DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING I (CENG 3102)
CHAPTER-7: INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRIC DESIGN
OF AIRFIELDS AND AIRPORTS
7.1 Air Transportation Fundamentals
7.2 Airport Geometric layout and
configurations
By Haile G.
At the end of this chapter,
students will be able to
 Explain the purpose of an
airport
 Explain Air Transportation
Fundamentals
 Explain Airport Geometric
layout and configurations
May 2022
 Introduction
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What Is an Airfield?
 Not all runways are considered to be an airport.
 An airfield, by definition, is a space set aside specifically for aircraft to take
off and land.
 Of course, this doesn’t mean that the space is a paved runway. It is possible for
the space provided to be a grass, gravel, or dirt strip.
What Is an Airport?
 With so many airfields available in different locations and for different
aircraft, why would we need airports?
 While airfields can be extremely convenient for smaller aircraft and remote
locations, an airport provides a level of service that some aircraft and
passengers require.
 An airport is a location of mostly paved runways that provide a space for
aircraft to take off and land, but also provide access for passengers.
 When thinking of an airport you might imagine a large international airport
with multiple runways and terminal buildings, and you are right – that is often
the case.
 Introduction
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 Selection of site for airport

 Factors affecting site selection:
1. Regional plan
8. Wind
2. Use of airport, Traffic
9. Land use and its value
volume and type of
10. Availability of utilities
traffic
11. Aircraft noise
3. Proximity to other
12. Environmental factors
airports
13. Soil characteristics
4. Ground accessibility
14. Economy of construction
5. Topography
6. Obstructions
7. Visibility
 Introduction
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Types of Airports
A. Public (civil) airport
 Public use
 Publicly owned
 Under control of public agency
 Example is owned by a county
B. Private airport
 Owned by companies or individuals
C. Military/Federal Government airports
 Airports operated by the military, or other agencies of the Federal
Government.
I. Towered Airport
 Operating control air traffic control (ATC) tower
II. Non-towered Airport
 No operating air traffic control tower
 Communication by Common Traffic Advisory Frequency
 Introduction
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General aviation airports are divided into four

categories:
 National airports provide communities with access to
national and international markets in multiple states
and throughout the country.
 Regional airports support regional economies by
connecting communities to statewide and interstate
markets
 Local airports provide access to intrastate and
interstate markets.
 Basic airports link communities to the national airport
system and support general aviation activities
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 Introduction
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1. Bole Airport, Addis Ababa
2. Arba Mintch Airport, A/Mintch 19. Fincha Airport, Fincha
3. Asela Airport, Asela
4. Asosa Airport, Asosa
5. Awareh Airport, Awareh
6. Awassa Airport, Awassa
7. Axum Airport, Axum
8. Bahar Dar Airport, Bahar Dar
9. Beica Airport, Beica
10. Bulchi Airport, Bulchi
11. Buno Bedelle Airport, B/
Bedelle
12. Chagni Airport, Chagni
13. D/ Marcos Airport, D/ Marcos
14. Debra Tabor Airport, D/Tabor
15. Degahbur Airport, Degahbur
16. Dembidollo Airport, D/dollo
17. Combolcha Airport, Dessie
18. Aba Tenna Airport, Dire Dawa 36. Makale Airport, Makale
37. Mekane Selam Airport, M/ Selam
38. Mena Airport, Mena
20. Gambela Airport, Gambela 39. Mendi Airport, Mendi
21. Geladi Airport, Geladi 40. Misrak Gashamo Airport, M/Gashamo
41. Mizan Teferi Airport, M/Teferi
22. Genda Wuha Airport, G/ Wuha 42. Mota Airport, Mota
23. Ghimbi Airport, Ghimbi 43. Moyale Airport, Moyale
44. Mui Airport, Mui
24. Ghinnir Airport, Ghinnir 45. Neghelli Airport, Neghelli
25. Goba Airport, Goba 46. Nejjo Airport, Nejjo
47. Nekemt Airport, Nekemt
26. Gode Airport, Gode/Iddidole
48. Beles Airport, Pawi
27. Gondar Airport, Gondar 49. Semera Airport, Semera
50. Shakiso Airport, Shakiso
28. Gore Airport, Gore
51. Shehdi Airport, Shehdi
29. Humera Airport, Humera 52. Shillavo Airport, Shillavo
30. Jigiga Airport, Jigiga 53. Shire Airport, Shire
54. Soddu Airport, Soddu
31. Jimma Airport, Jimma 55. Tippi Airport, Tippi
32. Jinka Airport, Jinka 56. Tum Airport, Tum
57. Waca Airport, Waca
33. Kabri Dar Airport, Kabri Dar 58. Warder Airport, Warder
34. Kelafo Airport, Kelafo/Callaf
35. Lalibela Airport, Lalibela https://airportsbase.org/Ethiopia/all/airports
 Introduction
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 Bole
Airport
 Introduction
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Airports Components
 Landside
 Movement of passengers, vehicles, vehicle parking
provisions, and cargo access
 Airside
 Aircraft, ground handling equipment, airport and airline
employees, emergency equipment, and airspace around the
airport.
 Includes facilities, taxiways, runways, parking areas,
communication and navigation aids, and gates.
 Terminals and fencing separate the landside and
airside.
 Introduction
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Airport Operations
 Each airport may have a published rules, policies, and
regulations covering all airport users.
 Consider
 Takeoff and landing operations
 Ground operations
 Traffic pattern operations
 Runway incursion avoidance
 Safety and security requirements
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Components of Airport
 Terminal Building (T.B)
 Apron Land side

