DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING I (CENG 3102)
CHAPTER 4: HIGHWAY DRAINAGE AND CROSS-
DRAINAGE STRUCTURES
4.1 Introduction to Highway Drainage
4.2 Types of Drainage System
 Surface and Subsurface Drainage
4.3 Design of Drainage System
By Haile G.
After completion of this chapter,
students will be able to
 Analyze and design surface
drainage channels
 Recommend possible solutions to
subsurface and cross-drainage
problems
April 2022
 Introduction to Highway Drainage
2

Highway Drainage
 A means by which surface water is removed from
pavement and ROW
 Redirects water into appropriately designed
channels
 Eventually discharges into
natural water systems
 Introduction to Highway Drainage

 Importance of Highway drainage

 Surface drainage
 Related to road way and adjoining land.
 Subsurface drainage.
 Related to subgrade
 Drainage Facilities – for the flow of water away from the
surface and subsurface of the pavement to properly designed
channels and then discharge to the natural waterways.
 Sources of water
 Surface water (which occurs as rain or snow)
 Subsurface water (which flows in underground streams)
 Drainage structure cost:
Significant~~25 percent of highway construction cost.
 Introduction to Highway Drainage
4

 Transverse slopes
 Removes water from pavement surface
 Facilitated by cross-section elements (cross-slope,
shoulder slope)
 Longitudinal slopes
 Minimum gradient to maintain adequate slope in
longitudinal channels
 Longitudinal channels
 Ditches along side of road to collect surface water
after run-off
5

Longitudinal slope

Longitudinal
channel
Transverse slope
 Introduction to Highway Drainage
6

Trapezoidal
 Introduction to Highway Drainage
7

Inadequate drainage will eventually result in:

 Serious damage to highway structure
 Erosion of pavement structure

 Reduce pavement strength

 Stripping of asphalt concrete

 Cause pumping in rigid pavements

 Swelling heave and reduction of bearing capacity when

melting
 Traffic operation problems
 Slow traffic movement by accumulated water on the pavement

 Cause traffic accidents as a result of hydroplaning and loss of

visibility from the splash and spray.
 Introduction to Highway Drainage
8

Types of data to be studied

 Topographic data of site: Features such as residences, commercial buildings,
schools, churches, farms, other roadways and bridges, and utilities can affect,
as well as be affected by, the design of any new hydraulic structure.
 River Characteristics: the profile, horizontal alignment and cross sections of
the stream shall be required for hydraulic analysis
 Hydrologic Data: include climatological characteristics, land runoff
characteristics, stream gauging records, high water marks, and the sizes and
past performances of existing structures in the vicinity.
 Precipitation: rainfall records near the study site
 Catchment Characteristics: The size and configuration of the catchment, the
geometry of the stream network, storage volumes of ponds, lakes, reservoirs,
and flood plains, and the general geology and soils of the basin may be
required for forecasting flood flow.
 Existing Structures: The size, location, type, and condition of existing structures
on the stream under study can be a valuable indicator when selecting the size
and type for any new structure. Design principles involve
• Surface drainage facilities
• Subsurface drainage facilities
 Types of Drainage Systems
9

Components of Highway Drainage System

1. Surface Drainage System
2. Subsurface Drainage System
1. SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM
 A part of rainwater falling on the road surface and adjoining area, is lost
by evaporation and percolation. The remaining water is known as surface
water.
 In some cases, the ground surface is shaped or graded to create sloping
toward the channels.
 Removal and diversion of this surface water from highway and adjoining
land is known as surface drainage.
 The water from the pavement surface is immediately removed by providing
camber and cross slope to the pavement.
 The camber and slope depend upon the type of the pavement and the
intensity of rainfall.
 The road surface is made impermeable to prevent infiltration of water.
 Types of Drainage Systems
10

2. SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM

 Stability and strength of the road surface depends
upon the strength of subgrade.
 With increase in moisture content the strength of the
subgrade decreases.
 The variation in moisture content of subgrade is caused
by the free water and the ground water.
 Every effort is needed to reduce the moisture content to
a minimum.
 From usual drainage system, only gravitational water
can be drained by the provision of subsoil drainage.
 Types of Drainage Systems
11

