CHAPTER 5

CHANNEL OF ESTATE AND INPUT

By
Dr. Nuramidah Hamidon
CHANNEL OF
ESTATE AND
ROOF
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
• Discharged directly into on-site detention/infiltration facilities OR
property drainage systems.
• Only appropriate in some situations – minor buildings in rural areas etc.
• Applied to:
• Runoff conveyance & collection to storage/retention facilities
• Comfort and safety of occupants
• Protection of building structure

• Failures can occur due to:

• Very large storm events
• Blockage of systems
• Poor maintenance and neglect
• Ageing of systems
TERMINOLOGY
• Roof drainage must be conceived and components sized
to carry stormwater flows. – avoid nuisance and harm

• EAVES GUTTERS – outside of building

• BOX GUTTERS – within plan area of bulding
• VALLEY GUTTERS – between intersecting sloping
surfaces of a roof.

• Property drainage
- Systems transfers runoff from roofs, paved areas and
other surfaces to a suitable outlet OR disposal facility.
 Roof Drainage Design Procedure
 Wind causes the rain to slope
- Horizontal component of rainfall
- Direction of wind results maximum catchment area
 Design standards
• If water can flow back into building, overflow
measures are required.
• A higher design standard for hillside area.

Rainfall intensity
• The 5 minute duration is obtained from the short-duration rainfall IDF method
(intensity- duration- frequency-) data for the particular site.
• Flow produced by design rainfall is calculated by RATIONAL FORMULA, C = 1.0
 Downpipe size need to match
eaves gutter size.
 Downpipe is either
rectangular OR circular.
 Listed size not available,
substitute downpipe with
equal/greater cross-sectional
area.
 Design Of Valley Gutters
 Located between sloping roof sections of a hipped roof.
1. End at the high point of an eaves gutter.
2. Discharge from a valley gutter does not flow equally into both eaves gutter. Designer should
allow at least 20% excess capacity in the sizing of eaves gutter.
 Table 23.3 is only valid for:
1. Roof slope of >12.5°
2. Nominal side angle of valley gutters is 16.5°
3. Catchment area < 20 m2
 Method of design of valley gutter:
1. Select ARI
2. Determine design 5 minute duration, 20 year ARI rainfall intensity
3. Choose girth size and dimensions from table 23.3
 Design Of Box Gutter
 Avoid potential for blockages – prevent free runoff of roof water & water to enter
building.
 The method for design of a box gutter is as follows:
1. Determine the catchment area draining to each downpipe (Equation 23.1)
2. Determine the design 5 minute duration, 100 year ARI rainfall intensity.
3. Select the width and slope of the box gutter to suit the building layout.
4. Read off the minimum depth of the box gutter from Design Chart 23.2. This minimum depth
must be used for the full length of the box gutter. When applying the Design Chart, Ac is the
catchment area draining to a single downpipe.
 Rainheads & SUMPS
• Box gutters shall discharge via a rainhead or sump, to a downpipe
Rainwater Tank
 Rainwater tanks may be provided to collect flow from roof and gutter systems.
 These tanks can be used to:
1. provide water supplies, and/or
2. provide on-site detention storage
Property Drainage
 Designed to ensure that overflows in a major storm event do not present a hazard to
people or cause significant damage to property.

Designed to contain flows from minor

storm events of ARI not less than that
specified in Table 23.4
 Pump Systems For Property Drainage
 Use of pump systems for site drainage is to be avoided because of difficulties in ensuring
sufficient reliability of operation.
 Pump systems are permitted for the drainage of building basement areas.
 Full details must be submitted for the local Authority's approval.
1. proposed installation
2. pump type
3. discharge rate
4. delivery line size

Holding tank
 Storing one hour's runoff from a one hour duration storm.
 Inlets shall be screened to prevent the entry of debris.
Pumps
 Two (2) pumps, connected in parallel.
 Each pump being capable of emptying the holding tank at a rate equal to the lower of the
allowable site detention discharge rate, or the rate of inflow for the 1 hour duration storm.
 Automatically controlled by the level in the wet well.
 The pump control shall be set up to enable alternate pump operation at each start

