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1
CE 426 Highway Design
Dr. Khaled Hamad
Deptartment of Civil Engineering
Block 2:
Roadway Geometric Design
Outline
Geometric Design Concept
Road Design
Horizontal Alignment
Vertical Alignment
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GEOMETRIC DESIGN
3
4
Design Concepts
Geometric alignment is a 3D problem broken
down into two 2D problems:
Horizontal Alignment (plan view)
Vertical Alignment (profile view)
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5
3D Perspective
2D Plan
(Horizontal)
2D Profile
(Vertical)
6
Stationing: Distance Referencing Along Horizontal
Alignment
Horizontal Alignment
Vertical Alignment
Each roadway point is uniquely defined by stationing along the x-axis. E.g., station 345+60
or @ the 345
th
100 ft-station and 60 ft toward the 346
th
100 ft-station)
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7
Road Plan and Profile
8
Geometric Design
Consists of the following:
1. Horizontal Design
Horizontal Alignment (HA)
2. Vertical Design
Vertical Alignment (VA)
3. Cross-sectional Design
Right-of-way, roadway features, Pavement
4. Junction Design
Intersections & Interchanges (Layouts and traffic control)
5. Pavement Design
6. Terminal Facilities
Parking Lots, Garages, etc.
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9
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
Roadway Geometric Design
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10
Horizontal Alignment
Definition:
Series of straight segments of road (tangents)
connected by suitable curves (horizontal curves)
Objective:
Establish geometry of directional transition to ensure
safety and comfort
Primary challenges
Transition between two directions using tangents and
curves
Relationship between design speeds and curvature
Relationships with superelevation and side friction

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Horizontal Alignment
Tangents Curves
11
Tangents & Curves
Tangent
Curve
Tangent to
Circular Curve
Tangent to
Spiral Curve to
Circular Curve
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Motion on Circular Curves
dt
dv
a
t
=
R
v
a
n
2
=
13
| | | cos cos sin
n s
a m W f W = +
| | | cos ) ( cos sin
2
R
v
g
W
W f W
s
= + e = = |
|
|
tan
cos
sin
gR
v
f e
s
2
= +
Motion on Circular Curves
gR
v
f
s
2
tan = + |
W = weight of vehicle
f
s
= coefficient of side friction
g = acceleration of gravity
v = vehicle speed
R = radius of curve
| = angle of inclination
e = tan | (rate of superelevation)
14
) (
2
s
f e g
v
R
+
=
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Determine Radius of Curve
Radius of curve, R, can be calculated as follows:
15
Where:
v = design speed
e = rate of superelevation
0.04 0.12 depending on type of facility
and local environment
f
s
= coefficient of side friction
0.20 at low speed to 0.08 at high speed
g = acceleration of gravity = 9.81 m/s
2
=
32.2 ft/s
2
) (
2
s
f e g
v
R
+
=
) ( 15
2
s
f e
v
R
+
=
For v in mph and R in ft, you can use:
) ( 127
2
s
f e
v
R
+
=
For v in kph and R in m, you can use:
Minimum Radius of a Circular Curve
Minimum value of radius R
min
can be calculated as follows:
Using R > R
min
allows the superelevation rate and side friction
to be smaller than maximum.
See selection of e and f
s
in next slides
16
) (
max max
2
min
s
f e g
v
R
+
=
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Side friction factor (f
s
)
It is a function of vehicle speed, pavement/roadway surface,
weather condition, tire condition
It decreases as speed increases (less tire/pavement contact)
The maximum side friction factor is the point at which the tires
begin to skid.
See table for range of values:
17
Design
Speed (mph)
Coefficient of
side friction, f
s
Design
Speed (km/h)
20 0.20 30
30 0.18 50
40 0.16 65
50 0.14 80
60 0.12 95
70 0.10 110
80 0.08 130
Superelevation e
Controlled by following factors:
Climate conditions (frequency and amount of ice and snow)
Terrain (flat, rolling, mountainous)
Adjacent land use and type of area (rural or urban)
Frequency of slow moving vehicles who might be influenced by
high superelevation rates
Constructability
Highest in common use is 10%
Never exceed 12% which could be suitable for roads with no
ice and snow on low volume gravel-surfaced roads
8% is logical maximum to minimize slipping by stopped
vehicles, considering snow and ice
Typically use 4 or 6% for urban design areas
Can be omitted on low-speed urban streets
Higher values are permitted on freeways as for arterial roads
For consistency use a single rate within a project or on a
highway
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19
AASHTO
Minimum
Radius Table
20
Design Superelevation Rates - AASHTO
Green Book provides charts for 4% to 12% superelevations
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Simple Curve Fundamentals
PC = Point of curvature
PT = Point of tangency
PI = Point of intersection
= Central angle
R = Radius of curve
L = Length of curve
T = Tangent length
C = Chord length
E = External distance
M = Middle ordinate
21
Simple Curve Fundamentals
( )
D D
R
5729.6
180
100
= =
t
2
tan
A
= R T
A = R L
180
t
L
D
A
=
100
For US units, degree of curvature, D :
2
sin 2
A
= R C
22
|
|
.
|

