CHAPTER 6:

DRAINAGE AND
SLOPE PROTECTION
Engr. Leoniz Aira C. Macaraig
 DRAINAGE AND SLOPE PROTECTION
6-1 DRAINAGE
6-2 HYDROLOGY
6-3 DRAINAGE ECONOMIC CONDITION
6-4 DRAINING THE HIGHWAY
6-5 MANHOLE,INLETS and CATCH BASINS
6-6 CHANNEL
6-7 CULVERT
6-8 DESIGN OF UNDERDRAIN
6-9 DEBRIS CONTROL
6-10 THE LEGAL ASPECT OF DRAINAGE
6-11 ROADWAY DESIGN and CONSTRUCTION for UNUSUAL SOIL CONDITION
6-12 STANILIZING THE UNSUPPORTED SLOPE
6-13 IMPROVING THE STABILITY OF SLOPE
6-14 RETAINING WALL
6-15 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
 DRAINAGE
Drainage is defined as the
means of collecting,
CHAPTER 6

transporting and disposing of

surface water originating in or
near the right of way, or
flowing in stream crossing or
bordering the right of way.
 Types of Drainage
PIPE DRAINAGE MOLE DRAINS
CHAPTER 6

OPEN DITCHES DRAINAGE BASIN

DRAINAGE
Surface drainage is only one among the many problems to be considered in establishing the location and
construction of roads.

Surface drainage problems follow three basic considerations:

• Hydraulic design that deals with estimating the highest rate of run-off to be
handled.
• Hydraulic design that deals with the selection of the kinds and sizes of the drainage
facilities that is most economical to accommodate the estimated water flow.
• Erosion control is the ascertain the design will not create erosion or other
unacceptable environmental conditions.
 Hydrology is a branch of physical geography
that deals with water of the earth.
The branch of hydrology that concerns highway
engineers are:
• The frequency and intensity of precipitation.
• The frequencies that this precipitation brings the

HYDROLOGY highest run-off which are equal or exceeded critical

values.
• The distribution of precipitation throughout the
seasons that influences water behavior affecting the
highway surfaces.
• The prediction regarding future rainfalls or run-off
from gathered statistical approaches, formula, or
GY
simulated methods based on the laws of probability.
 RUN-OFF IS PREDICTED BASED
ON THE FOLLOWING METHODS:

RUN-OFF
• By the Rational Methods
• By the Empirical Method
• By the Unit Hydrograph
• By Simulation
 Factors affecting run-off
1. Climatic Factors:

RUN-OFF
• Type of precipitation
• Intensity of rainfall
• Duration of rainfall
• Area distribution of rainfall
• Direction of storm moment

2. Physiographic Factors:
• Type of soil
• Area of basin
• Shape of basin
• Slope
• Type of drainage
 By the Rational Method

𝑸=𝑪 𝒙 𝑰𝒙 𝑨

RUN-OFF
Run-off flow Coefficient Rainfall Area of
𝒇𝒕𝟑 of run-off Intensity catchment
𝒔 𝒊𝒏 (hectares)
𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓
 By the Empirical Method
𝟑
𝑸=𝑪 𝒙 𝑨𝟒

RUN-OFF
Discharge (𝒎𝟑 ) Flood Area of basin
Coefficient (𝒌𝒎𝟐 )
 By the Unit Hydrograph

RUN-OFF The role of unit hydrograph in hydrology is to provide an estimate of direct

runoff hydrograph resulting from given excess rainfall hyetograph. In order to
use unit hydrograph as a tool for predicting direct runoff hydrograph, we first
need to derive a unit hydrograph for a given watershed.
For example, if one inch of excess rainfall produces a direct runoff peak of
100 cfs then two inch of excess rainfall with produce a direct runoff of 2 x 100
= 200 cfs.
 By the Simulation

𝝏ղ 𝝏𝒖𝒉 𝝏𝒗𝒉

RUN-OFF
+ + =𝑹
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚

Where:
h – is the local water depth
t – time
R – rainfall intensity which may vary in time and
space
u and v – are depth-averaged velocity
components in x and y directions
RELATIONSHIP AND EFFECT OF HYDRAULIC AND CONSTRUCTION
 CARDINAL RULES ON DRAINAGE DESIGN
1.As much as possible, any existing drainage system patterns and
soil cover should not be disturbed.
CHAPTER 6

2.Necessary changes in the drainage patterns should not in any

manner bring velocities that may create new erosion problems.