Surface Drainage Systems

 Surface drainage system encompasses all means by which
surface water is removed from the pavement and right of way of
the highway or street.
 The facility minimizes damage to highway due to water
percolating through cracks
 The surface drainage system includes

 Transverse slopes: Crown/cross/slope of 2-3% if paved and

4-6% if unpaved.
 Longitudinal slopes: a minimum vertical gradient of ±0.5%
 Longitudinal channels(ditches): are ditches constructed along
the sides of the highway to collect the surface water
 Sediment and Erosion Controls: include turf cover(suitable
grass), intercepting drains, slope and channel linings
 Types of Drainage Systems
12

Surface Drainage Systems

 Curbs and gutters: In urbans they are used in conjunction with storm
sewer systems to control street runoff in addition to other functions, which
include preventing the encroachment of vehicles on adjacent areas and
delineating pavement edges.
 When it is necessary to provide relatively long continuous sections of
curbs in urban areas, the inlets (gutters) to the storm sewers must be
adequately designed for both size and spacing so that the impounding
of large amounts of water on the pavement surface is prevented.
 Cross-Drainage structures: are constructed to carry traffic over natural
waterways that flow below the right of way of the highway.
 The design may be divided into three major phases:
 An estimate of the quantity of water
 The hydraulic design of each element of the system
 The comparison of alternative systems, materials, cost and other
variables
 Types of Drainage Systems
13

Surface Drainage Systems

Design Discharge (Flood) Estimation
 A given flood may happen at a given interval (frequency, F) with a rainfall
intensity, I and it may require a significant duration(D) to reach to its peak value.
 We need to consider severe storm(flood) that occur at intervals and during which
the intensity of rainfall and runoff of surface water are far greater than at other
periods.
 Design storm(flood) is a function of occurrence(frequency), duration, and intensity.
 A graph showing the relationship between intensity, duration and frequency of
rainfall(storm) is called IDF curve.
 The term “return period” refers to the estimated frequency of rare flooding
events. See next slide for the return periods specified by ERA(2013) for different
types of structures and road standards.
 It is recommended in ERA manual that for the design of most drainage structures,
the minimum time of concentration is taken as 15 minutes.
 Types of Drainage Systems
14

Surface Drainage Systems

Design Discharge (Flood) Estimation
Note: Table: Design Storm Frequency (yrs) by Geometric Design
• Span in the above table is the total Criteria (ERA,2013)
clear-opening length of a structure.
• For example, the span for a double
1.2-meter diameter pipe is 2.4
meters, and the design storm
frequency is therefore “culvert,
2m<span<6m.”
• Similarly a double box culvert having
two 4.5-meter barrels should use the
applicable design storm frequency
for a short span bridge and a bridge
having two 10-meter spans is a
medium span bridge.
• A 20% flow allowance for climate
change should be added to the
above design flows.
 Types of Drainage Systems
15

Surface Drainage Systems

Design Discharge (Flood) Estimation

 The rainfall intensity–duration–

frequency (IDF) curves are graphical
representations of the probability
that a given average rainfall intensity
will occur within a given period of
time

Figure: Rainfall Regions of Ethiopia(2013)

 The IDF curves of these rainfall regions can be obtained in the drainage design
manual of ERA(2013). See IDF Curve of region A1 next slide
 Types of Drainage Systems
16
 Types of Drainage Systems
17

Surface Drainage Systems

Design Discharge (Flood) Estimation
The hydrological methods approved by ERA and limitations on their use are
as follows:
 Rational Method - only for drainage areas less than 50 hectares (0.5
square. km);
 SCS and other Unit Hydrograph Methods - for drainage areas greater
than 50 and less than 65,000 hectares;
 Watershed Regression Equations - for all routine designs at sites where
applicable;
 Log Pearson III Analyses - preferable for all routine designs provided
there are at least 10 years of continuous or synthesized record for 10-year
discharge estimates and 25 years for 100-year discharge estimates; and
 Suitable Computer Programs - such as HEC-HMS and Hydro CAD will be
used to aid tedious hydrologic calculations
 Types of Drainage Systems
18