\
|

A
= 1
2 cos
1
R E
( )
2
cos 1
A
= R M
Sta. of PC = Sta. of PI T
Sta. of PT = Sta. of PC + L
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Horizontal Curve Design Procedure
1. Select tangents, PIs, and general curves making
sure you meet minimum radius criteria
2. Determine radius of the curve (R)
3. Measure angle () between tangents
4. Determine length of the curve (L) and Tangent (T)
5. Determine station alignment: stations for PC, PI,
PT
6. Calculate spiral (transition) lengths (L
s
), if needed
7. Check for widening of curves (Check SSD
requirements)
8. Develop edge profiles (superelevation runoffs)
9. Add information to plans
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Example 1
A horizontal curve is designed with a 1,500 ft radius. The
tangent length is 400 ft and the PT station is 20+00. What
are the PI and PC stations?
Solution:
Since we know R and T:
T = R tan(/2) => = 29.86
L = x R x / 180 = (3.14)(1500)(29.86)/180 = 781 ft
Sta. of PC = Sta. of PT L = 2000 781 = 1219.00 = 12+19.00
Sta. of PI = Sta. of PC + T = 1219.0 + 400 = 1619.00 = 16+19.00
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Example 2
A section of a road is being designed as a high-speed divided
highway. The design speed of 60 mph. What is the minimum
curve radius for safe vehicle operation assuming: e is 8% and
4%
For 60 mph, use f
s
= 0.12
For e
max
= 8%:
R
min
= V
2
/g(f
s
+e)
= (60)
2
/15(0.08 + 0.12)
= 1200 ft
For e
max
= 4% (urban situation) :
R
min
= V
2
/g(f
s
+e)
= (60)
2
/15(0.04 + 0.12)
= 1500 ft
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Example 3
Given: Simple horizontal curve with A = 50.25, PC = Station (331+38.75)
design speed = 70 mph; and e = 0.07.
Design this horizontal curve (find radius of the curve and Station of PT)
Solution:
For 70 mph, use max f = 0.10
R
min
= v
2
/g(f
s
+e)
= (70 x 1.47)
2
/32.2(0.10 + 0.07) = 1910.33 ft => Use R = 1950 ft
L = 3.14 R A /180 = (1950 x 50.25 x 3.14) /180 = 1,710.20 ft
Sta. of PT = Sta. of PC + L = (331+38.75) + (17+10.20) = 348+48.95
T = R tan(/2) = 1950 tan (50.25 /2) = 914.49 ft
Sta. of PI = Sta. of PC + T = (331+38.75) + (9+14.49) = 340+53.24
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Setting Out Horizontal Curve in Field
1. Locate PI in the field
2. Using R and , determine T and L (if not shown on plan)
3. Measure out T distance from PI to locate BC and EC
4. Determine deflection angles for required stations
5. Set up at PC, sight PI and measure out /2 angle
6. If /2 angle line-of-sight hits the PT mark, layout the curve
using the deflection angles.
7. If the /2 angle line-of-sight does not come acceptably close
to the PT mark, check the computations for T and then re-
measure the locations of PC and PT if necessary
27
/2 = l / 2L
Setting Out Horizontal Curve in Field
Find L = 3.14 R /180 = 89.71 m
Then calculate = l / L
Deflection angle = /2
Calculate chord for each station
using
28
Station l /2
0+196.738
0+200
3.262 3.262 0 28' 2" 0 14' 1"
0+220
20 23.262 3 19' 55" 1 39' 58"
0+240
20 43.262 6 11' 49" 3 5' 54"
0+260
20 63.262 9 3' 42" 4 31' 51"
0+280
20 83.262 11 55' 35" 5 57' 48"
0+286.448
6.448 89.71 12 51' 0" 6 25' 30"
Given:
= 12 51'
R = 400 m
PC Sta. = 0+196.738
Determine information to stake out
this curve.
2
sin 2
o
R C =
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More Horizontal Curve Types
Compound Curves: multiple
curves connected directly together
go from large radii to smaller radii
(use with caution)
Reverse Curves: two curves in
opposite direction (require
separation typically for
superelevation attainment)
Broken-Back Curves: two curves
same direction (should avoid)
Simple Curves with Spirals
29
Compound Circular Curve
Ratio of flatter (larger) radius to
sharper (smaller) radius < 2:1
Each curve should pass min
length requirement by AASHTO