Non-observance of these simple rules have created many

serious problems in the past, and worse, the people put their
blame on those who were not involve in making the highways
very unsightly.
DRAINAGE ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

The term economy in drainage system, simply mean; finding the solution
to a problem that is cheapest in the long run under the following
conditions:

• Determine the estimated initial investment cost.

• Consider the maintenance cost or outlay.
• Consider anticipated loss and damage for each solution.
CHAPTER 6 DRAINING THE HIGHWAY
 DRAINING THE HIGHWAY
Rain waters flow laterally or obliquely on the surface of the road pavement under the influence of
the cross section slope or super elevation in the pavement and shoulders. If the water flow is
controlled, then, the shoulder is in danger of erosion. However, the shoulder will have minimal
erosion damage if it is already covered or protected by turf or grass
CHAPTER 6

• Water flowing across the roadway down the road slope must be thin enough in
a sheet form like so that the erosion on the shoulder will be minimized.
• Unprotected slope could be badly washed out if irregularity in the pavement
or shoulder accumulates water into small streams. Another point of water
accumulation that endangers shoulder is the low portion of sagged vertical
curves.
• One way of preventing washout of the side slope is to retain the water at the
outer edge of the shoulder.
 DRAINING THE HIGHWAY

• A crown ditch or intercepting channel may be employed at the top of the

cut slope. This will prevent erosion of the cut slope by surface runoff from
the hillside above.
• The surface should not be disturbed in any manner where the natural
CHAPTER 6

ground is already covered with grass or other ground cover.

• The channel or canal should be formed making the original ground as its
bed and a small dike of topsoil or imported materials to serve as its bank.
• Scouring must be controlled. If possible, the water flow must be limited to
a safer amount by diverting the flow at intervals. Water should be dropped
down to the roadside ditch by means od specially designed conduit or
channels.
DRAINAGIN THE URBAN STREET
• On city streets, rain waters is guided by the road slope to the gutters and along
with them the curb and inlets designed to limit the spread of water over the traffic
lanes.
• AASHTO recommended that for a grade materials water should not encroach on the
outer lane by more than 1.80 meters for a 10 years flood. A 50 years return period
is proposed for depressed facilities.
• The decision for water storm inlets and connections for gutters and depressed
median should be based on same periods. Main storm drain for freeways has to
accommodate 50 to 100 years storm.
• For arterials, the return interval is 20 to 50 years. The water flow estimate was
based on the Rational Formula using the value of run-off coefficient between 0.8
and 0.9 for pavements; 0.4 and 0.6 for gravel, and 0.1 and 0.7 for grass.
 MANHOLE, INLETS AND CATCH BASIN
What is the purpose of manholes?
Inspection chambers are essential parts of a property’s
drainage infrastructure, and serve a number of key
functions:
▪ They allow drains to be cleaned, cleared and inspected
as and when required
▪ They prevent unauthorized individuals without proper
CHAPTER 6

qualifications from entering the drainage system

▪ They work as a temporary storage point for water,
allowing excess liquid to build up in the drainage system
rather than flooding out immediately

MANHOLE
Inspection chambers, also known as manholes,
are an important part of any drainage system.
These access points allow drainage professionals
to inspect and survey underground utilities
infrastructure, and perform essential repairs and
cleaning work.
 MANHOLE, INLETS AND CATCH BASIN
The location of inlets on roads is governed by the
safe flow limits in gutters. When selecting and
locating inlets, consideration shall be given to
hydraulic efficiency, vehicle, bicycle and pedestrian
CHAPTER 6

safety, debris collection potential, and maintenance

problems.

INLETS
The most common type of inlet is that from road
pavement. Inlets also provide access to pipes for
maintenance . Standard size and shapes should
be used to achieve economy in construction
 MANHOLE, INLETS AND CATCH BASIN
CATCH BASINS
A catch basin is a device or receptacle at the
entrance of a sewer designed to prevent
obstructive material from entering and blocking
the sewer. A catch basin can also be described as
CHAPTER 6

a buried diversion device acting as a reservoir

that diverts offsite/overland water flows in a
sewer system.
 MANHOLE, INLETS AND CATCH BASIN
MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS:
CHAPTER 6
CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENT

• Concrete construction must conform to the requirements for Item 405 -

Structural Concrete. Metal frames should be set in full mortar bed and pipe
sections flushed on the inside of the structure wall projected outside
sufficiently for proper connection with the next pipe section.