Surface Drainage Systems

 Three phases

1. To Estimate the quantity of water to reach the

system
2. Hydraulic design of system elements
3. Comparison of different materials to serve the
purpose
 Steep slopes provide good hydraulic capacity and
lower ROW costs, but reduces safety and increases
erosion and maintenance costs
 Types of Drainage Systems
Design Discharge (Flood) Estimation
 Rational method
Table: Frequency Factors for Rational Formula Cf(ERA,2013)

 Used rainfall runoff relation for

“Ungauged” areas
 Suitable for small catchments
 The basic form of the equation is:
𝑪∗𝑰∗𝑨
𝑸 = 𝑪𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟕𝟖 ∗ 𝑪𝒇 ∗ 𝑪 ∗ 𝑰 ∗ 𝑨
𝟑𝟔𝟎
N.B. The product of Cf times
where:
C shall not exceed 1.0.
• Q = flood peak at catchment's exit (m3/sec);
• 𝐶𝑓 = frequency factor given ERA table and if not given take 𝐶𝑓 =1.0,
• C = rational runoff coefficient;
• I = average intensity over the whole catchment (mm/hr) for a duration corresponding
to the time of concentration; and
• A = catchment area (hectares)
 Types of Drainage Systems
Design Discharge (Flood) Estimation
 Rational Method

 The runoff coefficient, C,

 is an integrated value representing the ratio of runoff to rainfall for the
drainage area.
 depends on the type of ground cover, the slope of the drainage area,
storm duration, and prior wetting.
 In case where the drainage area consists of different ground
characteristics with different runoff coefficients, a representative value Cw
is computed by determining the weighted coefficients as:
Table: Coefficients(C) for Composite Runoff Analysis
n

C i Ai
Cw  i 1
n

A
i 1
i
Types of Drainage Systems
Design Discharge (Flood) Estimation
Table: Recommended Runoff
Coefficient C for rural
catchment(2013)
 Types of Drainage Systems
Design Discharge (Flood) Estimation
 The time of concentration(Tc) is defined as the time required for the
surface runoff from the remotest part of the drainage basin to reach the
point where the drainage facility is located.
 The time of concentration generally consists of one or more of the
following three components: time for overland flow, time for gutter or
stream sewer flow (urban), or time for channel flow. Travel time(Ti) is
the ratio of flow length to average flow velocity.

n
L
Ti  i TC   Ti
Vi i 1

 It is sound practice to calculate the average flow velocity (V = L/Tc) after

determining Tc in order to ensure that it falls within realistic times.
 Typical value of the flow velocity ranges from 0.1 to 4m/s, depending
on the natural conditions.
 Types of Drainage Systems
Design Discharge (Flood) Estimation
i. Calculation of the Time of Concentration for Overland Flow

Where:
 Tc = time of concentration (hours)

 r = roughness coefficient obtained from Table value of Cv

 L = hydraulic length of catchment, measured along flow path from

the catchment boundary to the point where the flood needs to be
determined (km)
 S = Slope of the catchment (m/m) See figure S=(H/1000L)

 H = height of most remote point above outlet of catchment (m)

 Types of Drainage Systems
Design Discharge (Flood) Estimation
ii. Calculation of Time of Concentration(Tc) for Defined Watercourses

Where:
 Tc= time of concentration (hours)., Sav = average channel/stream/ slope
(m/m).
 L = hydraulic length of catchments measured along flow path from the
catchment boundary to the point where the flood needs to be determined
(km).
 H 0.10L =elevation height at 10% of the length of the watercourse (m)
 H 0.805L = elevation height at 85% of the length of the watercourse (m)
 Types of Drainage Systems