Discharge
 Channelled to the open or piped street drain.
INPUT OF
STORM
WATER
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
GENERAL
 Stormwater runoff presents numerous safety hazards in urban areas. On-road ponding, reduced
visibility and hydroplaning of vehicles are some of the hazards.
 Stormwater inlets, also known as gully inlets, are mainly provided to collect this stormwater from
the paved surfaces, parks, landscaped and open space areas, and transfer it to underground
pipe drains
 Inlets will not function properly if the downstream pipe or open drain system has insufficient
capacity, causing backwater.
1.1 Pavement Inlets
 The most common type from a road pavement.
 Standard size and shapes should be used to achieve economy in construction and maintenance.
 Adequate road drainage helps to protect the road subgrade.
 When selecting and locating inlets, consideration shall be given to hydraulic efficiency, vehicle,
bicycle and pedestrian safety, debris collection potential, and maintenance problems.
• Three types of inlets may be utilised for pavement drainage
1.2 Others Inlet
 Other stormwater inlets are required to collect surface stormwater runoff in open space,
reserves or swales where the flow is to be introduced to an underground pipe system.
 Grate inlets are known as ‘field inlets’.
 The Local Authority may determine which standard or other types of inlets are appropriate for
its area.
 Standardisation of inlet designs within a local area is recommended in the interests of economic
efficiency.
2.1 Hydroplanning
 When rain falls on a sloped pavement surface, it forms a thin film of water that increases in
thickness as it flows to the edge of the pavement. As the depth of water flowing over a roadway
surface increases, the potential for hydroplaning increases. When a rolling tyre encounters a
film of water on the roadway, the water is channelled through the tyre tread pattern and through
the surface roughness of the pavement.
 Hydroplaning is a function of the water depth, roadway geometries, vehicle speed, tread depth,
tyre inflation pressures, and conditions of the pavement surface. It has been shown that
hydroplaning can occur at speeds of 89 km/hr with a water depth of 2 mm.
 The hydroplaning potential of a roadway surface can be reduced by the following:
 Design the roadway geometries to reduce the drainage path lengths of the water flowing over the pavement.
 Increase the pavement surface texture depth by such methods as grooving of cement concrete. An increase of
pavement surface texture will increase the drainage capacity at the tyre pavement interface.
 The use of open graded asphaltic pavements has been shown to greatly reduce the hydroplaning potential of the
roadway surface.
 The use of drainage structures along the roadway to capture the flow of water over the pavement
2.2 Longitudinal Slope
 Experience has shown that the recommended minimum values of
roadway longitudinal slope given in the AASHTO (1990) Policy on
Geometric Design will provide safe, acceptable pavement drainage. In
addition, the following general guidelines are presented. ·
 A minimum longitudinal gradient is more important for a kerbed pavement than
for an unkerbed pavement since the water is constrained by the kerb. However, flat
gradients on unkerbed pavements can lead to a spread problem if vegetation is
allowed to build up along the pavement edge. ·
 Desirable gutter grades should not be less than 0.5 percent for kerbed pavements
with an absolute minimum of 0.3 percent. Minimum grades can be maintained in
very flat terrain by use of a rolling profile, or by warping the cross slope to achieve
rolling gutter profiles. ·
 To provide adequate drainage in sag vertical curves, a minimum slope of 0.3
percent should be maintained within 15 metres of the low point of the curve.
 2.3 Cross (Transverse) slope
 These cross slopes are a compromise between the need for reasonably
steep cross slopes for drainage and relatively flat cross slope for driver
comfort and safety.
 Additional guidelines related to cross slope are:
 1. Although not widely encouraged, inside lanes can be sloped
toward the median if conditions warrant.
 2. Median areas should not be drained across travel lanes.
 3. The number and length of flat pavement sections in cross slope
transition areas should be minimised. Consideration should be
given to increasing cross slope in sag vertical curves, crest vertical
curves, and in sections of flat longitudinal grades.
 4. Shoulders should be sloped to drain away from the pavement,
except with raised, narrow medians and superelevations
2.4 Kerb and Gutter
 The current practice of providing a kerb only on roads is generally not acceptable as
there is no defined gutter to carry stormwater flows, and the road pavement will suffer
damage from frequent inundation.
 Kerbs are normally used at the outside edge of pavement for low-speed, and in some
instances adjacent to shoulders on moderate to high-speed roads. They serve the
following purposes:
 · contain the surface runoff within the roadway and away from adjacent properties,
 · prevent erosion on fill slopes,
 · provide pavement delineation, and
 · enable the orderly development of property adjacent to the roadway.
 A kerb and gutter combination forms a
triangular channel that can convey runoff
equal to or less than the design flow without
interruption of the traffic. When a design
flow occurs, there is a spread or widening of