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Reverse Curves
Seldom used
Cause
discomfort and
safety problem
Preferable
designs:
2 simple curves
w/ sufficient
tangents
2 simple curves
separated by
spirals
31
Transition Curves (Spirals)
Spiral curves are curves with a continuously changing radius
Design considerations: Safety & Comfort
When vehicles enter a curve, the gain or loss of centrifugal forces is not instantaneous
Advantages:
Provides natural and easy-to-follow path for drivers (promotes more uniform speeds and
lateral force increases and decreases gradually)
Provides location for attainment of superelevation runoff
Adds flexibility when widening a horizontal curve
Aesthetics, pleasant view
Disadvantages
Involve complex geometry
Require more surveying
Are somewhat empirical
If used, superelevation transition should occur entirely within spiral
AASHTO: There is no definitive evidence that transition curves are essential
to safe operation of roadways; therefore, they are not used by many agencies
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33
Transition Curves (Spirals)
No Spiral
Spiral
Length of Spiral Curves
US Customary Units Metric Units
Min spiral length, L
s,min
is the larger of:
Max spiral length,
L
s,min
= minimum length of spiral
L
s,max
= maximum length of spiral
V = vehicle speed, mph or km/hr
R = radius of the curve
C = rate of increase of radial acceleration (4 ft/sec
3
or 1.2 m/sec
3
)
p
min
= minimum lateral offset between tangent an circular curve (0.66 ft or 0.20 m)
p
max
= maximum lateral offset between tangent an circular curve (3.3 ft or 1.0 m)
34 34
RC
V
L
R p L
s
s
3
min ,
min min ,
15 . 3
) ( 24
=
=
R p L
s
) ( 24
max max ,
=
RC
V
L
R p L
s
s
3
min ,
min min ,
0214 . 0
) ( 24
=
=
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35
Desirable Spiral Lengths
Length correspond to travel time of 2 seconds at design speed
Insertion of Transition Curves
(Spirals)
Euler (clothoid) curves are used
Radius varies from infinity at
tangent to radius of circular
curve
Spirals are not used when:
Speed < 60 km/hr
Radius larger than that selected for
e
max
of 2%
36
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Transition Curves Fundamentals
37
38
Attainment of Superelevation
(Superelevation Transition):
On a tangent, road cross-section is crowned to provide
easy drainage of storm water.
On a curve, cross-section slope (normal crown) should
change to that of super-elevation of road, i.e., obtain fully
elevated section.
Change should be gradually achieved over sufficient length
because:
Safety and comfort (gentle lateral acceleration and introduction of
centripetal force)
Pleasing appearance (pavement not distorted)
Transition should be achieved along:
Spiral curve, if exists
Tangent-to-curve, if spiral does not exist.
38
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39
Superelevation Transition
Superelevation transition
length is summation of:
Tangent Runout: Length of
roadway needed to
accomplish a change in
outside lane cross-section
from normal crown to flat
(zero slope), or vice versa.
Superelevation Runoff:
Length of roadway needed
to accomplish a change in
outside lane cross-section
from flat (zero slope) to full
superelevation, or vice
versa.
39
40
Superelevation Transition
Normal Crown control
points:
OE: Outer Edge
CL: Center Line
IE: Inner Edge
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Length of Superelevation Runoff, Lr
41
Length of Tangent Runout, Lt
42
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43
Length of Superelevation Transition
Example
For a 4-lane divided highway with cross-section
rotated about centerline, design superelevation
rate = 4% and NC = 2%. Design speed is 50
mph. What are the minimum length of
superelevation runoff (ft) and tangent runout?
.
44
( ) ( ) ( )( )( )
ft 144
005 . 0
75 . 0 04 . 0 2 12
1
=

