Chapter 2: Lesson 2.

2
Exogenic Processes
 Exogenic Processes

 includes geological phenomena and processes

that originate externally to the Earth’s surface.
 Generally related to the:
atmosphere,
hydrosphere and
biosphere, and
therefore to processes of:
weathering,
erosion,
transportation,
deposition,
denudation etc.
 Exogenic Processes

Landforms are limitless in variety. Some have

been shaped primarily by:
streams of water,
glacial ice,
waves and currents and
movements of the Earth‘s crust or
volcanic eruptions.
 Exogenic Processes

Weathering
Weathering is the decomposition and disintegration of
rocks and minerals at the Earth’s surface.
 Types of Weathering
1. Mechanical Weathering

Freezing and thawing

Water expands when it freezes.
If water accumulates in a crack and then freezes, its expansion
pushes the rock apart and the process is called frost wedging.
In a temperate climate, water may freeze at night and thaw during
the day.
 Types of Weathering

 Ice cements the rock temporarily, but when it melts, the rock
fragments may tumble from a steep cliff.
 Large piles of loose angular rocks, called talus slopes, lie beneath
many cliffs. These rocks fell from the cliffs mainly as a result of
frost wedging.
Salt crystal growth
force exerted by salt crystal that formed as water
evaporates from pore spaces or cracks in rocks can cause
the rock to fall apart
Abrasion –
wearing away of rocks by constant collision of
loose particles
Biological activity –
plants and animals as agents of mechanical
weathering
2. Chemical Weathering
 
Dissolution –
dissociation of molecules into ions; common example
includes dissolution of calcite and salt
Oxidation-
reaction between minerals and oxygen dissolved in
water
Hydrolysis-
change in the composition of minerals when they
react with water
 
 Erosion
the incorporation and transportation of material by a
mobile agent such as water, wind, or ice

BY WATER

EROSION

BY BY ICE
WIND
 Agents of Erosion
Running water - encompasses both overland flow and stream
flow
Ocean and Sea waves
 Agents of Erosion
3. Glaciers - a moving body of ice on
land that moves downslope or outward
from an area of accumulation (Monroe
et. al., 2007)
Types of glaciers:
a.Valley (alpine) glaciers —
bounded by valleys and tend to be
long and narrow
b.Ice sheets (continental glaciers)
— cover large areas of the land
surface; unconfined by
topography. Modern ice sheets
cover Antarctica and Greenland
c.Ice shelves — sheets of ice
floating on water and attached to
the land. They usually occupy
coastal embayment.
 Agents of Erosion
Wind
a.Wind erodes by: deflation (removal of loose, fine particles from
the surface), and abrasion (grinding action and sandblasting)
b.Deflation results in features such as blowout and desert
pavement. Abrasion yields ventifacts and yardangs.
c.Wind, just like flowing water, can carry sediments such as: (1)
bed load (consists of sand hopping and bouncing through the
process of saltation), and (2) suspended load (clay and silt-sized
particles held aloft).
 Agents of Erosion
Groundwater
a.The main erosional process associated
with groundwater is solution. Slow-
moving groundwater cannot erode
rocks by mechanical processes, as a
stream does, but it can dissolve rocks
and carry these off in solution.
b.Rainwater reacts with carbon dioxide
from atmosphere and soil to form a
solution of dilute carbonic acid. This
acidic water then percolates through
fractures and bedding planes, and
slowly dissolves the limestone by
forming soluble calcium bicarbonate
which is carried away in solution.
 Agents of Erosion

Running water - encompasses both overland flow and stream

flow
Overland flow - Runoff that flows down the land slopes in
broadly distributed sheets
Stream Flow - water runs along a narrow channel between
banks
 Agents of Erosion
Gravity
Mass wasting — the downslope movement of soil, rock, and
regolith under the direct influence of gravity
Factors that control mass wasting processes include:

a.As the slope angle increases, the tendency to slide

down the slope becomes greater.
b.Role of water: adds weight to the slope, has the ability
to change angle of repose, reduces friction on a sliding
surface , and water pore pressure reduces shear
strength of materials
 Mass Wasting Processes

a. Slope failures - sudden failure of the slope resulting in

transport of debris downhill by rolling, sliding, and slumping.

i. Slump – type of slide wherein downward rotation of rock or

regolith occurs along a curved surface
ii.Rock fall and debris fall– free falling of dislodged bodies of
rocks or a mixture of rock, regolith, and soil in the case of
debris fall
 Mass Wasting Processes

a. Slope failures - sudden failure of the slope resulting in

transport of debris downhill by rolling, sliding, and slumping.