the conveyed water surface. The water
spreads to include not only the gutter width,
but also parking lanes or shoulders, and
portions of the travelled surface. Spread is
what concerns the hydraulic engineer in
kerb and gutter flow. The distance of the
spread is measured perpendicular to the
kerb face to the extent of the water on the
roadway
2.5 Design Frequency and Spread
 (a) Selection of Design Frequency and Design Spread
 The process of selecting the ARI and spread for design involves decisions regarding acceptable
risks of accidents and traffic delays and acceptable costs for the drainage system. Risks
associated with water on traffic lanes are greater with high traffic volumes, high speeds, and
higher road classifications.
 A summary of the major considerations that enter into the selection of design frequency and
design spread follows:
 1. The classification of the road is a good point in the selection process since it defines the
public’s expectations regarding water on the pavement surface. Ponding on traffic lanes of
high-speed, highvolume roadways is contrary to the public’s expectations and thus the risks
of accidents and the costs of traffic delays are high.
 2. Design speed is important to the selection of design criteria. At speeds greater than 70
km/hr, it has been shown that water on the pavement can cause hydroplaning.
 3. The intensity of rainfall events may significantly affect the selection of design frequency
and spread. Risks associated with the spread of water on pavement is high in Malaysian
conditions.
 (b) Selection of Major storm and Spread
 The frequency selected for the major storm
should be based on the same considerations
used to select the design storm, i.e., the
consequences of spread exceeding that chosen
for design and the potential for ponding. Where
no significant ponding can occur, major storm
are normally unnecessary. Criteria for spread
during the check event are :
 1. one lane open to traffic during the major
storm event
 2. one lane free of water during the major
storm event
 These criteria differ substantively, but each sets
a standard by which the design can be
evaluated.
3. LOCATING INLETS
 The location and spacing of inlets on roads is governed in part by the
need to provide safe, economical road drainage by limiting the amount
of gutter flow.
 These criteria are based on pedestrian safety and vehicle stability.
They assume that traffic will slow to a safe speed in the major flood
when the road is flooded. They do not apply to expressways because
ponding on expressways would cause a risk of vehicle aquaplaning.
The design of expressway drainage is outside the scope of this Manual.
3.1 Gutter Flow
 Many pavement drainage problems occur in Malaysia
because of a failure to give due attention to gutter flow and
inlets.
 In particular, the common practice of forming a round or half
round inlet at the entrance of a pipe is unacceptable because:
 · the available inlet area is too small to be effective,
 · the design is hydraulically inefficient,
 · water must pond on the road to produce sufficient head
available to force gutter flow into the inlet,
 · it is prone to blockage, and
 · when used on grades, gutter flow simply bypasses the inlet
altogether.
3.2 Selection of Inlet Type
 Kerb inlets on grade shall normally be type ‘S’ with a 2.4m long lintel as
shown on Standard Drawing SD F-1. The capacity of these inlets is
shown in Design Chart 24.2. Type ‘M’ or ‘L’ lintels may be used at sag
points to provide additional capacity if space and kerb geometry
permits. A Type ‘S’ inlet may also be used:
· at changes in direction where entry of water is not essential (i.e.
side entry may be sealed)
· in tight radius kerb returns where the length of a type M or L inlet is
inappropriate
· as a field inlet
 3.3 Location of Inlets
 a) general
 Inlets shall be provided:
 · in the low points of all sags;
 · on grades, with average spacing calculated in
accordance with Section 24.3;
 · at the tangent point of intersection kerb returns such
that the width of gutter flow around the kerb return in
the Minor Design Storm does not exceed 1.0m;
 · immediately upstream of pedestrian crossings,
access ramps, taxi or bus stops;
 · immediately upstream of any reverse crossfall road
pavement, where flow would be directed across the
pavement;
 · along the high side of islands or medians so as to
meet the gutter flow width limitations in Section 24.3,
and at the downstream end of the island or median to
prevent gutter flow continuing onto the road pavement.
 (b) Inlets on Grade
 Designers should be aware that the inlet capacity
of pits on grade is controlled by the longitudinal
grade and the road crossfall
 Bypass gutter flow from an upstream inlet must be
accounted for in the design of the downstream inlet
which receives the flow.
 (c) Inlets in Sags
 Inlets in sags must have sufficient capacity to
accept the total gutter flow reaching the inlet,
including all bypass flows from upstream. Ponding
of water at sags must be limited to the limits set in
Section 24.3, particularly at intersections where
turning traffic is likely to encounter ponded water.
 (d) Inlets for Parking Lot
 Parking lot inlets should be located outside of
heavily traveled pedestrian areas (e.g. crosswalk,
kerb ramps, and lead walks to the building and
between parked vehicles). Inlets should be placed
in areas where people can access their vehicles
without stepping around the inlet.
4.0 INLET CAPACITY CALCULATION