Design Discharge (Flood) Estimation

Example 1:
In rainfall region A1, a catchment area of 32.52 hectare is being analyzed.
Given the Estimated Tc=0.2986hours=18min, and runoff coefficient, C=0.45;
Determine the discharge for different return periods.
Solution:
 First read the rainfall intensity(I) for duration of 18mm and each return periods of
2,5,25,50, and 100 years using IDF curves.
 These are: I2=59.5mm/hr ; I5=78.6mm/hr; I10=90mm/hr; I25=107.3mm/hr;
I50=119.4mm/hr, and I100=130mm/hr Q=0.00278*Cf*C*I*A
Q=0.00278*Cf*0.45*I*32.52
 Calculate the Peak flood: A=32.52 hec Q=0.04068*Cf*I

Return period 2 5 10 25 50 100

I(mm) (read from IDF curve) 59.5 78.6 90 107.3 119.4 130
Cf (taken from table) 1 1 1 1.1 1.2 1.3
Q(m3/s) =0.04068*Cf*I 2.42 3.20 3.66 4.80 5.83 6.88
Types of Drainage Systems
Subsurface Drainage Systems
 Subsurface drainage systems are provided within the pavement
structure to drain water that has:
 Percolated through cracks and joints
 Moved upward as a result of capillary action
 Existed as ground water
 Types:
 Subsurface drainage systems are usually classified into five
general categories:
 Longitudinal drains
 Transverse drains
 Horizontal drains
 Drainage blankets
 Well systems
 Types of Drainage Systems
27

 Removal or diversion of excess soil water from the sub

grade is termed as subsurface drainage.
 Situation or location required Sub surface drainage

1. Road in cutting
2. Water flowing from hill
3. Water rises through capillary action.
4. Road near drain
Methods of subsurface drainage
1. Lowering of water table.
2. Controlling seepage flow.
3. Controlling capillary water.
 Types of Drainage Systems
28

1) Lowering of water table.- in sandy/ gravelly soil

2) Controlling seepage flow 3) Controlling capillary

water.
 Types of Drainage Systems
Subsurface Drainage Systems
 Types of Subsurface Drainage
1) Longitudinal drains used to lower the ground water level
 Types of Drainage Systems
Subsurface Drainage Systems
 Types of Subsurface Drainage
2) Longitudinal drains used to remove seeping water
 Types of Drainage Systems
Subsurface Drainage Systems
 Types of Subsurface Drainage

Transverse drains used on superelevated curves

 Types of Drainage Systems
 Types of Subsurface Drainage
Drainage Blankets:
• Geomembranes, waterproof
synthetic membranes placed
on the soil to fully protect the
pavement structure from
underground water seepage
 Types of Drainage Systems
 Design Procedures of Subsurface Drainage Systems

 The design procedure for subsurface drainage involves:

 Summarizing the available data
 The flow geometry
 Properties of materials
 Hydrological and climatic characteristics, etc
 Determining the quantity of water
 Determining the drainage system required
 Determining the capacity and spacing of longitudinal and
transverse drains and select filter material, if necessary
 Evaluate the design with respect to economic feasibility
and long-term performance
 Types of Drainage Systems
 Design of Subsurface Drainage
 Determination of Discharge Quantity(Qd)
 The net amount of water to be discharged consists
of;
 Water due to infiltration
 Ground water
 Evaporation
 Water due to melting of ice,
but not a significant problem
in the tropics
 Design of Drainage System
DESIGN OF SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM
 Divided in two phase
1. Hydrologic design
2. Hydraulic design

1. Hydrologic design
Objective:
 To estimate the maximum quantity of water expected to reach the element
of drainage system under consideration
Q= C i Ad
2. Hydraulic design
Objective:
 Design of drain

R 2 / 3 S 1/ 2
Q  Av  A
n 𝑹 = 𝑨/𝑷
 Design of Drainage System
Hydraulics Design
 Aim – providing suitable structure size
 Economically and efficiently dispose of the expected runoff without detrimental
erosion and sedimentation problem

 Design of Side Ditches Critical depth,

• yc=v2/2g V=Q/A
 Discharge Capacity – using Manning’s formula: • yc=average depth/2=(A/2T)