 Runways
 Taxiways Terminals
 Hangars
Air side
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Components of Airport
 Introduction
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Geometric Design of the Airside- Runways

 Runway decision

 Configuration

 Length

 Orientation

 Number of runways

 Exist taxiway location

 Taxiway decision

 Number of taxiway

 Location

 Gate-Apron Decision

 Number of gates
 Location
 Size
 Design of runway and taxiway pavement
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Terminal Building (T.B)

 The passenger terminal system is the major connection between the
ground access system and the aircraft.
The purpose of this system is
 To process the passenger for origination, termination, or continuation
of an air transportation trip, and convey the passenger and baggage
to and from the aircraft.
 It includes followings facilities:
1. Booking office
2. Custom’s office
3. Restaurants
4. Weather bureau
5. Luggage and mails rooms
6. Communication systems (telephone/telegraph office etc.)
7. Air traffic control (ATC) tower
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Terminal Building Air traffic control tower

Taxiways

Apron
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Apron
 Portion of the airport usually paved in front of TB, mean
for parking, loading/unloading of aircraft.
 Part of an airport intended to accommodate the
loading and unloading of passengers and cargo,
the refueling, servicing, maintenance and parking of
aircraft, and any movement of aircraft, vehicles and
pedestrians necessary for such purposes.
 Vehicles, aircraft and people using the apron are
referred to as apron traffic.
 Also called the “Ramp”.
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Apron
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Taxiways
 Defined parked path for taxiing aircraft to and from runway
 Path on an airport connecting runways with ramps, hangers,
terminals and other facilities.
 They mostly have hard surface such as asphalt or concrete,
although smaller airports sometimes use gravel or grass.
 Constructed to provide access to the aircraft for runway to
Terminal areas and service hangers in such a way that aircraft
that just landed don’t interfere with the aircraft taxiing to
takeoff.
 Should not cross runway
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Taxiways
 Parallel Taxiways
 Entrance Taxiways
 Bay-pass Taxiways
 Exit Taxiways
 All taxiways should have centerline markings and runway
holding position markings whenever they intersect a runway.
 Taxiway lighting is provided at many airports to facilitate the
movement of aircraft at night or in poor visibility conditions.
 Taxiway edge lights are used to outline the edges of the
taxiway and emit light blue light.
 Taxiway centerline lights emit a green light
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Hangars
 Large sheds erected on airport for housing and repairing
airplanes.
 It may be storage or service hangars
 Hangars are used
for protection from
the weather, direct
sunlight and for
maintenance, repair,
manufacture,
assembly and
storage of aircraft.
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Runways
 It is a strip of land used by aircrafts for take-off and landing operations.
 It is perhaps the single most important facility on the airport.
 Runways are typically constructed from gravel, grass, asphalt or concrete.
 Rectangular area on a land prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft.
 Runways may be a man-made surface (often asphalt, concrete, or a mixture of both)
or a natural surface (grass, dirt, gravel, ice, or salt).
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Runways Single
Runways