 The design blockage

allowance shall normally be
30% for an inlet on grade and
50% for a sag inlet or field
inlet, unless otherwise
directed.
4.1 Combination Kerb Inlet
 Combination kerb inlets can have 2.4 m, 3.6 m or 4.8 m long lintels
 The inlet capacity of combination kerb inlets can be taken to be approximately equal to the sum of
the kerb opening and grate capacities.
 The kerb opening capacity depends on the inlet throat geometry (see Figure 24.13).
 The effective length of the grate opening
will depend on its width, the width of the
grate bars and on the approach direction of
flow. On grade, Le = (W-Wb) and in sags, Le
= 2(W-Wb), where, W is the overall width of
the grate and Wb is the total width of the
longitudinal bars.
 At depths greater than 200 mm, grate inlets
in sags can function under orifice flow
conditions as discussed in the following
section.
4.2 Field Inlet
 The inflow capacity of a field inlet depends on the depth of water over the inlet. For shallow
depths, up to approximately 200 mm, the flow will behave as a sharpcrested weir. For greater
depths the inlet will become submerged and will behave as an orifice. The discharge/head
characteristics of the two flow types are different (see Equations 24.5 and 24.6).
 The capacity of the inlet should be checked using both formulae and the lesser inlet capacity
adapted.
4.3 Surcharge Inlets
 Surcharge inlet structures shall be provided:
· where branch pipelines connect to low flow pipelines in floodways
· where there are shallow points in the system to form an emergency
overflow relief path in times of acute hydraulic overload or blockage
of the pipe system The need for a surcharge inlet on pipelines shall
be determined by Hydraulic Grade Line Analysis,
PIPE FLOW
CHANNEL
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
 INTRODUCTION
• Pipe drain systems are recommended
mainly for high density residential and
commercial/industrial developments
where the use of open drain and swales
is not feasible and uneconomical.
• Since other services are involved,
requirement for the locations and
alignments of pipe drains will also be
provided in the design procedure
• The pipes, differing in lengths and sizes
are connected by appurtenant
structures below ground surface using
pits, junctions or manholes and other
miscellaneous structures such as
transitions, bends and branches. Element of pipe drainage system
 LOCATIONS & ALIGNMENTS
• Storm water pipelines should be
located on high side of road
Table: Alignments Within Roadway Reserves
reserves to permit relatively short
service tie connections to adjacent
properties.
• UPVC & PE pipes shall not be
placed in a reserve designated for
another Authority or adjacent to an
existing drainage or sewer flexible
pipeline within a road reserve.
• Storm water pipelines are often
constructed in parallel to sewers and
as the sewerage system is usually table: alignments within privately owned
deeper, pipes connecting to storm properties
water ties have less problems in
Pipe diameter Rear boundary Side boundary
crossing over the sewer. (mm)
• Alignments shall be offset sufficient 375 to 450 1.8m 1.2m*
distance from building lines to allow
working space for excavation 525 to 675 1.8m 1.5m*
equipment.
where other hydraulic services or power
• Acceptable centreline offset poles are located on the same side of a
alignments from property boundaries property boundary, the centreline of the
in residential, commercial and storm water pipeline shall be located
1.8m from the property boundary
industrial areas shall be in accordance
with table.
 Public open space
• The location of storm water
pipelines within public land
such as open space shall be
brought to attention of the
operating Authority for
consideration
• Storm water pipelines shall
be located not less than 3m
from the nearest property
boundary
Drainage reserve
• Shall be wide enough to
contain the service and
provide working space on
each side of the service for
future maintenance activities
• Minimum drainage reserves
widths shall be in
accordance with table.
 Table: minimum drainage reserve widths
Clearance from other
services
• The nominated clearance
should make due
allowances for pipe collars
and fittings
• Special protection may be
provided to protect service
crossing by concrete
encasing the storm water
pipe for sufficient length to
bridge the trench of the *where other hydraulic services or electricity services are
laid on the same side of the property boundary, the
other service required reserve width shall be increased by 500mm to
provided horizontal clearance between services.
Table: minimum clearances
 HYDRAULICS FUNDAMENTALS
• The flow entering at each pit is variable and flow conditions are not steady and
uniform.
• Hydrologic methods employed in storm water drain design based on
computed peak discharges at the beginning of each segment, it is generally a
conservative practice to design using the steady uniform assumption.
• Two design philosophies exist for sizing storm water drains under steady
uniform flow assumption
i. Open channel & gravity flow design
ii. Pressure flow design
• the pressure head will be above the top of conduit and will not equal the depth
of flow in the conduit.
• The pressure head rises to a level represented by the Hydraulic Grade Line
(HGL)
 Hydraulic capacity
• The flowrate through a storm water
pipe depends on the upstream and
downstream water levels, as well as the
pipe characteristics.
Energy and hydraulic grade lines
• EGL is a line that represents the total
energy along a channel or conduit
carrying water.
• Total energy includes elevation head,
velocity head and pressure head.
• HGL is a line coinciding with the level
of water at any point along an open
channel.
• HGL is used in determining the
acceptability of a proposed storm
water drainage system by establishing
the elevation to which water will rise
when the system is operating under
design conditions.
 Energy losses
• All the energy losses in pipe sections
and junctions must be estimated.
• The head loss due to friction in pipes is
computed by the relationship Equation
15.3a and for full flow pipe it is given in
Equation 15.3b derived from
Manning’s formula.