• Masonry shall fit neatly and tightly around the pipe.

• When grade adjustment or existing structure is specified, the frames, covers

and gratings are removed and then reset to the specified elevation.

• Upon completion, each structure should be cleaned of any accumulation of

silts, debris, or foreign matters of any kind until final acceptance of the work.
CHAPTER 6 CHANNEL

• Side slope with ratio of 2:1 or even flatter is most acceptable, except on
rock or other hard materials where channels are lined. For unlined or
unfinished channel surface, the best cross section requires the least total
excavations.
• The design of crown ditches, gutters, stream channels, and culverts
flowing partially or fully, are based on the principles of flow in an open
canal. For uniform flow, the relationship is expressed in the manning
formula:
𝑄=𝑉𝐴
 CHANNEL
𝟐 Value
(𝑨𝑹𝟐𝑺 ) Types of Lining
of n
𝑸=
𝒏𝒙𝟑 Ordinary Earth, Smooth gravel 0.02
Rough Rubble or jagged rock 0.04
Rough Concrete 0.02
CHAPTER 6

Bituminous Lining 0.02

Smooth Rubble 0.02
Well maintained grass-depth of
0.04
flow over cm.
Well maintained grass-depth of
0.06
flow under cm
Heavy grass 0.10
a. Water flowing own a mild slope in an open canal is in Sub-critical flow.
b. Water flowing on steep slope is in Super Critical Flow.

Sub critical flow exists when the depth of water in the channel is greater
than the critical depth.
Super critical flow exist when the depth is less than the critical level.

The critical depth occurs when the velocity head is one half the average depth.
The average depth or mean depth is the cross sectional area of the flow
divided by its width at the liquid surface.
Unless the possibility of erosion is eliminated within a reasonable limit, channel
design is considered not a complete unit.

•
•

•
 Allowable Velocity in
TYPES OF LINING
ft. per second
Well established grass on any good soil 6
Meadow type of blue or Bermuda grass 5
Bunch grasses, exposed between plants 2-4
Grains, stiff stemmed grasses that do not bend over
under shallow flow 2-3
Earth without vegetation
Fine sand or silt, little or no clay 1-2
Ordinary firm loam 2-3
Stiff clay, highly colloidal 4
Coarse gravel 4
Clay and gravel 4
Soft shale 5
 Following are the different types of culvert:
CULVERT ▪ Pipe culvert (single or multiple)
▪ Pipe-Arch culvert (single or multiple)
▪ Box culvert (single or multiple)
▪ Arch culvert
▪ Bridge culvert
▪ Metal box culvert
CHAPTER 6

Culvert is a tunnel carrying a

stream under a road or railway.
A culvert may act as a bridge
for traffic to pass on it. They are
typically found in a natural flow
of water and serves the purpose
of a bridge or a current flow
controller.
INSTALLATION OF CULVERTS

1. Culverts are installed in the original bed of stream with their slope and flow
line confirming to the natural channel or canal. The stream flow should not be
disturbed to minimize the tendency of erosion.

2. In mountains or rolling terrain, departure from channel alignment, either

upstream or downstream, may divert the current flow to one side of the channel.
This is dangerous to create erosion and deposition on the opposite side.
INSTALLATION OF CULVERTS
3. Culverts on skewed channel are relatively longer and costly. But channel
changes and erosion protections are provided with structures at one or both ends
to reduce the skews.

4. Inverted siphons should be avoided whenever the water carries sediments of

debris.

5. Stagnant water trapped inside the culverts sag is highly objectionable that
must be avoided.

6. Most culverts start upstream with headwalls and terminate downstream with
end wall. The headwalls direct the flow into the culvert proper, while the end
walls provide transition from the culvert back to the regular channel.
INSTALLATION OF CULVERTS
7. Hydraulically, the headwalls and end walls function separately but both
retain the embankment and protect it from washout.

8. In most cases, cut-off wall is extended to the level of expected scour.

Sometimes, a paved apron or energy dissipater is extended is extended beyond
the cut off wall.