Intersecting
Runways Runways Parallel
Runways

Open-V
Runways
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Single

Parallel
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 Open-V

 Intersecting Runways
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Runways Orientation
 Takeoff and landing operations take place into the
wind. Therefore, runways are oriented in the direction
of prevailing
 Runways are define/identified by its orientation
w.r.t magnetic North .
 eg. 270 degree runway is, Runway 27 or R 27
 If the orientation of runway is 90 degree w.r.t magnetic
North represent as R 09
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Runways Orientation
 When the same runway is used form opposites
directions the runway is identified by both direction
eg. R 09/27
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Runway Length

Actual Runway Length = Basic Runway Length + Corrections

Corrections to basic runway length

 There are three main corrections to be applied to basic

runway length to determine the actual length of runway for

an airport.
 These are:

 Elevation Correction
 Temperature Correction
 Gradient Correction
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 Basic Runway Length (ICAO: International Civil Aviation Organization )

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 Standard Atmospheric Parameters:

 Temperature at MSL = 150C

 Pressure at MSL =760mm of Hg

 Air Density = 1.225kg/m3

 If the standard atmospheric conditions vary due to

any reason-corrections are applied to the basic
runway length to calculate the actual runway length.
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Elevation Correction
 Change in elevation affects air density,

atmospheric pressure and temperature.

 Correction should be applied for change in altitude.

 The Elevation Correction is as shown below:

 Correction for Altitude: Increase runway length

by 7% per 300m altitude above MSL

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Temperature Correction
0
 Increase basic runway length by 1% for every 1 C rise
in Airport Reference Temperature (ART).
 Airport Reference Temperature (ART)

ART = 𝑇1+1/3(𝑇2−𝑇1)
Where,
 𝑇1= Monthly mean of average daily temperature for
the hottest month of the year (0C)
 𝑇2= Monthly mean of maximum daily temperature for
the same month (0C)
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Gradient Correction
 Runway length is increased at a rate of 20% for

every 1% of the effective gradient

Note:
 This correction is applied only if the combined

correction for Elevation and Temperature remains

less than 35%
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Summary: Basic Runway Length Corrections

S.No Correction Amount Combined Corrections

1 Elevation Correction 7% per 300 m rise The combined correction

2 Temperature
Correction
3 Gradient Correction
above MSL for Elevation and
Temperature should NOT
1% for every 10C exceed 35%
rise in air port
reference
temperature.
20% for every1%
of the effective
gradient
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Example 1:
If the monthly mean of average daily temperature of
the hottest month is 16.0 0C and monthly mean of
maximum daily temperature for the same month is
24.130C and the runway has to be provided with an
effective gradient of 0.23 percent, compute the
corrected length of runway for an airport located at
an elevation of 170 m above MSL, if the length of
runway under standard conditions is 2100 m.
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Solution:
A. Elevation Correction:
7 170
×2100 × = 83.3 𝑚
100 300
 Corrected length = 2100 + 83.3= 2183.3 m
B. Temperature Correction
1
 Airport Reference Temperature (ART) = 𝑇1 + (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
3
Where,
 𝑇1= Monthly mean of average daily temperature of the hottest
month (°𝐶)
 𝑇2= Monthly mean of maximum daily temperature of the hottest
month (°𝐶)
ART=16.0+1/3(24.13-16.0)=16+2.71,
𝐴𝑅𝑇=18.71°𝐶
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Solution:
1
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 2183 × × 18.71 = 408.3 𝑚
100
Corrected Length = 2183.3 + 408.3 = 2591.6m
 Check for the total correction:
2591.6 − 2100
× 100 = 23.4% 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 < 35% => 𝑂𝐾
2100
 The combined correction (Elevation + Temperature) should remain
below 35%