• Pressure head is normally lost in both

pipes and pits due to friction and
turbulence and the form of the HGL is
therefore a series of downward
sloping lines over line lengths, with
steeper or vertical drops at manholes.
 Structure losses
• Losses due to obstructions, bends or
• the Manning’s roughness junctions in pipelines may be
coefficients 𝑛 and roughness expressed as a function of the velocity
height 𝑘 for some pipe material of flow in the pipe immediately
are given in table. downstream of the obstruction, bend or
junction as follows:
Table: pipe roughness values
(average condition)
• Pressure change coefficients 𝐾
(sometimes referred to as
structure loss coefficients) are
dependent on many factors, for
example:
• Junction, manhole and inlet
structure geometry
• Pipe diameters change
• Bend radius
• Angle of change of direction
• Relative diameter of
obstruction
Freeboard at inlets and junctions
• For the design of underground
drainage systems a freeboard
should be provided above the
calculated water surface
elevation (WSE) to prevent
surcharging and to ensure that
unimpeded inflow can occur at
gully inlets.
• The maximum permitted WSE
should allow for the head loss
resulting from surface inflow
through grates.
 Table: minimum freeboard
recommendations for inlets and junctions
DESIGN CRITERIA
The design of pipe drainage system should conform to the following criteria:
• Pipe are designed by a ‘Hydraulic Grade Line’ method using appropriate pipe
friction loss and structure head loss
• If the potential water surface elevation (in junction/pit) exceeds 0.15m below
ground elevation for the design flow, the top of the pipe or the gutter flow line,
whichever is lowest, adjustments are needed in the system to reduce the
elevation of the hydraulic grade line
• the maximum hydraulic gradient should not produce a velocity that exceeds 6
m/s and the minimum desirable pipe slope should be 1.0% to provide self
cleansing and free from accumulation of silt
• Minimum diameter for pipe draining a storm water inlet and crossing a
footpath alignment shall be no less than 300mm
• To allow for passage of debris, the minimum diameter shall not less than
381mm
• For a non-self draining underpass, the pipe shall be sized for 10 year
ARI and shall not be less than 450mm
• The maximum pipe diameter to be used depends on the availability of
pipe from manufacturers. Culvert or pipes should be used in situation
where large pipe interfering with clearance for other services
• Curved storm water pipelines are only permitted for diameters 1200mm
and above
• Storm water pipelines shall be designed for a minimum effective
service life of 50 years
• The most commonly used design ARI values for minor drainage system
DESIGN PROCEDURE
HGL CALCULATION PROCEDURE
OPEN
CHANNEL
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
INTRODUCTION
• Provides guidelines for the design of open drainage system,
grassed swales and lined drains. These facilities, along with
stormwater inlets and pipe drains, are components of the
minor drainage system designed to collect minor flood flows
from roads, properties, and open space, and convey them to
the major drainage system
 Design Storm
• Open drains shall be designed to cater
for flows up to and including the minor
system design ARI specified in Table
4.1 (see Chapter 4) for the type of
development
Figure 26.1: Reserve Width for Open Drain
Drainage Reserves
• Most open drains will be located within a road
reserve.
• Drains located outside of road reserves, such as in
public walkways and open space areas, should be
provided with a drainage reserve in
accordancewith Figure 26.1
 GRASSED SWALES
• generally located within parkland, open space areas, along pedestrian
ways, and along roadways
 Alignment
Standardised alignments for grassed swales are provided to limit the negotiations
needed when other services are involved.
a) Roadway Reserves
 Grassed swale should generally be located 0.5 m from the road reserve or property
boundary.
 Swales may also be located within road median strips, provided the median is of sufficient
width to contain the swale plus a 1.0 m berm on either side.
b) Privately Owned Lots
Municipal grassed swales shall not be located within privately owned properties. If
swales are to be provided at the side or rear of private properties, they shall be
placed within a separate drainage reserve of minimum dimensions in accordance
with Figure 26.1(a).
c) Public Open Space
The designer should consult with the Local Authority for appropriate alignments
with due consideration for public safety.
 Geometry Freeboard
• The preferred shapes for grassed • The depth of a grassed swale shall include a
swales are shown in Figure 26.2. The minimum freeboard of 50 mm above the design
flow depth shall not exceed 0.9 m. storm water level in the swale.

Velocities and Grades

• The average flow velocity in a grassed swale shall
not exceed 2 m/s.

Dry Weather Flow Provision

• For swales that will be subjected to dry weather
flows, an underground pipe or surface invert
should be provided in accordance with the
requirements of Section 28.9.4.
 Grassing
The grass species chosen for lining of grassed swales must be sturdy, drought resistant
and easy to establish
A thick root structure is necessary to control weed growth and erosion.
grasses are recommended for permanent seed mixes
 Axonophus compressus (Cow grass)
 Vertiver grass
 Brachiaria sp.
 Cynodon dactylon ((Bermuda grass)
 Panicum virgatum (Switch grass)
 Vehicular Crossings
• the number of vehicular crossing
points on swales should be kept to a
minimum
• Where crossing points are deemed
necessary, they may be provided by
any of the following methods
 at-grade crossing
 box or pipe culvert
 bridge structure Maintenance
• Periodical maintenance will be required to
maintain the hydraulic capacity of a swale.
• Grass should be regularly mown and sediment,
litter, and debris deposits removed, particularly at
flow restrictions such as vehicular crossing points.
 LINED DRAINS
• Locations and Alignments
Standardised locations for lined drains are provided to limit the
negotiations needed when other services are involved.
• Lining Materials
Lined drains shall be constructed from materials proven to be
structurally sound and durable and have satisfactory jointing
systems.
Lined open drains may be constructed with any of the following
materials:
 plain concrete
 reinforced concrete
 stone pitching
 plastered brickwork
 precast masonry blocks
• Geometry
 The dimensions of lined open drains have been limited in the interests of public safety and
to facilitate ease of maintenance.
 The minimum and maximum permissible cross-sectional dimensions are illustrated in
Figure 26.3 and described as follows.