=
A
=
w d
r
b e wn
L
ft 72 144
04 . 0
02 . 0
= = =
r
d
NC
t
L
e
e
L
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Superelevation Transition
Superelevation runoff
is all attained in spiral
curve if used
If no spiral curve is
used:
Superelevation runoff
must be attained over
a length that includes
the tangent and the
curve
Typically, use 66-70%
on tangent and 33-
30% on curve
45
46
Superelevation Transition
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Methods of Super-
elevation Attainment
1. Pavement revolved
about center line (CL)
Centerline is point of
control
2. Pavement revolved
around inner edge (IE)
Inner edge is point of
control
3. Pavement revolved
around outer edge (OE)
Outer edge is point of
control
47
48
Curve Widening
A traffic lane on a curve must
be widened because:
Off-tracking: Rear wheels do
not follow exactly the same
path/trajectories of front wheels.
Vehicles front overhang
requires an additional lateral
space.
Difficulty of driving on curves
justifies wider lateral clearance.
Tendency of drivers to steer
away from the pavements edge.
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49
Curve Widening
Metric
50
Example
Calculate the widening required for passenger
cars on a curve with radius R =570 ft and
design speed v = 40 mph. The roadway has
two lanes and is 22 ft wide on the tangent
section.
ft 3 A ft, 11 L ft, 7 u ft, 2.5 C ft, 22 W
n
= = = = =
ft 7.11 U
11 570 570 7 U
L R R u U
2 2
2 2
=
+ =
+ =
ft 0.07 F
570 3) 11 3(2 570 F
R A) A(2L R F
A
2
A
2
A
=
+ + =
+ + =
Z F C) 2(U W
A c
+ + + =
<
n c
W W
no widening is needed for
passenger cars
ft 20.1 1.68 0.07 2.5) 2(7.11 W
Z F C) 2(U W
c
A c
= + + + =
+ + + =
ft 1.68
570
40
Z
R
v
Z
= =
=
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51
Sight Distance on Horizontal Curve
Sight Distance on
horizontal curve is
compromised by
presence of obstructions:
Walls
Cut slopes
Trees
SSD is measured around
middle of inside lane
Line of sight is a chord of
curve
M
s
is sight obstruction
offset
Stopping Sight Distance
where:
v = initial velocity when brakes
are applied
t
P/R
= time to perceive/react
f = coefficient of friction
g = acceleration of gravity = 9.81
m/s
2
= 32.2 ft/s
2
G = grade (decimal)
Distance to stop vehicle = Distance during P/R + Braking Distance
( ) G f g
v
vt SSD
R P

+ =
2
2
/
This is distance traveled by a vehicle between the time driver observes
an object in vehicles path and the time the vehicle actually comes to
complete stop.
52
( ) G f
v
vt SSD
R P

+ =
30
47 . 1
2
/
( ) G f
v
vt SSD
R P

+ =
254
278 . 0
2
/
Speed in mph and SSD in ft:
Speed in kph and SSD in m:
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53
Sight Obstruction on Horizontal Curves
( )
v
s
R
SSD
t
180
= A
D
R SSD
s
s v
A
= A =
100
180
t
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
v
v s
R
SSD
R M
t
90
cos 1
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
=

v
s v v
R
M R R
SSD
1
cos
90
t
54
Sight Obstruction on Horizontal Curves
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55
Example
Horizontal curve with 800 ft radius of 35 mph posted speed
limit. Determine horizontal sightline offset that a large
billboard can be placed from the centerline of inside lane
without reducing required SSD. Assume: e=0%; t=2.5 sec;
f=0.35.
Determine SSD:
Determine M:
.
Check value on monograph.
( ) ( )
ft 9 . 245
0 35 . 0 30
35
5 . 2 35 47 . 1
30
47 . 1
2 2
=

