International Focus Group on Rural Road Engineering

Information Note

Causeways

Category : Technical Information/Water crossings and structures/

PROBLEM

Low level vehicle access is required across a shallow water course which has a
constant base flow

SOLUTION

Construct a causeway

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

A causeway is a water crossing structure with a series of vents below a non-erodible

riding surface. When there is a base, or low volume flow in the water course, the
water passes through the vents; when the water course is in flood, the water flow
increases beyond the capacity of the vents and the extra flow passes over the surface
of the road. The structure is therefore designed to overtop. A causeway is normally
cheaper than a bridge of similar capacity.

In principle, a causeway is a combination of a drift and a culvert, hence its alternative

name of a ‘vented drift’. If designed and constructed well, a causeway can combine
the benefits of both a drift (lower cost than a raised structure; wide water courses are
less disturbed) and a culvert (vehicles and water rarely come into contact; closures are
rare; acceptance by road users and Road Administrations).

Figure 1 Causeways with low volume flow and in flood

Causeway with low
volume flow

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Causeway in flood

FEATURES

Figure 2 Features of a causeway

Structure
The main structure of a causeway is the vented main slab spanning the water course.
The slab can be constructed from a variety of materials including mass concrete, stone
masonry and brick masonry. The choice depends on material availability and cost, and
the experience and skill of local contractors and tradesmen. Since the slab can be up
to 70% of the cost of the structure, efforts to reduce costs through careful design
should focus on this item. Causeways are normally around 4 metres wide, but this can
be reduced to save costs. The vents and the top surface should have a cross fall of 2%
in the direction of the water flow.

Most causeways include an approach slab on either end of the main structure. These
approach slabs extend to a level above which the water is unlikely to rise. Their
gradient should not be greater than 10%. The surface of both the main structure and
the approach slabs should be non-erodible. The vertical profile of the causeway
should be as smooth as possible.

A causeway acts as an obstacle to the free flow of water in the water course and often
causes water levels to build up on the upstream side. Levels will increase if the vents
are not cleaned regularly and block with debris. The resulting water pressure can put

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the structure under stress and is the main reason for causeways failing. Adequate
anchorage should therefore be incorporated into the design.

Vents
Vents are apertures through the structure. They can be formed by constructing
corrugated steel or precast concrete pipes into the structure, building masonry or brick
arches through the structure or concreting pipe formers into the structure before
collapsing and removing them to create a void.

Ramps
If the road construction beyond the causeway is unpaved, it is likely to gradually
erode. As material is lost, the end of the approach slab will be seen by approaching
vehicles and will be hit by the tyres of the vehicle. As more material is lost, the
impact will increase and may cause damage to the structure and the vehicle. One
solution is to construct a short ramp which extends away from the approach slab at a
reduced or zero gradient. When the road is constructed up to the causeway, the ramp
is buried but as material is lost, it becomes exposed and guides tyres up onto the
approach slab, reducing the impact on the structure. The ramp is typically 1 to 2
metres in length and can be constructed from the same material as used in the
causeway.

Figure 3 Approach slab and ramp

Protection on carriageway approaches

Although most causeways have approach slabs, vehicles passing over the structure
may carry water on their tyres beyond these slabs. This water may cause the road
surface to deteriorate. Therefore the surface should be improved to protect it against
damage from running water and from tyres losing traction. This improved surface
should extend to a point where water is unlikely to fall from vehicles or where the
gradient is very low. The surface can be concrete, stone or brick, although if traffic
volumes are low and there is a good programme of maintenance in place, well
compacted gravel can be used to save money. The maximum gradient of the

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approaches should be 20%. The approaches should be protected by robust walls on

either side.

Foundation
The foundation of a causeway is similar to that of a drift. However, a causeway is
heavier than a drift and because of the base flow, the foundation material is saturated
most of the time. Poor quality foundation material will require very careful
improvement.

The soil in the vicinity of the water course should have been assessed during the site
visit. If the material is granular, well consolidated and with a low clay content,
foundation design will be straightforward and further investigation is not required. It
is sufficient to excavate the foundation to a depth equal to the thickness of the base
slab plus 150 mm, and then compact a 150 mm layer of low plasticity granular
material or gravel.

If the material is weak, clay, alluvial or organic, design will be more complicated and
include improvement of the material or the construction of deep foundations.

Erosion protection
It is important to protect the water course against erosion and other damage. This is
particularly important with a causeway where water will be turbulent and capable of
causing severe downstream scour. On the upstream side the damming effect of the
structure can generate water pressures which cause piping, a loss of fines and eventual
damage to the pavement. One or more vents are often set very low to prevent any
damming effect and a build up of water pressure.