9. The use of small pipe as end wall and sometimes head -wall is being
discouraged because they are hydraulically inefficient as entrances. Instead,
the pipe is extended beyond the toe of the embankment.
INSTALLATION OF CULVERTS
10. The L-type headwall create serious accident hazard, thus, gutter inlet
with grate cover is recommended.

11. A wing type wall is recommended for large culverts. The flared U and
wrapped walls are used on special applications.
Under Item 500 of the DPWH standard specifications, the construction or
reconstruction of pipe culverts and storm drains are classified on conduits.
INSTALLATION OF CULVERTS

CHAPTER 6
CONDUITS
In water-supply systems the term is
usually reserved for covered or closed
sections of aqueduct especially those
that transport water under pressure.
Large conduits may be fabricated of steel
sections joined in the field or of reinforced
concrete, often precast and prestressed, or they
may be driven at depth through solid rock, for
example, under mountainous terrain or under
rivers.
Smaller pressure conduits are usually made of
cast iron, steel, or asbestos cement.
Pressure conduits are usually kept below the
hydraulic grade line—that is, the line
representing the height to which the water
would rise if free—to avoid possible entrapment
of air.
 CONDUITS
Conduits are laid on bedding or footing that conforms with the following standard
specifications:
1. Conduit bedding is classified into Class A, B and C.
2. In laying culvert pipes, the requirement of Class C bedding is applied if no bedding is
specified.
3. Class A bedding shall consist of a continuous concrete cradle conforming with the plan
CHAPTER 6

details.
4. Class B bedding is extended to a depth not less than 30% of the vertical outside
diameter of the conduit pipe.
5. The minimum thickness of the bedding materials beneath the pipe is 10 cm composed
of sand passing a 9.5mm sieve but not more than 10% passes 0.075mm sieve.
6. The layer of bedding materials is arranged and shaped to fit in the conduit for at least
15% of its total height.
7. When a bell and spigot type is used, the recesses in the bottom trench are shaped to
accommodate the bell.
8. Class C bedding should be extended to a depth not less than 10% of its total height.
9. For flexible pipes, the bed is roughly shaped and a bedding blanket of sand is specified
as follows:
 CONDUITS CLASS A
• Load factor 2.2 – 3.4
• In this method, bottom of the pipe is
bedded in plain or reinforced concrete
of suitable thickness.
• The concrete extends upwards on each
side of the pipe for a height equal to but
not less than ¼ of the pipe diameter
measured form the bottom of the pipe.
CHAPTER 6

CLASS B
• Load factor 1.9
• Using this method, the pipe is placed on
a granular material bed that is
carefully shaped to fit the bottom of the
pipe.
• The with is equal to at least 60% of the
pipe diameter.
• Backfill is placed by hand in 15-cm
layers and compacted for a depth of at
least 30cm over the top of the pipe.
• Class B bedding is the most commonly
used bedding method.
 CONDUITS
CHAPTER 6

CLASS C
• Load factor 1.5
• The bottom is shaped to bed the pipe for a height equal to ½ of the pipe diameter.
• The trench backfilled to a height of 15cm over the top of the pipe with selected earth containing no rocks or
frozen material.
• The bedding material is placed by hand and tamped to ensure reasonable compactness around and under the pipe.
 UNDERDRAIN
Underdrain – An under drain is a drainage
system installed under a road or road ditch to
collect and transport subsurface water. These
buried conduits come in a variety of shapes
and sizes and are usually wrapped in
CHAPTER 6

geotextile fabric which allows water to enter

the conduit while keeping sediment out.
HOW DO UNDERDRAINS WORK?
The purpose of an underdrain is to collect subsurface water before it appears on the road
surface or in the road ditch. By intercepting this water, underdrains can help dry out base,
ditches, and banks that would otherwise be wet from emerging springs and seeps.
Underdrains also prevent subsurface water from mixing with sediment-laden surface run-
off during storm events. The clean water collected by an underdrain can then be directed
to a stable outlet location separate from road surface drainage.
 UNDERDRAIN
1. The pipe is used to carry away collected water. The size and number of pipes
and its locations of opening should be studied carefully to prevent excessive
entrance velocity that will cause silting to the pipe.
2.Filter materials with which the trench is backfilled or the opening in the filter,
CHAPTER 6