+ =

+ =
G f
v
vt SSD
ft 6 . 9
800 14 . 3
29 . 245 90
cos 1 800
90
cos 1 =
(

|
.
|

\
|

=
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
v
v s
R
SSD
R M
t
56
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
Roadway Geometric Design
56
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57
Vertical Alignment
G
1
G
2
G
1
G
2
Crest Vertical Curve
Sag Vertical Curve
Definition:
Straight segments of highway (tangents or grades)
connected by vertical curves.
Purpose:
Select suitable grades for tangent sections and
appropriate lengths for vertical curves.
58
Vertical Alignment
Objectives:
Provide a gradual change from one tangent grade to
another to allows vehicles to run smoothly on road
Determine elevation to ensure proper drainage and
acceptable level of safety
Primary Challenges
Topography of area has significant impact (following
existing surfaces to minimize earthwork cut & fill)
Grades can significantly impact vehicles
Main Criteria:
Minimum stopping distance
Adequate drainage
Comfort
Pleasant appearance
Minimize cut and fill
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Grades
Grade: measure of inclination or slope (rise over the run)
Grades can significantly impact vehicles, especially trucks
(performance increase on downgrades & decrease on
upgrades)
Cars: negotiate 4-5% grades without significant speed reduction
Trucks: significant speed changes
Maximum grade: depends on terrain type, road functional
class, and design speed
Max grade of 5% for design speed of 110 km/hr (70 mph)
Max grade in range of 7% to 12% for design speed of 50 km/hr (30
mph)
AASHTO Recommendation (next slide)
Minimum Grade:
Typically 0.5%
Flatter grades sometimes are justified
59
60
AASHTO
Maximum
Grades
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Critical Length of Grade
Maximum length which a
loaded truck can travel
without unreasonable
speed reduction
Based on speed distance
curve of a typical heavy
truck (with 10 mph speed
reduction as threshold
Critical Length of Grade
General
Design
Speed
Reduction
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63
Types of Vertical Curves
63
Type I
Type II
Type III
Type IV
Vertical Curve
PVI = Point of Vertical
Intersection
PVC = Point of Vertical
Curvature
PVT = Point of Vertical
Tangency
L = Length of vertical curve
Y = Offset of curve from initial
grade line
Y
m
= mid-curve offset
Y
f
= end-curve offset
G
1
= Grade of initial tangent, %
G
2
= Grade of final tangent, %
64
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Properties of Vertical Curve
65
Parabolic function:
y is roadway elevation x distance from beginning of
curve.
Characteristics:
Constant rate of change of slope.
Implies equal curve tangents:
Horizontal distance PVC to PVI = Horizontal distance PVI to PVT
= Curve length
Length of vertical curve is the horizontal projection
of the curve and not the length along the curve.
c bx ax y + + =
2
Vertical Curve Fundamentals
1
0 : PVC At the G b
dx
dy
x = = =
PVC of Elev. 0 : PVC At the = = = c y x
L
G G
a
L
G G
a
dx
y d
2
2 : Anywhere
1 2 1 2
2
2

= =
c bx ax y + + =
2
PVC of Elev.
2
Therefore,
1
2 1 2
+ +

= x G x
L
G G
y
66
Choose Either:
G
1
, G
2
in decimal form, L in ft or m
G
1
, G
2
in percent, L in stations
(i.e., divide distance by 100)
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Vertical Curve Fundamentals
2
2
x
L
A
Y =
1 2
G G A =
Algebraic difference
in grade =
Sta. of PVC = Sta. of PVI - L/2
Offset =
Sta. of PVT = Sta. of PVI + L/2 = Sta. of PVC + L
Elevation of PVC = Elevation of PVI - G
1
L/2
Elevation of PVT = Elevation of PVI + G
2
L/2
Elevation at any point x = Y + G
1
x + Elev. of PVC
67
G
1
G
2
PVI
PVT
PVC
x
Y
8
AL
Y
m
=
2
AL
Y
f
=
Mid-curve offset:
Final
offset:
Choose Either:
G
1
, G
2
in decimal form, L in ft or m
G
1
, G
2
in percent, L in stations
(i.e., divide distance by 100)
68
Vertical Curve Procedure
1. Determine the minimum length of curve to satisfy sight
distance requirements and other criteria.
2. Determine from the layout plans the station and
elevation of the PVI (the point where the grades
intersect).
3. Compute the elevations of the PVC (or BVC) and end
of vertical curve (EVC or PVT).
4. Compute the offsets, Y, from the tangent to the curve at
equal distances or stations.
5. Compute elevations on the curve for each station as:
elevation of the tangent offset from tangent, Y. For
crest curves the offset is (-) and for sag curves the
offset is (+).
6. Compute the location and elevation of highest/lowest
point on curve.
68
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69
Criteria for Minimum Length of Curve
Minimum length of crest vertical curve should
be based on stopping sight distance.
Other (passing or decision) sight distances could
also be considered if required.
Minimum length of sag vertical curve should
be based on:
1. Night sight distance
2. Comfort
3. Appearance
4. Drainage
Stopping Sight Distance
where:
v = initial velocity when brakes
are applied
t
P/R
= time to perceive/react
f = coefficient of friction
g = acceleration of gravity = 9.81
m/s
2
= 32.2 ft/s
2
G = grade (decimal)
Distance to stop vehicle = Distance during P/R + Braking Distance
( ) G f g
v
vt SSD
R P