Figure 4 Causeway with low level vents to prevent water pressures building up

An apron of gabions, large rocks, concrete or stone pitching should be laid on either
side of the causeway below the level of the vents. This apron dissipates energy in the
water and prevents erosion of the bed of the water course, undercutting of foundation

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material from underneath the causeway and the eventual collapse of the structure and
loss of access. The apron can also be extended up on either side of the approach slabs.
Aprons are typically 3-4 metres wide downstream and 1-2 metres upstream.

Figure 5 Causeway with an apron of a concrete slab and large rocks

Figure 6 Causeway at risk of downstream erosion and undercutting

Key walls

Key walls, also known as cut-off walls, are short walls which extend into the soil on
both the upstream and the downstream side of the structure if it is constructed in an
erodible foundation. They work with the erosion protection measures to provide
additional protection against foundation material being washed out from beneath the
slabs.

The depths of key walls depend upon the erosion resistance of the soil. Typically, a
downstream wall may be 1 metre deep and an upstream wall 600 mm deep, and
approximately 200 mm thick. The depth may be reduced towards the upper end of the
approach slabs.

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An additional key wall may be built at the end of the downstream erosion protection.

Guide posts and stepping stones

Guide posts are normally provided along both sides of the causeway. They guide
drivers at night and when the slabs cannot be seen through the flowing water. They
should be painted white if possible. The height of the guide posts can be used to
indicate a water depth at which it is unsafe to attempt to cross – when they are
covered, the water is too deep and probably flowing too fast.

Figure 7 Causeway with guide posts and approach slab erosion protection

Stepping stones for pedestrian access are normally provided if the causeway is often
under 10 cm or more of water. Stepping stones are closer together than normal guide
posts.
In many cases it is possible to provide posts along the sides of the causeway which
both guide vehicles and assist pedestrian access. It is suggested that these posts
indicate the width of the structure and the safe water depth for crossing, are spaced at
a normal pedestrian stride and are chamfered on the inside face so as not to damage
vehicle tyres or trap water-borne debris.

Warning signs
Although a causeway should be designed to be as smooth as possible for vehicles, it
will disturb the passage of all vehicles to some degree, particularly large vehicles and
those moving at speed. It is recommended that warning signs are installed
approximately 50 metres on either side of the causeway. Additional signs can be
placed at the entry to a causeway to remind drivers of the reduced width.

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Figure 8 Causeway with reduced width signs at the entrance

PLANNING

In order to decide if a causeway is the most appropriate structure and to record the
variety of information that is required to properly design and construct it, the site must
be visited and surveyed. This process is described in the Site Visit and Survey Sheet.

In order to determine the correct size of the causeway, it is important to estimate the
maximum water flow that is expected in the water course. This maximum flow
depends upon the rainfall in the area and the characteristics of the catchment, such as
its size, the density of vegetation and the type of soil. These features are described in
the Site Visit and Survey Sheet, while various methods for estimating the maximum
water flow in a water course are described in the Run-off Estimation Sheet.

DESIGN ASPECTS

Size of causeway

The most important part of causeway design is to ensure that when the water course is
in flood the water level does not rise higher than the approach slabs. If this happens,
the road surface can be eroded and access lost until the road is repaired. Although it is
usual for access to be lost temporarily as water levels rise during and immediately
after intense rain, if the water course often runs full for long periods of time, the
causeway should be designed so that the water is not too deep for vehicles to pass. In
this respect the design of a causeway is similar to that of a drift.

However, an additional consideration is that it is possible to design vents through

which all or a proportion of the base flow will pass.

Causeway design therefore involves the calculation of the required cross sectional
area of the vents below the road surface to carry the base flow and of the cross
sectional area above the road surface to carry additional flows when in high flood.
Estimation of the expected flood flow is therefore critical.

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The methods described in the Run-off Estimation Sheet will give either a maximum
expected water volume, or a high water level when the water flow is at its greatest.

The longitudinal survey described in the Site Visit and Survey Sheet will allow a
longitudinal profile of the road to be measured. This profile is required when
designing the causeway.

A base water flow, Qb and a maximum water flow, Qm (m3/s), have been estimated

Qb is the water flow that can be expected once every year and which normally passes
through the vents. Qm is the water flow that can be expected once in every 10-15
years and which passes through the vents and over the structure and approach slabs.
The causeway can be designed as follows.

