REVIEW

Geologic
Processes on
Earth’s
Surface
EXOGENIC PROCESS
 Exogenic process

 External processes that occur at or near the Earth’s surface

 Meanwhile, Endogenic processes are geodynamic processes
(e.g. seismic activities)
 Include degradation (lowering) and aggradation (elevation)
process.
 Weathering is a type of degradation process.
1. Weathering
2. Mass Wasting
3. Erosion
4. Sedimentation
1.
WEATHERING
What is Weathering?

 refers to the process of breaking down of rocks into

smaller pieces called sediments. Rocks exposed at Earth’s
surface undergo weathering, and this process usually
takes a long time.
What are the factors
that contribute to
weathering?
 2 TYPES OF WEATHERING
1. MECHANICAL WEATHERING
- is a process wherein rocks are broken down into smaller pieces without changing
their chemical composition due to several factors like fluctuating temperatures and
pressure, and biological activity.
2. CHEMICAL WEATHERING
- is a process wherein rock materials are changed into other substances that have
different physical and chemical compositions. Some agents of chemical weathering include
water, strong acids, and oxygen.
 MECHANICAL WEATHERING

Frost Wedging
Heating and Cooling
Salt Crystal Growth
Biological Activity
Unloading
 Frost Wedging

This process involves repeated

cycles of freezing and thawing
of ice. One of the accepted
explanations about this process
is the expansion of water as it
freezes.
 Heating and Cooling

 Rocks are composed of different minerals which expand

and contract when subjected to sudden changes in
temperature.

The constant cycle of expansion (due to heating) and

contraction (due to cooling) eventually causes rocks to
 Salt Crystal Growth

 This process happens when seawater penetrates

crevices in rocks which are found mostly in rocky
shorelines and arid regions. Salt crystals are left in
pore spaces of the rocks when seawater evaporates.
These salt crystals continue to grow larger as more
saline water enters and evaporates.
Biological Activity
 The action of organisms including plants and animals
reduces the size of rocks and minerals which make rocks
more susceptible to chemical weathering. Plant roots, for
example, cause rocks to wedge as it penetrates the cracks
in search of water and nutrients.
 Burrowing animals help in breaking the rocks by moving
fresh materials onto the surface where different processes
can easily degrade them.
Unloading
 Through erosion or uplift, thick layers of sediments
overlying deeply buried in rocks are removed. This process
is termed unloading.
 When rocks are exposed due to unloading, the stress caused
by the overlying material is lowered causing it to expand.
Slabs of rocks began to separate as weathering continued
creating exfoliation domes (onion-like layers).

Formation of exfoliation dome due to unloading

CHEMICAL WEATHERING
 CHEMICAL WEATHERING

Dissolution
Hydrolysis
Oxidation
Kami-shima Island, a Karst topography in
Japan
Dissolution

 Itis a process wherein a solid (i.e., halite) dissolves in a liquid (i.e.,

water). Small proportions of water molecules break apart to form an
equal number of hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH-).
 Some minerals are quickly dissolved in water, and the ions are
simply flushed away or leached. Dissolution happens because water
is one of the most effective solvents due to its molecular structure.
Hydrolysis
In this process, water reacts with a mineral to form
a new mineral. Small proportions of water
molecules break apart to create an equal number of
hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH-). This
process happens when water is incorporated into the
original mineral’s crystal structure.
 Oxidation
 Itis a chemical combination of
oxygen with a mineral to form an
entirely different mineral in which at
least one of the elements has a higher
ionic charge.
 Oxidation also gives the red color for
desert landscapes.
Red Rock Canyon in Las Vegas
Factors of Weathering of Rocks

Climate
Surface Area
Topographicrelief
Rock composition
2.
EROSION
What is Erosion?

Erosion is the transportation of weathered rocks.