should be fine enough so that the adjacent soil will not be washed-out into the
drain.
3.The top of underdrain should be sealed with impervious soil to prevent the
entrance to surface water.
4.Intercepting drains must extend into the impervious zone.
5.The pipes are laid with the flow line at least 1.20 meters below the finished
grade and carefully bedded with gravel or filter materials.
 UNDERDRAIN
CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS
1. Pipe installation. Trenches are excavated to the dimensions and grades required by the plan. A
minimum of 15cm bedding layer of granular backfill materials are placed and compacted at the
bottom of the trench. Subdrainage pipe are embedded firmly on the bedding.
2. Perforated pipe are placed with the perforations downward securely joined with appropriate
CHAPTER 6

fittings or bands.
3. Non-perforated pipes are laid with the bell end upgrade with open joints wrapped with suitable
material to permit entry of water, or unwrapped as may be specified.
4. Upgrade end sections of all sub-drainage pipe installations are closed with suitable plugs to
prevent entry of soil materials.
5. After the pipe installation, granular backfill materials are placed 30cm above the top of the pipe
and should not be displaced by the covering of open joints.
6. The remainder of granular backfill are placed and compacted at every 15cm layers up to the
required height. Any remaining portion of the trench above the granular backfill shall be filled with
either granular or impervious and thoroughly compacted.
DEBRIS CONTROL
TYPES OF DEBRIS
▪ Small floating debris – includes small limbs or stick, leaves and refuse. This material can be easily
transported by the stream and overland flow. Therefore, this type of debris can be introduced into the
stream from the local runoff from a watershed, and then easily transported downstream by the
stream flows. This type of debris also comes from tree and vegetation that are introduced into the
stream due to bank erosion, landmass failures, wind action or collapsing due to biological factors
such as decay and old age, or from the loss of foliage during the changing of seasons.

▪ Medium floating debris – Medium floating debris consists of tree limbs or large sticks. The source of
material comes from trees introduced into the stream by bank erosion, mass wasting, windthrow, or
collapsing of trees due to ice loading, beaver activities, or biological factors such as old age and
diseases; or from erosion of emergent and riparian trees within the streams. Vegetation within the
floodplain could also be a source of this type of debris. This type of debris could accumulate at both
culvert and bridge structures.
DEBRIS CONTROL
TYPES OF DEBRIS
▪ Large floating Debris – large floating consist of logs or trees (such as floating debris is also known as
“drift”). The sources of this type of debris are the same sources discussed for “Medium Floating
Debris”. Transport and storage of this material depends on discharge, channel characteristics, the
size of the drift pieces relative to the relative to the channel dimensions, and the hydraulic
characteristics (depth and slope) of the system. It is usually transported during larger floods or
prolonged periods of high water.
DEBRIS CONTROL
DEBRIS CONTROL
DEBRIS CONTROL
• Culverts should be designed to allow debris to pass a single large span box culvert
is preferred on streams carrying large floating objects than the multi span culvert
with the same area of openings.
• Another alternatives is to extend the curtain wall separating the barrels of the multi
span culverts upstream, with its top slanting downward so that in time of flood,
debris carried by flood water will ride up on this wall or turn pass easily through
the opening.
• Another method proven effective is to install up stream debris racks or wire, steel
rail or piling. Some design provides trap for the sand or gravel carried by the
stream rather than having it pass through the structure.
 LEGAL ASPECT OF DRAINAGE
Highway agency is legally responsible for any damage to private property
affected by the changes it makes in natural drainage pattern within the limit that
water must flow.
Damage claim against the Department could be established if:
1. When as a result of the agency’s project, the flow of several streams or creeks were
CHAPTER 6

concentrated into a single channel that resulted to erosion, silting or flooding of private
property.
2. When due to poor design or inadequate maintenance, water backed against highway
or embankment resulted to inundation of land or property or caused injury or death.
3. Liability however, is limited to damages in direct consequences of the improvement.
The agency would not be liable for damages if an unprecedented storm causes the
stream to overflow a newly constructed channel, provided that this channel has the
capacity equal to the natural volume of water flow.
4. Engineering decisions if based on an accepted practice, do not provide for a course of
action. In any case, the responsibility of the highway agency would be determined
through negotiations or court litigations. Therefore, design of drainage system must
satisfy the various requirements of the environmental laws and regulations.
 ROADWAY DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION FOR
UNUSUAL SOIL CONDITION
Problems usually encountered in the design and constructions of roadways are:
1. The stability of fill sand slope
2. The drainage
CHAPTER 6

