODY WAVES Arthur Holmes- British Geologist

1. P waves- travel to liquid, solid, and gas Continental-Continental Boundaries

2. S waves- travels through solids Transform boundaries- occur along

transform fault
MEASUREMENT OF THE EARTHQUAKES
Oceanic-Oceanic Boundaries
Mercalli Intensity Scale
Oceanic-Continental Boundaries
1. Not felt
Divergent Boundaries- tectonic plates move
2. Weak away from each other

3. Weak Convergent Boundaries- two plates come

together
4. Light
EARTH SCIENCE
Mid- Ocean Ridge- large mountain ranges RELATIVE GEOLOGIC TIME
rising from the ocean floor Scientists use relative age measurement in
- Mid-Atlantic Ridge determining processes that have taken place
- East pacific Rise on earth. This is also a way to approximately
- Southern Indian Ridge determine the age of the rocks on the earth
that may lead in knowing how old the earth
Seafloor Spreading- large slab of earth slip would be.
apart

CONTINENTAL DRIFT

-refers to the large scale horizon movements PRINCIPLE SUPERSTITION

of continents
The principle of superposition states that in
THE CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
an undisturbed sequence of sedimentary
rocks the older rock is at the bottom and the
proposed by scientist Alfred Wegener (20th younger is above.
century)

replaced by Science of Plate Tectonics

1. Geological Fit
2. Fossil Evidences
3. Rock and Mountain Chain Correlations
4. Paleoclimate Evidence
5. Paleomagnetic Evidences
Major events in Earth’s Past

PRINCIPLE OF ORIGINAL HORIZONTALITY

THE GEOLOGIC TIME

a system of chronological measurement used
by geologists, palaeontologists and scientists
to describe the timing and relationships
between events that have taken place in the
history of the earth.
This principle is based on the observation
that sedimentary layers are deposited in
approximately horizontal sheets. If layers
are folded, it can be inferred that
deformation must have occurred after rocks
have been formed.

By examining layers of sedimentary rock,

geologists developed a time scale for
dividing up earth history. In the early 20
century, radiometric-dating techniques
allowed scientists to put absolute dates on
divisions in the geologic time scale. It is
believed that the oldest layers are at the
bottom and the youngest are at the top.

GEOLOGIC TIME CAN BE MEASURED IN TWO WAYS:

-Relative age
Measurement is simply determining the
sequence in which event occurs. It
determines whether the rock is older or
younger than other rocks.

-Absolute age
Tells both the sequence of the events and the
amount of time that has passed from the
time the event occurred. It determines how
long ago the rock formed in the exact
number of years.
EARTH SCIENCE
PRINCIPLE OF CROSSCUTTING RELATIONSHIPS
Rocks must exist first before anything may
happen to it. This principle states that any
feature such as or intrusion that cuts across
rocks is younger than the youngest rock that
is cut.
PRINCIPLE OF FAUNAL SUCCESSION
This principle is based on the fact that
organisms evolve and go extinct through
time. Fossil content of rock changes in a
systematic way, reflecting evolutionary
changes as well. Fossil content can be used
to help determine age of rock and correlate
rocks.
Unconformities
Earth's crust is continually changing.
Uplifting, subsidence, deformation and
erosion may happen. It may be result to
interruption in deposition.
ANGULAR UNCONFORMITY
The rocks are above and below,
unconformity have different orientations
NONCONFORMITY
Occurs where rocks that formed deep in the
Earth.
DISCONFORMITY
The sedimentary layers above and below the
unconformity are parallel. It is formed area
rocks in a nearly horizontal fashion are
eroded and an erosional profile remain
covered by subsequent sedimentary
deposition.
Correlation
Geologist are interested in working out
equivalency of age of rocks in different
locations.
-Correlation is the process used by geologist
to match rock layers and formation.
Absolute Geologic Time
Radioactive dating is a method used to
figure out how old rocks, minerals, and
fossils are by studying the amount of parent
and daughter isotopes present.
Isotopes- are variations of the same element
Daughter isotopes- are the radioactive ones
that decay into stable forms
Geologic Time Scale
The geologic time scale serves as a roadmap
of Earth's history, showcasing its major eras
and periods from its inception to the present
day.
-The geologic time scale is a guide to the
major eras and periods of the earth's history
from the very beginning of the planet to
now.
-Scientists illustrate geologic time with the
oldest at the bottom
-The geological time scale is typically
divided into four main hierarchical units:
eons, eras, periods, and epochs.
-Eons represent the largest intervals of time
and are subdivided into eras, which are
EARTH SCIENCE
further divided into periods, and periods into
epochs.
PHANEROZOIC EON
represents the time during which the
majority of macroscopic organisms, algae,
fungi, plants and animals, lived.
CENOZOIC (RECENT LIFE)
is known as the "Age of Mammals." It is
during this era that mammals and grasses
become abundant.
MESOZOIC (MIDDLE LIFE)
is known as "Age of Dinosaurs." It is during
this time that dinosaurs roamed the lands.
PALEOZOIC (ANCIENT LIFE)
is known as the "Age of Fishes."
Sedimentary rocks that are formed during
this era contain fossils of early life forms
such as invertebrates, fishes, amphibians,
and reptiles.
Fossils
- are preserved remains or traces of animals,
plants, and other organisms.
FOSSILIZATION
is the preservation of organic remains
through a complex processes.
PERMINERALIZATION
is a process of fossilization that occurs when
water containing minerals enter these pores
of plants, bones, or shells.
CARBONIZATION OR DISTILLATION
is a type of fossilization that yields a
detailed carbon impression of the dead
organism in sedimentary rock.
REPLACEMENT
which occurs when water dissolves the
original hard parts and replaces them with
mineral matter
TYPES OF FOSSILS
INDEX FOSSIL
also known as guide fossil, this is used for
relative dating. Any animal or plant
preserved in the rock can be considered as
index fossil
TRACE FOSSIL
includes any impression such as feeding,
scratching, burrowing, walking, or resting.
These fossils reflect the animal behaviors.
TRANSITIONAL FOSSIL
is any fossilized remains that show the
intermediate states between an ancestral
form and that of its descendants.
MICROFOSSIL
is remains of tiny animals and plants found
in rocks and sediment.
FOSSIL RESIN (AMBER)
is an exudates (fluid emitted by the
organism) of long-buried plant life.
DERIVED FOSSIL (REWORKED FOSSIL)
is an exudates (fluid emitted by the
organism) of long-buried plant life.
CHEMICAL FOSSIL
is a fossil wherein the derived compounds
formed by living creatures that occur in
some rocks.
Blast from the past
in 1676, the first dinosaur fossil was
recovered from the Taynton Limestone
Formation of Stonesfield limestone quarry,
Oxfordshire.
Great Scientist
Willard Frank Libby was an american
physical chemist, awarded the nobel prize in
chemistry in 1964