R 2 / 3 S 1/ 2 Q 2 A3
Q  Av  A 
n g T
 Design Procedure
 Select n and side slopes of the channel cross-section (based on channel lining
material)
 Take the recommended bed slope (S) based on the channel lining type
 Solve for b and y using Manning`s formula (or take b=0.5m and calculate for
y)
 Check for y > yc >>>> add free board
 Check for y < yc >>>> reduce S
 Design of Drainage System

Hydraulics Design

Manning’s n and maximum permissible velocity(v)

Ditch lining n vmax (m/sec)

Rock 0.035–0.045 4.5-6.1
Soil 0.022–0.025 0.3-2.4
Vegetation
Avg. turf 0.030–0.070 0.9-1.5
Dense turf 0.040–0.200 1.2-2.4

Paved channel 0.012–0.033 2.4-6.1

• If permissible velocity(v) is taken then the minimum area (A) required for a given
discharge (Q)can be estimated using continuity equation Q=A*v
 Design of Drainage System
38

The general design procedure is as follows:

1. The hydraulic radius is calculated for a permissible non-scouring velocity from
Manning’s equation, from v = (1/n) * R2/3 * s1/2
𝑛∗𝑣 3/2
𝑅 = 𝑆 1/2
2. The minimum cross-sectional area is calculated from the permissible non-scouring
velocity and the maximum discharge,
A=Q/v
3. The wetted perimeter is calculated,
P=A/R
4. Determine the dimensions of the drain i.e. the breadth and width by relating the
area and perimeter.
5. The depth of flow found should be greater than the critical depth [v2 /g]
6. If depth is less than the critical depth, erosion may occur at the downstream end and
therefore process should be revised or special measures should be provided at the
downstream.
 Design of Drainage System

Hydraulics Design
Example 2:
Given the stream data and height of flow (see diagram below), determine
the velocity of flow in the channel, the flow rate and state of flow
(subcritical / critical / supercritical flow).
 Bed slope about the site is 0.8%
 Elevation of channel bed is 110.60 m
 Channel is regular and considered a little rough with a lot of trees and
weeds along the banks thus “n” values ranging between 0.06 and
0.08’.
 Design of Drainage System

Hydraulics Design
Example 2:
Solution:

Given the stream data and height of flow (see diagram below),
determine the velocity of flow in the channel, the flow rate and
state of flow (subcritical / critical / supercritical flow).
 Bed slope about the site is 0.8%

 Elevation of channel bed is 110.60 m

 Channel is regular and considered a little rough with a lot of

trees and weeds along the banks thus “n” values ranging
between 0.06 and 0.08’.
 Design of Drainage System
Hydraulics Design
Example 2:
Solution:
 Step 1. Calculate the cross sectional area of the flow. Depth, y=1.2m

A= 1.2 * 1.2 + 1.2 * 2.5 = 4.44m2

 Step 2. Calculate the wetted perimeter(P) :

 P=√(1.2*1.2+1.2*1.2)* 2 + 2.5 = 5.89m

 Step 3: Hydraulic radius ,

𝑹 = 𝑨/𝑷 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟒/𝟓. 𝟖𝟗 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 m
 Step 4: Take n= 0.07 as given above and Calculate velocity of flow, V
𝑹𝟐/𝟑 ∗𝑺𝟏/𝟐 𝟎.𝟕𝟓𝟐/𝟑 ∗𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟏/𝟐
𝐕= = = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟔 m/s
𝒏 𝟎.𝟎𝟕
 Step 5: Using fundamental equation of flow, determine flow rate (Q)
𝑸 = 𝑨𝑽 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟒 ∗ 𝟏. 𝟎𝟔 = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟏m3/s
 Step 6: To determine the ‘state of flow’, we can use any of the two
options
 Design of Drainage System