C. Gradient Correction:
20
× 2591.6 × 0.23 = 119𝑚
100
 Corrected Length = 2591.6 + 119 = 2710.81m
 Rounding the above value to the nearest 10m, the corrected length
of runway is 2720 m
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Basic Runway Length

 It refers to the length of an airport runway under the following assumptions:
 Related to runway:
 No wind is blowing on runway
 Runway is levelled (No effective gradient)
 Related to Airport:
 Airport is at sea level
 The temperature at the airport is 15 0C (Standard
Temperature)
 Related to aircraft:
 Aircraft is loaded to its capacity
 Related to route to destination:
 No wind is blowing on the way to destination
 Standard temperature prevails along the way
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 Factors Affecting Basic Runway Length

The following factors affect the calculation of basic runway length:
 Aircraft characteristics
 Power and propulsion system

 Critical aircraft:

 Gross landing and take-off weight of the aircraft

 Aerodynamic and mechanical characteristics

Airport environmental conditions Safety requirements

 Atmosphere A. Normal landing case
B. Normal take-off case
 Temperature
C. Engine Failure Case
 Surface wind  The cases which works out the
 Altitude longest runway length is finally
 Runway Gradient adopted
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A. Normal Landing Case

 The air craft should come to a halt within 60% of the landing
distance (LD).
 The run way of full strength pavement is provided for the
entire landing distance.
𝑆𝐷 = 0.6𝐿𝐷 ≫ 𝑜𝑟, 𝐿𝐷 = 1.667𝑆𝐷
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B. Normal Take-off Runway Composition

 The take-off distance (TOD) must be equal to 115% of the actual distance the
aircraft uses to reach a height of 10.5m
 TOD should be equal to 115% of the distance to reach a height of 10.5m.
 Field Length (FL) = Full Strength (FS) runway + Clearway (CW)
 TOD = 1.15 x D10.5m
 CW = 0.5[TOD -1.15(LOD)]
 Take-off Run (TOR) = TOD –CW
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B. Normal Take-off Runway Composition

 It requires a clearway, as shown in figure below.

 The width of clearway should not be less than 150m (500ft)

 The clearway ground area should not have any object

protruding a plane inclined upwards at a slope of 1.25% from

the end of runway.
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C. Engine Failure Case-Criterion(Stopping in emergency)

 It is an emergency condition.

 This condition applies when the aircraft is speeding up on the

runway to take-off and pilots detect some problem in the

engine(s):
 Dictated by two scenarios:

1. Continued takeoff sub case

 Actual distance to clear an imaginary 11 m (35 ft)
obstacle D35 (with an engine-out)
2. Aborted or rejected takeoff sub case
 Distance to accelerate and stop (DAS)
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C. Engine Failure Case-Criterion • FS =Length of full

Stopping in Emergency: Calculations-1 strength runway

 Engine Failure, take-off proceeded (continued) case

 Field Length (FL)  Take-off Run (TOR):

FL= FS + CWY TOR = TOD - CWY
 Take-off Distance(TOD):
TOD = D35=D10.5
CWY = 0.5[TOD-LOD]
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C. Engine Failure Case-Criterion

 Stopping in Emergency: Calculations-2

 Engine Failure, take-off aborted case

 FL = FS + SW

 FL = Deaccelerate stop distance (DAS)=ASD

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The Required Basic Runway length