iii. Rock slide and debris slide- involves the rapid

displacement of masses of rock or debris along an inclined
surface
 Mass Wasting Processes

b. Sediment flow - materials flow downhill mixed with water or air;

Slurry and granular flows are further subdivided based on velocity at
which flow occurs
i. Slurry flow – water-saturated flow which contains 20-40% water;
above 40% water content, slurry flows grade into streams
1) Solifluction – common wherever water cannot escape from the
saturated surface layer by infiltrating to deeper levels; creates
distinctive features lobes and sheets of debris
 Mass Wasting Processes

2)Debris flow – results from heavy rains causing soil and regolith to be
saturated with water; commonly have a tongue-like front; Debris flows
composed mostly of volcanic materials on the flanks of volcanoes are
called lahars. Rodolfo, K.S. (2000) in his paper “The hazard from
lahars and jokulhaups” explained the distinction between debris flow,
hyperconcentrated flow and mudflow: debris flow contains 10-25 wt%
water, hyperconcentrated stream flow has 25-40 wt% water, and
mudflow is restricted to flows composed dominantly of mud
 Mass Wasting Processes

3)Mud flow – highly fluid, high velocity mixture of sediment

and water; can start as a muddy stream that becomes a
moving dam of mud and rubble; differs with debris flow in
that fine-grained material is predominant
 Mass Wasting Processes

ii. Granular flow – contains low amounts of water, 0-20%

water; fluid-like behavior is possible by mixing with air
1. Creep – slowest type of mass wasting requiring several
years of gradual movement to have a pronounced effect
on the slope ; evidence often seen in bent trees, offset in
roads and fences, inclined utility poles. Creep occurs
when regolith alternately expands and contracts in
response to freezing and thawing, wetting and drying, or
warming and cooling
 Mass Wasting Processes

2.Grain flow – forms in dry or nearly dry granular sediment

with air filling the pore spaces such as sand flowing down
the dune face
 Mass Wasting Processes

3. Debris avalanche – very high velocity flows involving huge

masses of falling rocks and debris that break up and pulverize
on impact; often occurs in very steep mountain ranges. Some
studies suggest that high velocities result from air trapped
under the rock mass creating a cushion of air that reduces
friction and allowing it
 SUBAQUEOUS MASS WASTING

Subaqueous mass movement occurs on slopes in the

ocean basins. This may occur as a result of an earthquake
or due to an over-accumulation of sediment on slope or
submarine canyon.
 SUBAQUEOUS MASS WASTING

3 types:
a.Submarine slumps - similar to slumps on land
b. Submarine debris flow – similar to debris flows
on land
c. Turbidity current – sediment moves as a
turbulent

A B C
EVENTS THAT TRIGGER MASS WASTING PROCESSES.
a. Shocks and vibrations – earthquakes and minor shocks such as
those produced by heavy trucks on the road, man-made explosions
b. Slope modification – creating artificially steep slope so it is no longer
at the angle of repose
c. Undercutting – due to streams eroding banks or surf action
undercutting a slope
d. Changes in hydrologic characteristics – heavy rains lead to water-
saturated regolith increasing its weight, reducing grain to grain contact
and angle of repose;
e. Changes in slope strength – weathering weakens the rock and leads
to slope failure; vegetation holds soil in place and slows the influx of
water; tree roots strengthen slope by holding the ground together
f. Volcanic eruptions - produce shocks; may produce large volumes of
water from melting of glaciers during eruption, resulting to mudflows
and debris flows
 For more information:
Exogenic and Endogenic processes (
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8iaXljsMItY)
Weathering and Erosion Basics (
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CNUzTmPKxv8)
Physical Geology:Mass Wasting, various types (
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Egq6wS5wAUA)

Activity for Lesson 2.2 The Activity will be

provided in Edmodo Class
EVENTS THAT TRIGGER MASS WASTING PROCESSES.
a. Shocks and vibrations – earthquakes and minor shocks such as
those produced by heavy trucks on the road, man-made explosions
b. Slope modification – creating artificially steep slope so it is no longer
at the angle of repose
c. Undercutting – due to streams eroding banks or surf action
undercutting a slope
d. Changes in hydrologic characteristics – heavy rains lead to water-
saturated regolith increasing its weight, reducing grain to grain contact
and angle of repose;
e. Changes in slope strength – weathering weakens the rock and leads
to slope failure; vegetation holds soil in place and slows the influx of
water; tree roots strengthen slope by holding the ground together
f. Volcanic eruptions - produce shocks; may produce large volumes of
water from melting of glaciers during eruption, resulting to mudflows
and debris flows