Hydraulics Design
Solution:
 Step 6: To determine the ‘state of flow’, we can use any of

the two options

Option 1: Calculate critical flow depth Option 2: Calculate Froude’s number

𝑽𝟐 𝟏.𝟎𝟔𝟐
(𝒚𝒄 = = =0.057m;
𝟐𝒈 𝟐∗𝟗.𝟖𝟏 𝑩
yc=0.057m<<y=1.2m Fr= 𝑸 ∗ √( )
𝒈𝑨𝟑
𝟒.𝟗
Fr= 𝟒. 𝟕𝟏 ∗ √( )= 0.356
𝟗.𝟖𝟏∗𝟒.𝟒𝟒𝟑
Therefore the flow is subcritical
Fr=0.356<1.0
Therefore the flow is subcritical
 Design of Drainage System
43

Example 3:
Design a highway drainage channel in a non-erodible material to carry a discharge of 1.0 cumecs when
the maximum permissible velocity is 0.9 m/s. Assume bed slope = 1 in 4000, side slope = 1:1 and
Manning’s n = 0.020.
Solution:
A = Q/V = 1.0/0.9 = 0.8333 m2
v∗n 3/2 0.9∗0.020 3/2
R= 1 = 1
1 = 0.3326 𝑚
𝑆2 (4000)2

P = A/R = 0.8333/0.3326 = 2.506 m

Now
(B +D) D = 0.8333 and
B + 2 2D = 2.506 Or
B + 2.828 D = 2.506
Solving these equations, D = 0.57 m and B = 0.9 m
 Design of Drainage System
44

Example 4:
The maximum quantity of water expected in one of the open longitudinal drains on
clayey soil is 0.9 m3/sec. design the cross section and longitudinal slope of trapezoidal
drain assume the bottom width of the trapezoidal section to be 1.0 m and cross slope
to be 1.0 vertical to 1.5 horizontal. The allowable velocity of flow in the drain is 1.2
m/sec and Manning’s roughness coefficient is 0.02.
Solution: −1 ± 12 − 4 ∗ 1.5(−0.75)
𝑏 = 1.0 m (base width) D=
2 ∗ 1.5
𝑄 = 0.9 m3s –1 D =0.45 m
𝑛 = 0.002 m–1/3s
V=1.2 m/sec This is the actual depth, allow a
a) Rectangular Channel free board of 0.15 m, the depth
Discharge:
𝑄 0.9 𝑚3 of the side drain may taken as
𝐴= = = 0.75 𝑚2
𝑉 1.2 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 0.45+0.15=0.6 m.
Top width of the channel=(1+1.5D+1.5D)=1+3D
Cross section area of the drain=(1+1+3D)*D/2 Slope:
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐷 +
3𝐷2
= 0.75 𝑚2 1 2/3 1/2
2 𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆
1.5𝐷 2 + 𝐷 − 0.75 = 0 𝑛
 Design of Drainage System
45

Solution:
Slope:
1 2/3 1/2
𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆
𝑛
Assume n=0.02
 Wetted perimeter, p

P = 0.452 + 1.5 ∗ 0.45 2 𝑥2 + 1.0 = 2.62 𝑚.

0.75
 Hydraulic radius R=A/p= = 0.286
2.62
1/2
𝑉𝑛 1.2 ∗ 0.02
𝑆 = 2/3 = 2/3
= 0.0553
𝑅 0.286
 Slope S=0.0031 or 1 in 322.5
Therefore provide a longitudinal slope of 1 in 320
 Design of Drainage System
46