 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒(𝐹𝐿) = max{𝑇𝑂𝐷2 , 𝑇𝑂𝐷3 , 𝐷𝐴𝑆, 𝐿𝐷}
 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑦 (𝐹𝑆) = max{𝑇𝑂𝑅2 , 𝑇𝑂𝑅3 , 𝐿𝐷}
 𝑆𝑊 = 𝐷𝐴𝑆 – max{ 𝑇𝑂𝑅2, 𝑇𝑂𝑅3, 𝐿𝐷}
 𝐶𝑊 = min{(𝐹𝐿 − 𝐷𝐴𝑆), 𝐶𝐿2 , 𝐶𝐿3 }
 𝑆𝑊𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0, 𝐶𝑊𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0, 𝐶𝑊m𝑎𝑥 = 300𝑚

 The Clearway (CWY) is an area clear of obstacles beyond the paved

runway, it is unprepared and could even be over the water.
 This is so because the Aircraft is meant to overfly the Clearway.
 The Clearway is part of the Take-off Distance Available (TODA) and its
purpose is to reduce the initial climb performances restrictions.
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Terminologies
 FL = field length (total amount of runway needed)

 FS = full strength pavement distance

 CWY = clearway distance

 SWY = stopway distance

 LOD = lift off distance

 TOR = takeoff run

 TOD = takeoff distance

 LD = landing distance

 SD = stopping distance

 D35 = distance to clear an 11 m (35 ft.) obstacle

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Declared distances
For any given runway, four declared distances
defined by ICAO are
 Take Off Run Available TORA
 Take-off Distance Available TODA
 Accelerate-stop Distance Available ASDA
 Landing Distance Available LDA
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Declared distances

 Runways: A defined area for aircraft take-off & landing.

 Stopways (SWY): Area beyond the end of runway.
 Clearways (CWY): Include the stopway and any additional surface
cleared of obstacle.
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Stopways and Clearway

Stopways(SWY)
 An area of ground where the aircraft can be safely brought to

a stop in an emergency. Or
 The Stopway (SWY) is an area beyond the actual runway that
is available in case of a rejected take-off.
 The stopway should be clear of obstructions that could

damage the aircraft.