Figure 26.3: Dimension Limits for Open Lined Drains

• Velocities and Grades
the minimum average flow velocity shall not be less than 0.6 m/s
The maximum average flow velocity shall not exceed 4 m/s. For
flow velocities in excess of 2 m/s, drains shall be provided with a 1.2
m high handrail fence, or covered with solid or grated covers for the
entire length of the drain for public safety.
• Vehicular Crossings
Driveway entrances to properties and other vehicular crossings shall
be structurally designed for a 7 tonne wheel loading.
• Concrete Works
a) Concrete Lining Section Thickness
 The minimum thickness shall not be less than 100 mm.
b) Concrete Joint
 All joints shall be designed to prevent differential movement.
c) Concrete Finish
 The surface of the concrete lining may be finished in any of the finishes listed in Design Chart
26.1.
d) Reinforcement Steel
 Steel reinforcement shall have a minimum tensile strength f y = 460 N/mm2.
 Reinforcing steel shall be placed at the centre of the section.
e) Earthwork
 The following areas shall be compacted to at least 95% of maximum density as determined by
ASTM D698 (Standard Proctor):
 the top 150 mm of subgrade immediately beneath the drain bottom and side slopes
 the top 150 mm of earth surface within 1 m of the top edges of the drain
 all fill material
f) Bedding
 Provide 100 mm of granular bedding, equivalent in gradation to 20 mm concrete aggregate,
under the drain bottom and side slopes.
• Stone Pitching
a) Stone
• The stone used for pitching shall be hard, durable and dense, and not subject
to deterioration upon exposure to air and water. Suitable stone is clean rough
quarry stone, pit or river cobbles, or a mixture of any of these materials.
b) Cement Mortar
Cement mortar shall be 1 part ordinary Portland cement to 3 part fine
aggregate by volume with sufficient water added to produce a suitable
consistency for the intended purpose.
c) Capping
The top of stone pitching shall be capped with cement mortar to produce an
even surface to match the surrounding ground level and to provide seating for
protective covers if required
• Bricks and Precast Blocks
 Bricks shall be sound, hard, and shall comply with the requirements of Malaysian
Standard 76
• Weep Holes
 Appropriate numbers of weep holes shall be provided in the walls of all open
drains relieve hydrostatic pressure.
• Strut Beams
 Precast or cast-in-situ struts shall be provided at the top of all stone pitched, brick,
and unreinforced precast block drains that exceed 0.9 m in depth. Strut beams
shall be spaced at intervals not exceeding 6 m.
• Maintenance
• Lined open drains will require periodical maintenance to remove weed growth,
sediment deposits, and debris and litter accumulation to maintain the designed
hydraulic capacity of the drain
 COMPOSITE DRAINS
• A combination of a grassed section and a lined drain may be provided in locations
subject to dry-weather base flows
• The composite drain components shall comply with the relevant design requirements
specified for grassed swales and lined drains.
 CUT-OFF DRAINS

• Cut- off drains shall be provided to regulate hillslope runoff from public
land adjacent to:
 road reserves
 property boundaries where the total uphill catchment is greater than 0.5 hectares
• Cut- off drains shall divert hillslope clear of privately owned properties
and road reserves to discharge into the nearest natural watercourse,
engineered waterway, or overland flow path
• Cut- off drains should be located such that the area between the drain
and property boundaries which will contribute surface runoff is
minimised as far as practicable (refer Figure 26.5).
• Drain Types
a) Minor Drain
• For small catchment areas, or in relatively flat terrain, it may be possible to utilise
the access track as the cut-off drain to provide capacity for the design storm
a) Major Drain
• A separate cut-off drain must be provided wherever the cross sectional area of a
cambered track has insufficient capacity for the design storm

Figure 26.5 Typical Cut-off Drain Cross Sections

• Grades
a) Longitudinal
i. Minimum
• not be less than 0.5%
i. Maximum
• the average flow velocity in the drain does not exceed the following
values under any operating conditions:
• 2 m/s for unlined drains
• 4 m/s for lined drains
b) Side Slopes
i. The maximum side slopes of the cut-off drain and embankment
shall be:
• slope in fill 2(H):1(V)
• slope in cut: earth 2(H):1(V)
rock 0.25(H):1(V)
• Access Requirements
 In general, cut-off drains shall be designed so that mechanical grass
cutting equipment (i.e. motor mowers or tractor mounted mowers)
can be used to control grass and weed growth.
a) Access Tracks
• An all weather access track with a minimum width of 3.5 m shall be provided.
• The cross fall shall be within the following limits:
 3% minimum
 10% maximum
b) Access Points from Urban Area
• Access from the urban road network via feeder roads, culs- de-sac, pedestrian
ways, or floodways shall be provided at intervals not exceeding 500 m.
• Access points shall have a minimum width of 3.5 m to allow unconstrained
access for maintenance vehicles.
c) Crossing Points
• The crossing point shall be provided with a hard surface to delineate the point
as a crossing, provide scour protection, and prevent damage to the
embankment and drain by vehicles.
 DESIGN PROCEDURE
Calculate the average flow velocity from V = Q /A
Estimate Manning's n of the lining and check that it is within the maximum and
Step 1: material. Step 4: minimum velocity criteria for the open drain type. If
not, adjust the drain dimensions and return to step 2

Use Design Chart 26.2 or 26.4 to determine the

Step 2: flow depth, y , or use Design Chart 26.3 to Step 5: Add required freeboard to y and calculate top
determine the minimum base width for a
trapezoidal shaped grassed swale. Estimate y width of drain for drains with sloping sides.
from the charts or calculate manually.