Example 5:
The discharge in a channel with bottom width 3 m is 12 m3s –1 . If Manning’s 𝑛
is 0.013 m–1/3s and the stream wise slope is 1 in 200, find the normal depth if:
a) The channel has vertical sides (i.e. rectangular channel);
b) The channel is trapezoidal with side slopes 2H:1V.
𝑏ℎ5/3 1/2
Solution: Hence, Q = 2ℎ 2/3
𝑆
𝑛(1+ )
𝑏 = 3 m (base width) 𝑏
𝑄 = 12 m3s –1 Reiterate as an iterative formula
𝑛 = 0.013 m–1/3s
𝑆 = 0.005 for h:
a) Rectangular Channel 𝑛𝑄 3/5
Discharge: h= (1 + 2ℎ/𝑏)2/5
Q=VA 𝑏 𝑆
Where, in normal flow Here, with length in meters,
1
𝑉 = 𝑅 2/3 𝑆1/2 A=bh, ℎ = 0.08316(1 + 2ℎ/3)2/5
𝑛
𝑏ℎ ℎ Iteration ( from, e.g., h=0.8316 ) gives
R= =
𝑏 + 2ℎ 1 + 2ℎ/𝑏 h=1.024 m
Answer: normal depth = 1.02 m.
 Design of Drainage System
47
Hence,
Example 5: 2
2ℎ 3
Solution: 1 2 1+ 1 2ℎ
Q= ℎ3 𝑏 𝑆 2 ℎ𝑏(1 + )
𝑏 = 3 m (base width) 𝑛 1 + 2 5ℎ/𝑏 𝑏
𝑄 = 12 m3s –1 5/3
2ℎ
𝑛 = 0.013 m–1/3s nQ 5 1+
𝑏
𝑆 = 0.005 ⋙ = ℎ3 2
a) Trapezoidal Channel 𝑏 𝑆 3
1 + 2 5ℎ/𝑏
Base width b, surface width 𝑏 + 2 × (2ℎ) and 2
two sloping side lengths (ℎ2 + (2ℎ)2 = ℎ√5. 3/5 5
nQ 1 + 2 5ℎ/𝑏
Area and wetted perimeter: ⋙ℎ=
1 𝑏 𝑆 2ℎ
𝐴 = 𝑏 + 𝑏 + 4ℎ h=h(𝑏 + 2h) 1+
2 𝑏
A = ℎ𝑏(1 + 2ℎ/𝑏) Here, with lengths in meters,
𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2ℎ√5 2
1 + 2 5ℎ/𝑏 5
Hydraulic radius:
A ℎ(1 + 2ℎ/𝑏) ℎ = 0.8316
R= =
2ℎ
𝑃
1+ 3
1 + 2√5h/b
Discharge: Iteration ( from, e.g., h=0.8316 ) gives
1
Q=VA= 𝑅 2/3 𝑆1/2 𝐴 h=0.7487 m
𝑛
Answer: normal depth = 0.749 m.
 Design of Drainage System
Hydraulics Design
 Design of Cross-Drainage structures

 Depending on the highway class, stream flow volume, site

conditions and economic factors,

 Drifts:
 Most of the time concrete slab is used (when the bed
of the river is not able to carry vehicles.
 Are always over flooded if there is rainfall
 Vented Fords:
 Have vents or pipes to handle low level of flood but
subjected to flooding at high rainfall period
Design of Drainage System

Hydraulics Design
 Drifts
Design of Drainage System

Hydraulics Design
 Vented fords

Source: ERA(2013) Low volume road design manual

Design of Drainage System

Hydraulics Design
 Design of Cross-Drainage structures
 Culverts:
 convey water below the road
 span of 6 m or less
 sometimes designed to flow full and does not form part of the roadway
 located at bottom of depressions, point where natural streams intersect the roadway and
points required for passing surface drainage in side ditches

 Highway bridges:
 to carry the roadbed over an established waterways
 span of more than 6 m
 designed to pass floating debris or vessels
 form part of the travelled roadway
Design of Drainage System
Hydraulics Design
 Hydraulic Design of Culverts. involves the following
general procedure:
 obtain all site data and plot a roadway cross section at the culvert site,
including a profile of the stream channel.
 establish the culvert invert elevations at the inlet and outlet and determine
the culvert length and slope
 determine the allowable depth of headwater and tail water
 select a type and size of culvert that will accommodate the design flow under
the established conditions.
 provide protective devices to prevent destructive channel erosion.