+ =
2
2
/
This is distance traveled by a vehicle between the time driver observes
an object in vehicles path and the time the vehicle actually comes to
complete stop.
70
( ) G f
v
vt SSD
R P

+ =
30
47 . 1
2
/
( ) G f
v
vt SSD
R P

+ =
254
278 . 0
2
/
Speed in mph and SSD in ft:
Speed in kph and SSD in m:
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71
AASHTO Stopping Sight Distance
Decision Sight Distance (DSD)
For unexpected stimulus or when driver has to make
unusual maneuvers AASHTOs recommends using
decision sight distance (DSD).
DSD depends on
Type of maneuver required
Road location (Urban/Rural)
SSD is often inadequate when drivers must make
complex/instantaneous decisions; DSD is longer than
SSD
Exhibit 3.3 from AASHTOs Green Book is used in
design
72
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37
Decision Sight Distances for Different Design Speeds and
Avoidance Maneuvers
73
74
Passing Sight Distance
Sight distance is determined for a single vehicle passing a single vehicle with the
assumption that cover majority of situations observed in the real-world conditions.
4 3 2 1
d d d d PSD + + + =
d
1
is the distance traveled
during the P-R time and the
initial acceleration until the
point where the vehicle
begins to enter the passing
lane
d
2
is distance traveled while
the vehicle is passing in the
passing lane
d
3
is the distance between
the passing vehicle and
opposing vehicle
d
4
is the distance the
opposing vehicle moves
while the passing vehicle is
in the passing lane
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38
Passing Sight Distance (PSD)
75
Where
t
1
= time of initial maneuver, sec
t
2
= time the passing vehicle occupies left
lane, sec
a = average acceleration, mph/sec
v = average speed of passing vehicle,
mph
m = difference in speed of passed and
passing vehicle, mph
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
2
47 . 1
1
1 1
at
m v t d
2 2
47 . 1 vt d =
d
3
= 110 to 300 ft
d
4
= 2d
2
/3
3 / 2
m 90 30
278 . 0
2
278 . 0
2 4
3
2 2
1
1 1
d d
d
vt d
at
m v t d
=
=
=
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
a = average acceleration, km/h/s
v = average speed of passing vehicle,
km/h
m = difference in speed between
passing and passed vehicles, km/h
U.S. Customary Metric
Passing Sight Distance on Two-lane Highways
76
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39
77
Minimum Length of Crest Curve
G
1
G
2
PVI
PVT
PVC
h
2
h
1
L
S
( )
2
2 1
2
min
200

h h
S A
L
+
=
( )
A
h h
S L
2
2 1
min
200
2
+
=
For S < L For S > L
Line of Sight
Use , where G
1
& G
2
in percent, not in decimal form 1 2
G G A =
78
Minimum Length of Crest Curve
AASHTO Values for h
1
and h
2
:
where:
SSD (Stopping Sight Distance)
PSD (Passing Sight Distance)
Parameters (US Units) SSD (ft) PSD (ft)
Height of drivers eye (h
1
) 3.5 3.5
Height of object (h
2
) 2.0 3.5
Parameters (Metric) SSD (m) PSD (m)
Height of drivers eye (h
1
) 1.08 1.08
Height of object (h
2
) 0.60 1.08
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40
79
Minimum Length of Crest Curve
The length of crest curve should not be less
than:
L
min
= 3v (design speed in mph and L in ft)
L
min
= 0.6v (design speed in km/h and L in m)
Generally, minimum lengths of crest curves
are about 100 to 325 ft (30 to 100 m).
80
Minimum Length of Sag Curve
G
1
G
2
PVI
PVT
PVC
h
2
=0
h
L
Headlight Sight Distance (S)
( ) +
=
1 tan 200