The factors that contribute to erosion are agents
like running water or rivers, wind, gravity,
groundwater, wave currents, and glaciers.
Erosion has different types: water erosion, glacial
erosion, and wind erosion.
Types of Erosion
Water Erosion

 is a type of erosion where water carries the

sediments to different bodies of water such as
rivers. The high amount of rainfall contributes to
susceptibility of the soil to water erosion. There
are different subtypes of water erosion: splash
erosion, rill erosion, gully erosion, bank erosion,
and thermal erosion.
Glacial Erosion

 happens when a glacier, or a river of highly-

compact ice, move downhill due to its weight. It
plucks chunks of rocks and causes scraping
between the ice and the rock. Plucking and
scraping can lead to the development of other
landforms if, for example, the glaciers hit a
mountain and erode it.
 Wind Erosion

 happens when light materials, such as small

rocks and pebbles, are carried by the wind to
different places. It tends to occur most when
the amount of rainfall is low, and soil
moisture is at its lowest value. Often the
only proof of wind erosion is a haze of dust
in carrying fine materials from the soil.
Mass Wasting

Movement of rocks, soil, and regolith

A step that follows weathering
Driving force: gravity
 What is Mass Wasting?
 Some mass wasting processes (mud flow, lahar,
landslides, rock avalanche, etc.) are sources of
geologic or natural hazards

 When human settlements

are located on or near steep
hillslopes, they become
exposed to this form of
natural hazards

 Over 20 lives are lost yearly

in the 50 states of the U.S.
due to mass wasting
Risk factors to increase likelihood of mass movement
Gravity - hill slopes more vulnerable (on top of a hill, on
the slope, or at the bottom of a hill), modified
slopes (road cut, cut flat area to build on, coastal
erosion, etc.)
Water - risk is higher when ground is saturated and/or
during heavy rains, El Niño events
Earth Materials - loose soils (particularly clay-rich) or
fractured rock, and old landslides pose greater risk
Triggering Events - heavy rain during storm, rain after big
storms or fires, earthquakes (when ground is
saturated?)…are all triggers
 Factors that Cause Weakening of Slopes
• Most important: Water
• Climatic controls
– Ice
– Vegetation
 Controlling Factors
• Overgrazing
– Reduces vegetation
• Weakens soil
• Allows water to enter soil
• Overloading
– Dumping of mine debris
– Heavy buildings on steep, denuded hillsides
 Mass Movement Includes
• slides • flow
• fall
RAPID MASS WASTING
PROCESSES
- Rock Falls
- Slides
- Flows
SLIDE - It is the movement of coherent blocks or a few
intact materials along fractures. It is faster than flow but
may still take time for the debris to move entirely.
 Slump - occurs when blocks of material move downhill over a
gently curved fracture in rock or regolith.
 Rockslide - bedrock slides downslope over a fracture plane.
Most of the time, rocks break apart creating a turbulent mass of
debris towards the hillside.
Mass Wasting: Landslide
Moderate Mass Wasting: Rotational Slide or Slump
Moderate Mass Wasting: Rotational Slide or Slump
Moderate Mass Wasting: Rotational Slide or Slump

Slump curves

Rotational slide surface

FALL

 Itis characterized by rapid, free-falling rocks. In cases of very

steep slopes, falling rocks may be dictated only by gravitational
force and air resistance and is very disastrous
Rockfall
Rockfall
FLOW - loose unconsolidated
particles act as a fluid.
Creep
Debris flow
Mudflow
Earthflow
Solifluction
Creep

 is the slow, downhill movement of rock or soil under the influence

of gravity. Each particle moves independently and does not move
as one mass of debris. It typically moves at a rate of 1 centimeter
per year but may move faster when saturated with water.
Effects of Soil Creep
Soil Creep Effect: Curvature of Tree Trunk
Soil Creep Effect: Curvature of Tree Trunk Base
Soil Creep Effect: Tilting Fencepost
Debris flow

is composed of a mixture of clay, silt,

sand, and rock fragments in which more
than half of the components are more
abundant than sand.
Mudflow

has a consistency of wet concrete due to its

high water content. Mudflows occurring in
volcanic areas and consisting of ash are
called lahars. This may result in a speed of
100 kilometers per hour similar to some
stream channels.
Mass Wasting: Mudflows
Pinatubo Mt., Philippines
Volcanic Lahars (1991)
Mudflow Covering the Garage Door
Earthflow

contains less water and therefore less

fluid than a mudflow.
Mass Wasting: Earthflow
Solifluction

 happens when water-saturated soil moves downslope. It

occurs in permafrost regions where the permanent ice
layer makes the underlying soil waterlogged.
Solifluction Lobes and Terraces, Lewis Hill,
Newfoundland
 Types of Mass Wasting Based on
Rate of Movement and Amount of Water