 The allowable level of the headwater upstream of the

culvert entrance is generally the principal control on
the culvert size and inlet geometry.
 Design of Drainage System

Hydraulics Design
 Culvert types and
materials
 Types of culverts of
different sizes:
 Circular
 Box
• Selection of the type depends on
 Elliptical
 Arch • Hydraulic requirements
• Strength required to sustain the weight of a fill
 Materials or moving wheel loads economics
 Reinforced concrete
 Corrugated metal
 Stone masonry, etc
Design of Drainage System

Hydraulics Design

 Highway bridges
 Design principle involves
 Location
 Alignment
 Foundation
 Traffic safety, operating conditions, and fulfilment of the purposes of the road
 Constriction of flow
 Velocity of flow
 Scouring
 Flooding
 Economics
Design of Drainage System

Hydraulics Design
 Bridge best site

Source: ERA(2013)
Low volume road
design manual
 Design of Drainage System
56

Drainage channels
 Drainage channels should:
 Have adequate capacity for the design runoff,
 Minimize damage to the highway caused by
unusual storm water,
 Minimize risk for motorists,
 Be resistant to the high speed water flows where
expected,
 Prevent sedimentation of the particles carried by
water.
 Design of Drainage System
57

Cross Drainage Structures

 Cross drainage structures are those structures which are provided whenever streams
have to cross the roadway facility.
 The water from the side drains is also often taken across these structures in order to
divert the water away from the road to a water course or a valley.
Culverts
 A closed conduit placed under the embankment to carry water across the roadway
is termed as culverts.
 culverts are the bridging structures of linear waterway span mostly less than about
6m.
 A culvert is more hydraulically efficient than minor bridge and discharge through a
culvert is more than a minor bridge
Functions of culverts
 The functions of culvert are:

 Collection and transport of water across the road so as to not cause damage to
the road bank or the stream bed by scouring.
 To provide sufficient waterway to prevent heading up of water above the road
surface.
 Design of Drainage System
58

Cross Drainage Structures

Types of Culvert
Pipe Culvert
 Used in non-perennial or at very small stream (Surface runoff from
side drain).
 Minimum of 50cm cover of soil should be provided so that traffic
load transmitted on pipe is of small intensity.
 Minimum diameter of pipe – 600 mm.

Box Culvert
 Suitable for large flow where the boulder movement may occur.

 Constructed where the nature of the soil below the foundation is not
suitable for individual footing under piers and abutments.
 These culverts have larger life spans, greater hydraulic efficiency,
superior durability for worst environmental conditions and greater
resistance to damage due to debris.
 Design of Drainage System
59

Cross Drainage Structures

Types of Culvert
Slab Culvert
 They are used in stream with boulder movement and debris flow.
 These culverts are used where the water opening is less than 15 m2 and road crosses the
waterway on a relatively high embankment.
 Free board of generally 0.5m is seen in this type of culvert thus, no pressure flow occurs in this
culvert.
Arch Culvert
 These culverts are suitable in high discharge areas and low debris flow areas.
 These culverts are constructed when high fillings are involved and there is heavier loading on
the culvert.
 Span of each arch should be kept less than 3m.
Bridge
 A bridge is a structure constructed over water course to carry traffic over it.
 bridges span is more than about 6m.
 Design of Drainage System
60

Cross Drainage Structures

Types of Culvert
 Design of Drainage System
61

Cross Drainage Structures

Causeway
 They are constructed instead of culverts on less important roads
where the maximum flow of depth does not exceed 1.5m which
saves the construction cost.
 During the flood, the water flows over the road and traffic on both
sides is stopped but as soon as the flood recedes, the traffic flow is
resumed.
 Bed slope of the causeway in estimating the span should not
generally exceed (4-5) % in order to prevent the vehicles from
skidding and overturning downstream.
 The depth of flow in most of the period of the year should not
exceed 30cm.
 HIGHWAY DRAINAGE AND CROSS-DRAINAGE STRUCTURES
62

Reflection Questions
1. Explain the process involved in design surface
drainage systems such as ditches
2. What are cross-drainage structures?
3. What factors are taken into considerations in
the selection of cross-drainage structures?
4. What are the possible solutions to subsurface
drainage problem?
References
1) ERA(2013) Drainage Design manual
2) Huang J.(2004), Pavement Analysis and Design
3) ERA(2013) Low volume road design manual

The End.
Thank You