2
min
S h
S A
L
( )
A
S h
S L
+
=
1 tan 200
2
min
For S < L For S > L
headlight beam (diverging by 1 degrees)
h = headlight height
= 2.0 ft (or 0.6 m)
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81
Other Criteria for Minimum Length of Sag Curve
Comfort Criteria: A comfortable ride will be provided if the radial
acceleration is not greater than 1 ft/sec
2
or 0.3 m/sec
2
General Appearance Criteria: The rule of thumb for the general
appearance criteria is as follows:
Drainage Criteria (only when curve is curbed): The maximum length in
which a minimum slope of 0.30% be provided within 50 ft (15 m) of
lowest/level point.
mph) in ft where (in
5 . 46
2
min
v
Av
L =
ft) (in 100
min
A L = m) (in 30
min
A L =
km/h) in where m (in
395
2
min
v
Av
L =
82
Example 1
For a design speed of 50 mph and
grades shown below, determine the
minimum length of a vertical curve
that meets the criteria for safe
passing.
Solution:
% 3
2
= G
1%
1
= G
% 4 ) 1 ( 3 G G A
1 2
= = =
:
ft 939 , 1
) 1 tan 1800 2 ( 200
1800 4
2
=
+

= L
The answer is correct
because the SL condition
is met.
L S s
) tan ( 200
2
| +

=
S h
S A
L
S = 1,800 ft
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42
Example 2
Given:
A sag vertical curve of a highway with -3% grade joining
+3% grade
Design speed = 55 mph
Perception-reaction time = 2.5 sec
Determine the minimum length of the curve?
Solution:
Determine the SSD required for the design conditions.
Because the grade change constantly on a vertical curve,
the worst-case value for G is used to determine the braking
distance:
ft
G f
v
vt SSD
r p
41 . 519 26 . 317 15 . 202
) 03 . 0 35 . 0 ( 30
55
5 . 2 55 47 . 1
) ( 30
47 . 1
2 2
/
= + =

+ =

+ =
83
Solution:
This is a sag curve.
How we determine if S>L or S<L? Assume either case. If your first
assumption proves to be incorrect, the other condition would be the
correct one.
Assume S>L:
The condition is not appropriate since 519.41<699.94; therefore, S<L:
Thus, L
min
= 731 ft
ft
A
S h
S L
94 . 669 88 . 368 82 . 1038
6
) 1 tan 41 . 519 2 ( 200
) 41 . 519 ( 2
) tan ( 200
2
= =
+
=
+
=
|
ft
S h
S A
L 37 . 731
) 1 tan 41 . 519 2 ( 200
41 . 519 6
) tan ( 200
2
2
=
+

=
+

=
|
84
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43
85 85
Solution:
Check for other criteria:
Rider comfort:
General Appearance:
Rule of thumb:
So, the minimum length to satisfy all criteria is 731 ft
ft
Av
L 390
5 . 46
55 6
5 . 46
2 2
=

= =
ft A L 600 6 100 100 = = =
ft v L 165 ) 55 ( 3 3
min
= = =
86
Finding High or Low Point on Vertical Curve
High or low point on a vertical curve is of interest to
the designer to investigate:
Drainage conditions
Clearance beneath overhead structures
A
G L
y
G K
G G
L G
G G
L
G x
G x
L
G G
dx
dy
x G x
L
G G
y
Low High
Low High
2
- PVC of Elev.
: is Point High/Low of Elevation
0
2
2 : curve on the point High/Low of location find To
PVC of Elev.
2

: using found be can curve vertical a on point any of Elevation
2
1
/
1
1 2
1
1 2
1 /
1
1 2
1
2 1 2