Check if y is within required limits

Step 3: for the open drain type. If not, Step 6: If required, calculate width of drainage reserve.
adjust the drain dimensions and
return to step 2.
CULVERT
AND INLET
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
INTRODUCTION
A guidance to provides hydraulic design of :
• Culverts
• Culverts end treatment
• Design of scour protection
• Debris Control
• Improved culvert inlets
It is based on “Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts” with Hyradaulic
Engineering Circular No. 5 (US Federal Highway Administration, 1985)
Design Consideration
• Headwater
-Any culvert that constricts the natural stream flow will cause a rise in the
upstream water surface.
-Total flow depth in the stream measured from the invert of the culvert
inlet is termed headwater.
- The headwater depends on the topography of the site and vertical road
profile is used the available headwater may be limited by the height of
the surrounding ground and elevation.
Economical Culvert
• Which utilise all of the available headwater to pass the design discharge, since
the discharge increases with the increasing discharge.
• However, it is not always possible to utilise all of the available headwater due
to constraint which restrict the upstream water level.
• Factors:
- Presence of building upstream or inundation of agricultural land.
- Outlet velocity and the potential of scour.
Site Investigation
- Every sites of stage-discharge curve can be calculated using Slope Area
Method
- Often use in urban for developing areas and for all major culverts and cross-
section
- For site investigation that element to be reconsider:
- Size of the area
- Cost
- Site condition
- Height of the embankment
- Imposed Load of the Foundation material
- Self-Weight Culvert
Culvert in Plan
Culvert location are aligned with flow and structural excavation and channel work are
required at the inlet and outlet, especially for shorter culvert.
Some stream alignment with modification to reduce skew and shorten culvert should be
carefully designed:
Factors :
- Stream velocity
- Flow depth
- Stream ecosystem
- Stream bed
- Bank stability
Vertical Profile
• Culvert profiles should approximate the natural stream bed.
• Modified culvert slopes or slopes other than natural stream can be
prevented from hydraulic degradation, minimise sedimentation.
• Modified slope could cause stream erosion and deposition.
• Channel change can leads to culverts being shorts and steeper than the
natural channel.
Multiple Cells
- Also known as Culvert Shape Profile to find the optimum design for
waterway of the channel or stream.
- Appropriate design should be large diameter pipes or box culverts.
- Multiple cells is a consideration to approach the high velocity rate
particular to supercritical.
SINGLE CELL CULVERT MULTI CELL CULVERT
Capacity of Culverts
• Urbanisation upstream from an existing crossing could lead to increase if
flooding
• It is necessity to increase the culvert capacity to accommodate additional flow
without exceeding headwater water.

Capacity in Flat Terrain

• Drainage channel with ill-defined or non-existent should be located.
• Design for least disruption of existing flow condition.
• Flat terrain are considered for necessity to construct levee banks.
Safety
• Exposed culvert can lead to unyielding obstruction causing damage to
incoming vehicle.
• Road safety is not provided, culvert ends should be designed for anti-
obstruction.
• Hazard presented by culvert under private and side-road entrances should be
minimised by placing them as far as practical from the roadway the use of
headwalls
 Design Documentation
• Culverts design is based in the recorded data from the proposed project that can lead to
the importance of the structure:
• Field notes and data
• Site Plan, Profile and cross-section (Drawing Plan)
• Soil Data
• Summary of calculation
• Design flood frequency
• Headwater Depth
• Outlet Velocity
• Culvert Drawings
• Rational Decision of culvert choice
• Photograph picture
• Flood data
 Inlet
• Culvert are subject to inlet control
• Importance factor for the entrance condition
• Entrance Type
• Existence
• Angle of Headwall
• Wingwalls
• The projection of the culvert into the head water pond
 Inlet
• Inlet control can occur with the inlet submerged and the outlet.
• The inlet can determine
• Supercritical Jet
• Hydraulic Jump (near outlet)

• Condition of the flow stream

• Water Tail Depth > Critical Depth(Hc) + Steep Slope = Ljump near outlet
• Water Tail Depth < Critical Depth(Hc) + Steep Slope = Ljump within culvert

Control At Outlet
Outlet control can flow with the culvert cell are fullt submerged
Both Inlet and Outlet are fully pressured
• If the culvert laid flat surface, both inlet and outlet are not fully submerged.
Determine of Energy Head
• The head, H required to pass a given flow through a culvert operating under
outlet control is made up of three major parts.
• These three parts are usually expressed in metres:
 Velocity Head, Hv
• V is the mean velocity in the
culvert cell and g is the
acceleration due to gravity
Entrance Loss
• The entrance loss coefficient Ke,
depends on the outlet geometry
through effect of contraction flow. Ke
can be determined depend on the
experiment.
Manning’s n, express to calculate friction
loss
n = Manning’s friction factor
L = length (m) of culvert cell
V = mean velocity (m/s) of flow in culvert cell
G = acceleration due to gravity. Constant = 9.81
m/s2
R = hydraulic radius (m) = A/Wp
A = area (m2) of flow for full cross-section
Wp = weteed perimeter (m)
 Calculation in full flow of H
Based on the Equation, energy line , the hydraulic grade line and the headwater depth,
HW. The energy line represents the total energy at any point along the culvert cell. The
hydraulic grade line Is defined as the pressure line to which water would rise in small
vertical pipes attached to the culvert wall along its.
 Determination of Head Velocity
• The hydraulic grade line is defined as pressure line to which water would rise
in small vertical pipes attached to the culvert wall along its length.
• Head Velocity will be determine on difference elevation in between
H is the difference between the elevation of the hydraulic grade line
at the outlet and the energy line at inlet. Velocity head in the entrance
pools usually small under ponded condition, the water surface of the
headwater pool elevation can be assumed to equal the elevation of
the energy line.
 Determination of Headwater Depth (Hwo)
• Headwater depth HWo equation where :
H = head (m) determined from Design Charts 27.3 to
27.5 or from Equation 27.8
h0 = greater of TW and (hc + D)/2, in which h £ D
Hwo = H + ho –LS hc = critical depth (m) from the Design Charts in
Appendix 27.A
D = culvert height (m)
L = length (m) of culvert
S = slope (m/m) of cell
Determination of ho
• Ho factor are to determination both headwater depth and the hydraulic
capacity of a culvert flowing under outlet control.