3. Capillary and frost heave

4. Permafrost
5. Elasticity and rutting
 STABILIZING UNSUPPORTED SLOPE
An existing earth slope that have been stable can experience significant movement
called slope failure or landslide due to the following physical changes:
a. Changes in natural conditions
b. Changes induced by man
CHAPTER 6

1. Occurrence of Earthquake.
1. Increased loading on a slope or near its
2. Subsidence o underground cavern.
crest.
3. Erosion.
2. Removal of earth below the toe of a
4. Slope weaking due to the development
slope.
of cracks or shrinkage cracks that are
3. Removal of materials from slope making
followed by water intrusions.
it steeper.
5. Variations in the elevation of ground
4. Topographic modification like earth
water or changes in the slope
moving, excavations, change in elevation
subsurface flow that create new
from one area to another which may
seepage forces.
create slope failure.
6. Weakening of buried soil or rock seams
5. Landslide or other conditions caused by
due to ground water flow or chemical
man.
leaching.
 STABILIZING UNSUPPORTED SLOPE
SLIDE
Slide refers to the occurrence where moving mass is defined and separated
from the underlying and adjacent planes were seepage result. The seepage plane
represent the continuous surface where the maximum shear strength of the earth
material has been reached with the result that large displacement occurs.
CHAPTER 6

Slide is classified into four:

1. Rotational Slide
2. Translational Slide
3. Block or wedge failure
4. Flows and spread
 STABILIZING UNSUPPORTED SLOPE

ROTATIONAL SLIDE: This is a

slide in which the surface of
rupture is curved concavely
CHAPTER 6

upward, and the slide

movement is roughly
rotational about an axis that
is parallel to the ground
surface and transverse
across the slide.
 STABILIZING UNSUPPORTED SLOPE

TRANSLATIONAL SLIDE: In this

CHAPTER 6

type of slide, the landslide

mass moves along a roughly
planar surface with little
rotation on backward tilting.
 STABILIZING UNSUPPORTED SLOPE
BLOCK SLIDE: This is a slide in
which the surface of rupture
is curved concavely
CHAPTER 6

upward, and the slide

movement is roughly
rotational about an axis that
is parallel to the ground
surface and transverse
across the slide.
 STABILIZING UNSUPPORTED SLOPE
FLOWS and SPREAD FAILURE – It is the most complex type of soil mass movement of
soil having a characteristic of viscous fluid, although the actual consistency of the
moving mass may vary from wet to dry.
CHAPTER 6
 IMPROVING THE STABILITY OF SLOPE
SLOPE IMPROVEMENT METHODS
1. Drainage Improvements
2. Earthwork
3. Structural Improvements
• Mechanically Stabilized
Earth
• Retaining walls
• Soil nailing
• Tie backs
• Reticulated micropiles
• Piles or drilled shaft
RETAINING WALL
Retaining wall is a structure designed and constructed to resist the lateral pressure soil, when
there is desired change in ground elevation that exceeds the angle of repose of the soil. Retaining walls
are used for supporting soil laterally so that it can be retained at different levels on the two sides.
Retaining walls are structures designed to restrain soil to slope that it would not naturally keep to
(typically a steep, near-vertically or vertical slope).
They are used to bound soils between two different elevations often in areas of terrain possessing
undesirable slopes or in areas where the landscape needs to be shaped severely and engineered for
more specific purposes like hillside farming roadway overpass.
RETAINING WALL
TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS

GRAVITY WALL REINFORCED RETAINING WALL

RETAINING WALL
TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS

COUNTER-FORT CANTILEVERED WALL

RETAINING WALL
RETAINING WALL
TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS

REINFORCED SOIL SOIL NAILED WALL

RETAINING WALL
RETAINING WALL
TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS

ANCHORED WALL SHEET PILED WALL

RETAINING WALL
A good retaining wall design must conform to the following requirements:
1. The base and stem of the retaining wall must be capable of resisting the internal shear and bending
moments developing as a result of soil and other loading.
2. The wall must be safe against overturning.
3. The wall structure must be safe against sliding.
4. The bearing capacity of the foundation material supporting the wall must not exceeded.
RETAINING WALL
ITEM 504 RIPRAP and GROUTED RIP RAP
This item includes furnishing and placing of riprap with or without grout; with or without filter
backing. Stones for riprap shall consist of rocks as early nearly rectangular in section as is practical
except that riprap of Class A may consist of round natural stones. The stone shall be sound, tough,
durable, dense, resistance to the action of air and water and suitable in all respects for the purpose
intended.
RETAINING WALL
ITEM 504 RIPRAP and GROUTED RIP RAP
• Class of Stone for Riprap:
CLASS A – Stones ranging from 15 to 25 kg with at least 50% of the stones weighing more than 20
kilograms
CLASS B – Stones ranging from 30 to 70 kg with at least 50% of stones weighing more than 50
kilograms.
CLASS C – Stones ranging from 60 to 100 kg with at least 50% of the stones weighing more than 80
kilograms.
CLASS D – Stones weighing from 100 to 200 kg with at least 50% of the stone weighing more than
150 kilogram.
RETAINING WALL
Grouting
When grouted riprap is specified, stones are placed by hand or individually laid by machine. Spaces between
stones are then filled with cement mortar sufficient enough to completely fill all the voids except the face surface of
the stones left exposed.
CEMENT GROUT – placed starting from the bottom to the top of the surface and then swept with stiff broom. After
grouting, the surface is cured like structural concrete for a period of at least 3 days after the installation.

MASONRY STONE – this item consist of stone masonry in minor structures, in headwalls for culverts and
retaining walls at the toes of the slope.
RETAINING WALL
Sheet Piles
This item consists of furnishing dividing and cutting off of sheet pile covered by the specifications:
1. Timber sheet pile may consist of any species that will satisfactory stand driving. It is sawn hewn with
square corners free from worn holes, loose knots, wind shakes, decay or unsound portions or other defects
that might impair its strength or tightness.
2. Concrete sheet pile – concrete reinforcement and manufacture of concrete sheet piles should conform to
the requirements of Item 400 – Piling.
3. Steel sheet piles should be of type, weight and section modulus indicated on the plans or special provisiona
and conform to the requirements of Item 400 – Piling.
RETAINING WALL
Gabions
Gabion is a wire mesh supplied in a various width and length
that is in multiple of 2, 3, or 4 times its width. The height is equal to 1.2
or 1.3 the horizontal width equal to 100 centimeters with a tolerance
limit of 3%. The wire mesh is made of galvanized steel or plastic
having a minimum size 3.05mm diameter. Its tensile strength should
be in the range of 423.7 – 686 MPA 60,000 – 85,000 psi.
For galvanized wire mesh, the minimum zinc coating should be
22.7 grams per 0.0929 m² (0.80 oz/sq. ft) of uncoated wire surface as
determined by tests conducted in accordance with AASHTO T-65.
Rocks used in gabions are hard, durable rock pieces that will
not deteriorate when submerged in water or exposed to severe
weather conditions. Rock pieces should be uniformly graded generally
in sizes ranging from 10 to 20 centimeters. Filled gabions shall have a
minimum density of 1400 kg/m³ and voids distributed evenly. The rock
shall meet the requirements of AASHTO M-63 except that the sodium
sulfate soundness loss should not exceed 9% after 5 cycles.
 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
Highway bridges are of two types:
1. Those that carry vehicular traffic and pedestrians over a large stream.
2. Those that separate traffic movements as interchanges and street pedestrians over or under crossings.
CHAPTER 6
 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
Bridge Types
A bridge consists of substructure of abutments and piers that supports superstructure that carry the
roadway between supports. Bridge type includes: slab, girder, truss, arch and cable stayed. Each suspension bridge
has a distinctive form of structure, the selection of the kind of bridge to be installed depends on the length of
individual span as follows:
1. Short span up to 18 meters which either:
CHAPTER 6

a. Reinforced concrete rigid frame with slab deck.

b. T-beam or Box girders reinforced concrete.
c. Steel plate girders with reinforced concrete deck.
2. Bridge of large span
a. Girder type rigid frames of reinforced concrete.
b. T-beam or box girder reinforced concrete.
c. Steel plate girders with reinforced concrete deck
3. Span that exceeds 90 meters long steel trusses, arches of steel or reinforced concrete.
4. Span that exceed 150 meters are generally made of steel trusses, cable-stayed or suspension bridge.