=
=

=
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
= + |
.
|

\
|
=
+ +

=
12/28/2011
44
Example 3
A 400 ft equal-tangent crest vertical curve has a PVC station of 100+00 at
59.00 ft elevation. The initial grade is 2.0% and the final grade is -4.5%.
Determine the elevation and stationing of PVI, PVT, and the highest point of
the curve.
PVI
PVT
PVC: STA 100+00
EL 59 ft.
87
Solution:
PVI STA is 102+00 and PVT STA = 102+00 + 200 = 104+00
Elevation of the PVI = 59 + 0.02(200) = 63 ft.
Elevation of the PVT = 63 0.045(200) = 54 ft.
High point elevation requires figuring out the equation for a vertical curve:
y=ax
2
+bx+c:
At x = 0, y = c = 59 ft
At x = 0, dy/dx = b = G
1
= +2% = 0.02
a = (G
2
G
1
)/2L = (-0.045 0.02)/(2*400) = - 0.00008125
Therefore, y = -0.00008125x
2
+ 0.02x + 59.
Highest point is where dy/dx = 0. That is, dy/dx = -0.0001625x + 0.02 = 0.
Solve for x, you get x = 123 ft (i.e., 1.23 stations).
Find elevation at x = 123 stations:
y = -0.00008125(123)
2
+ 0.02(123) + 59 = 60.23 ft
88
12/28/2011
45
Another Solution:
You could obtain the same results using grades in percentage and length
of curve in stations:
The equation for the vertical curve is y=ax
2
+bx+c:
At x = 0, y = c = 59 ft
At x = 0, dy/dx = b = G
1
= +2.0%
a = (G
2
G
1
)/2L = (-4.5 2)/(2(4)) = - 0.8125
Therefore, y = -0.8125x
2
+ 2x + 59.
Highest point is where dy/dx = 0.
That is, dy/dx = -1.625x + 2 = 0. Solve for x, you get x = 1.23 stations.
Find elevation at x = 1.23 stations:
y = -0.8125(1.23)
2
+ 2(1.23) + 59 = 60.23 ft
89
90
Length of Crest & Sag Curves Based on K Factors
Rate of Vertical Curvature, K, is the length of the
vertical curve per percent algebraic difference in
intersecting grades:
K is a function of design speed (see tables); thus,
it could be viewed as a design control
It is a shortcut for computing minimum length of
curves if known for design speed:
A
L
K =
A K L =
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91
Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves Based on SSD
92
Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves Based on PSD
12/28/2011
47
93
Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves
94
Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves (Metric)
12/28/2011
48
95
Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves (US Units)
96
Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves (Metric)
12/28/2011
49
97
Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves (US Units)
98
Example 4
A roadway is being designed using a 45 mph design speed. One section of
the roadway must go up and over a small hill with an entering grade of 3.2%
and an exiting grade of -2.0%. How long must the vertical curve be?
Solution:
A = |-2 3.2| = 5.2%
For 45 mph, we get K=61.
Therefore, L = KA = (61)(5.2) = 317.2 ft
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99
Example 5
A car is traveling at 30 mph in the country at night on a wet road through a 150
ft. long sag vertical curve. The entering grade is -2.4% and the exiting grade is
4.0%. A tree has fallen across the road at approximately the PVT. Assuming
the driver cannot see the tree until it is lit by her headlights, is it reasonable to
expect the driver to be able to stop before hitting the tree?
Solution:
Assume that S>L (it usually is not but for example well do it this way):
S = 146.23 ft < L
Must use S<L equation: A quadratic with roots of 146.17 ft and -64.14 ft.
The driver will see the tree when it is 146.17 feet in front of her.
Available SSD is 146.17 ft.
Required SSD = (1.47 x 30)
2
/2(32.2)(0.35 + 0) + 2.5(1.47 x 30) = 196.53 ft.
Therefore, shes not going to stop in time.
Another Solution:
L/A = K = 150/6.4 = 23.43, which is less than the required K of 37 for a 30
mph design speed
Stopping sight distance on level ground at 30 mph is approximately 200 ft.
100
Sight Distance at Undercrossings
Sight distance at underpass may be limited for
sag curves
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101
Sight Distance at Undercrossings
L = Minimum curve length (m or ft)
S = Sight distance (m or ft)
A = |G
2
-G
1
|, grade change in %
C = Vertical clearance (m or ft)
h
1
= Height of drivers eye (usually 8 ft or 2.4 m)
h
2
= Height of object (usually 2 ft or 0.6 m)
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
| +

=
2
800

2 1
2
h h
C
S A
L
A
h h
C
S L
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
| +

=
2
800
2
2 1
For S < L
For S > L
102
Example 6
A +2% grade intersects with a -1% grade at station (535+24.25) at an elevation
of 300 ft. If the design speed is 65 mi/h, determine:
the stations and elevations of the BVC and EVC
the elevation of each 100-ft station
Solution:
A = |2 (-1)| = 3%
For 65 mph, we get K=193
Therefore, L = KA = (193)(3) = 579 ft
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103
Example 6 Continue
END OF BLOCK 2
104