Clearway(CWY)
 An area under the control of the appropriate authority,

selected or prepared as a suitable area over which an aircraft

may make a portion of its initial climb to a specified height.
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Declared distances
 TODA(Take Off Distance Available )
 It is equal to the length of the take-off run available plus the length of the
clearway.
TODA =TORA + CWY
 TORA(Take Off Run Available )
 It is defined as the length of runway available for the ground run of an aeroplane
taking off.
TORA = Full Length of RW
 ASDA(Accelerate-stop Distance Available )
 It is defined as the length of the take-off run available plus the length of any SWY.
ASDA = TORA + SWY
 LDA(Landing Distance Available )
 It is defined as the length of runway available for the ground run of a landing
aeroplane.
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Example 2:
 Determine the runway length requirements according to the
specifications for a turbine powered aircraft with the following
performance characteristics:
 Normal Landing:
SD = 2540 m
 Normal Takeoff:
LOD = 2134 m
D35 = 2438
 Engine Failure Continued Takeoff:
LOD = 2500 m
D35 =2774 m
 Engine Failure Aborted Takeoff:
DAS = 2896 m
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Solution:
 Normal Landing:
LD = 1.667*SD=1.667*1524=2540 m
 Normal Takeoff:
𝑇𝑂𝐷 = 1.15(𝐷35) = 1.15 ∗ 2438 = 2804 𝑚
𝐶𝑊𝑌 = 0.5(𝑇𝑂𝐷 − 1.15𝐿𝑂𝐷) = 0.5(2804 − 1.15 ∗ 2134) = 175 𝑚
𝑻𝑶𝑹 = 𝑻𝑶𝑫 − 𝑪𝑾𝒀 = 𝟐𝟖𝟎𝟒 − 𝟏𝟕𝟓 = 𝟐𝟔𝟐𝟗 𝒎
 Engine Failure Continued Takeoff:
𝑇𝑂𝐷 = 𝐷35 = 2774 𝑚
𝐶𝑊𝑌 = 0.5(𝑇𝑂𝐷 − 𝐿𝑂𝐷) = 0.5 ∗ (2774 − 2500) = 137 𝑚
𝑻𝑶𝑹 = 𝑻𝑶𝑫 − 𝑪𝑾𝒀 = 𝟐𝟕𝟕𝟒 − 𝟏𝟑𝟕 = 𝟐𝟔𝟑𝟕 𝒎
 Engine Failure Aborted Takeoff:
FL=DAS = 2896 m
 Summary:
𝑭𝑳 = 𝑴𝒂𝒙 (𝑳𝑫, 𝑻𝑶𝑫, 𝑫𝑨𝑺) = 𝑴𝒂𝒙 (𝟐𝟓𝟒𝟎, 𝟐𝟖𝟎𝟒, 𝟐𝟖𝟗𝟔) = 𝟐𝟖𝟗𝟔 𝒎
𝑭𝑺 = 𝑴𝒂𝒙 (𝑻𝑶𝑹, 𝑳𝑫) = 𝑴𝒂𝒙 (𝟐𝟔𝟑𝟕, 𝟐𝟓𝟒𝟎) = 𝟐𝟔𝟑𝟕 𝒎
𝑺𝑾 = (𝑫𝑨𝑺 − 𝑭𝑺) = (𝟐𝟖𝟗𝟔 − 𝟐𝟔𝟑𝟕) = 𝟐𝟓𝟗 𝒎 𝟐𝟓𝟗 𝒎 𝟐𝟔𝟑𝟕 𝒎
𝟐𝟓𝟗 𝒎

CL= 𝑭𝑳 − (𝑭𝑺 + 𝑺𝑾) = 𝟐𝟖𝟗𝟔 − (𝟐𝟔𝟑𝟕 + 𝟐𝟓𝟗) = 𝟎 𝒎

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Airport Markings
 Used for control and communications

 Ground markings and lights

 Runway markings
 Painted white and white lights at night
 Taxiway markings
 Painted yellow
 Blue lights
 Vehicle roadway markings
 Boundary markings for non-movement areas
 Have many types of lights that are dependent upon airport
complexity but are standardized.
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Airport Signs
 Used for control and communication
 Complexity of airport determines the amount of signs for
communication.
 Types
 Mandatory instruction signs
 Runway, critical area, or prohibited area
 Example is white letters on red background
 Runway holding position
 Location signs
 Taxiway or runway location
 Direction signs
 Black letters on yellow background = Provide directions
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Airport Markings
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Airport Signs
Types
 Destination signs
 Yellow background with black letters and arrows
 Terminal
 Parking area
 Cargo terminal
 Information signs
 Yellow background with black letters
 Frequencies and noise abatement requirements
 Runway distance remaining signs
 Black background with white numbers indicating thousands of feet
 Airport Signs, Markings and Lights
60

Airport Signs
 Airport Signs, Markings and Lights
61

Airport Light
 Airport lights are used to illuminate airport runway at night or in low visibility
conditions.
 Airport lighting helps pilots to identify runway, takeoff and touchdown areas, and
other areas and obstructions on
the airfield.
 Airport Capacity
62

 The capacity of an airport can be defined as the expected number of runway

movements that can be operated per unit time (typically per hour) under
conditions of continuous demand (De Neufville and Odoni, 2013)
Factors affecting Airport capacity (AC):
 Runway configurations and the connected taxiways.
 Aircraft characteristics and their arrival to departure ratio.
 Weather conditions.
 Terrain and man-made obstructions
 Terminal facility
A. Airside:
 Apron requirements, number of gates, size of gates

 Aircraft processing technique.

 Navigation Aids

B. Landside:
 Luggage handling
The End.