Flow profile computations show hydraulic gradient

line, if extended as a straight line from the origin
point of water breaks away from the top of the
culvert
 Improved Inlet Culverts
• General Idea
• Capacity of culvert depends on the inlet control which can significant
improved for efficient and reduction of flow concentration at the entrance.
• Various type of inlet improvement leading to reduction loss Ke. That would
focus on headwall, wingwalls and end of culvert cells.
HYDRAULICS
STRUCTURE
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
INTRODUCTIONS
Hydraulic structure are used to positively control water
velocities, directions and depths, the elevation and slope of the
stream bed, and the general configuration of a waterway
including its stability and maintenance characteristics.
EROSION AND SCOUR PROTECTION
When the flow velocity at the conduit outlet exceed the maximum
permissible velocity for the local soil or channel lining, channel
protection is required. This protection usually consists of an erosion
resistant reach, such as riprap, between the outlet and the stable
downstream.
DROP STRUCTURES
Vertical drop structures are controlled transitions for energy dissipation in
steep channels where riprap or other energy dissipation structures are
not as cost effective. Drop structures should be constructed of concrete
because of the forces involved, however, riprap and gabion stilling basins
may be used where physical, economic, and other condition permit.
STROMWATER DRAIN OUTFALLS
All stormwater drains of a locality have an outlet where flow from the local
drainage system is discharged. The discharge point, or outfall, can be
either a natural river or stream, or an existing or proposed stormwater
drain or channel.
Several aspects of outfall design must be given serious consideration.
These include the flowline and invert (inside bottom) elevation of the
proposed stormwater drain outlet, tailwater elevations, the need for
energy dissipation, and the orientation of the outlet structure. The flowline
or invert elevation of the proposed outlet should be equal to or higher
than the flowline of the outfall.
TRANSITION AND CONSTRICTION
Channel transition are typically used to alter, the cross-sectional
geometry, to allow the waterway to fit within a more confined right-of-way,
or to purposely accelerate the flow to be carried by a specialised high
velocity conveyance.
 i) TRANSITION ANALYSIS
a) Subcritical Transitions
 Transition for subcritical flow frequently involved localised or bank lining configurations which
allow change in the cross section and produce a water surface profile based on gradually
varied flow.

b) Supercritical Transitions
 Supercritical transitions are beyond the scope of this manual and require special analysis when
used. The configuration of a supercritical transition is entirely different from subcritical transition.
 ii) CONSTRICTION ANALYSIS
a) Constriction with upstream subcritical flow
 There are a variety of structures that are constrictions. They can include bridges, culverts, drop
structures, and flow measurement device

b) Constriction with upstream supercritical flow

 Highly complex and beyond the scope of this manual. Possible shock waves or choked flow causing
high upstream backwater or a hydraulic jump are major concerns.
FLOW SPILTTER
Special structure designed to divide a single flow and divert the parts into
two or more downstream channels. A flow splitter can serve three
functions.
1) Reduction in water surface elevation – by dividing the flow from a large
pipe into multiple conduit, the height of flow can be reduced. This may
necessary to route flows under immovable obstructions.
DESIGN CONSIDERATION
a) Head loss – hydraulic disturbance at the point of flow division result in
unavoidable head losses. These losses, may reduced by the inclusion of
proper flow deflectors in the design of the structure.
b) Debris – in all transitions from large to smaller pipes, debris
accumulation is a potential problem. Tree limbs and other debris that
flow freely in the larger pipe may not fit in the smaller pipe(s) and may
restrict flow. In additions, flow splitter cause major flow disturbance
resulting in the region of decreased velocity
DESIGN CRITERIA
 Shall be designed to cater for 6 month ARI storm
 The top of the weir shall be located at the water surface for the 3-month
ARI water quality design storm
 The maximum head over the weir shall be minimised for flow in excess
of the water quality design flows
FLOW SPREADER
Used to uniformly spread flows across the inflow portion of water quality
facility. Option A through C can be used for spreading flows that have
already concentrated.
GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA
 Where flow enters the spreader through a pipe, it is recommended that
the pipe be submerged to practically dissipate energy.
 Rock protection is required at outfalls.
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR FLOW SPREADING OPTIONS
i) Option A – anchored plate
ii) Option B – Concrete sump box
 The wall of downstream side of concrete sump shall extend a minimum 50mm
 The downstream wall of the box shall have returns at both ends
iii) Option C – flat-topped notched curb spreader
 Spreader are made of extruded concrete laid side by side and level
 The space between adjacent teeth forms a v-notch
iv) Option D – through curb
 Unconcentrated flows from paved areas entering filter strips or continuous flow
 Curb use opening that allows concrete curbing to be poured
TERIMA
KASIH