1. Assume a flood flow velocity, Vf, of 2 metres per second. Divide the expected
flows, Qm and Qb, by Vf to give the required cross sectional areas, Am and
Ab (m2), of the causeway.
2. Ab will be provided by the vents. The remaining area, Ao (= Am-Ab) will be
provided by the area above the road surface.
3. Some nomographs include the calculation of cross sectional areas and may
also calculate the required number of apertures of various sizes to provide Ab.
If the nomograph requires it, a head (the maximum that the inlet may be
submerged when in flood) of 0.3 metres is appropriate for causeways on rural
roads.
4. If the nomograph does not calculate apertures and sizes, calculate the cross
sectional area of each available aperture and provide a sufficient number to
give the required cross sectional area, Ab. In order not to raise the level of the
structure too much, it is more common for a causeway to have many small
vents than to have few large vents, although this depends on the profile of the
road as it passes through the water course. This should ensure that the
causeway does not overtop during a year when rainfall is not unusually high.
However, if it is impractical to provide this quantity of apertures, it may be
realistic to provide a smaller number and accept that the causeway is likely to
overtop at some time every year.
5. On the graph of the longitudinal profile of the road, draw the outline of a
structure which will provide at least 200 mm cover over the vents and extend
to intersect with the existing road profile. The vents closer to the existing
alignment of the water course should be slightly lower than the others to
permit very low flows with a minimum of disruption. Then move a horizontal
line up and down until the area between the line, the upper surface of the
structure and the carriageway approaches is approximately equal to Ao. The
level of the line indicates the extent of the protection on the approaches.
6. Adjust the carriageway approaches to a maximum gradient of 10%. If this
changes the enclosed area, adjust the horizontal line until the enclosed area
again equals Ao.
7. If the height between the maximum water level and the structure is deeper
than around 150 mm and the water course is known to run full for long periods
of time, it may be necessary to lengthen the structure in order to create a
shallower, but longer crossing.

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8. The size and profile of the causeway have now been defined by the structure
and the protected approaches.
9. To reduce costs, the causeway should be around 4 metres wide for normal
traffic levels, but should be widened for high traffic levels and large vehicles.

Figure 9 Nomograph to calculate expected flood flows

A high water level has been identified

The following method should be used only when other more accurate methods are not
possible and can result in over- or under-design.

If maps, aerial photographs, a catchment survey or a reliable nomograph for the area
are unavailable, another method is needed to estimate the maximum expected water

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flow. In this case, look for trapped debris or erosion on banks, which may indicate
maximum water levels. Ask members of the local communities for the level that water
has risen to during previous floods, although be wary of exaggeration. If the highest
flood appears to be very rare, it should be reduced to a level which occurs
approximately every 10-15 years.

Secondly, estimate the level to which water rises during a normal year without severe
flooding. Measure the width of the channel and estimate the cross sectional area of the
water course during this normal year.

Calculate the cross sectional area of each available aperture, whether steel pipes or
masonry arches. Provide a sufficient number of apertures to give the estimated cross
sectional area during a normal year. This should ensure that the causeway does not
overtop during a year when rainfall is not unusually high. However, if it is impractical
to provide this quantity of apertures, it may be realistic to provide a smaller number
and accept that the causeway is likely to overtop at some time every year.

The upper surface of the causeway and the approach slabs should then be designed to
a smooth profile with the approach slabs extending up to the 10-15 year flood level,
although this level should be increased slightly since the structure of the causeway
itself will cause levels to rise further.

Figure 10 Large vented causeway – riding surface will accommodate high floods

SETTING OUT

Survey the centre lines of the road and the water course. Measure the angle of
intersection. If the centre lines meet at within 30º of a right angle, set out the vents at
a right angle to the road and direct the flow into the new alignment. If the centre lines
meet at greater than 30º from a right angle, set out the vents on the existing alignment
of the water course. Set out the foundation for excavation, using pegs and strings. Set
out the position and width of the sidewalls and indicate the levels for the excavation
of the key walls.

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CONSTRUCTION ASPECTS

Causeways can be constructed from mass concrete, stone masonry and brick masonry.
These are described below.

In all cases, it will be necessary to excavate a water channel around the site and to
divert any flowing water into this channel so that the site can dry out. After
completion of the causeway it will also be necessary to provide additional erosion
protection works (paving at the inlet to the causeway, drain lining and bio-
engineering) and warning signs and other necessary road furniture. Finally the site
should be fully cleared.

Mass concrete causeway

This causeway is constructed from mass concrete. Large rocks are often embedded in
the concrete during construction to reduce the amount of cement and aggregate used
and so reduce costs.

Figure 11 Mass concrete causeway

• Excavate the foundation to a depth of 300 mm. If the foundation material is

not firm, investigate for probable reasons for weakness and measure the depth
to firm material. Strengthen the foundation by excavating the weak material
and backfilling with very low or non-plastic granular material or rock-fill to a
depth of 150-300 mm below the bed of the water course.
• Select a quantity of large rocks for embedding in the concrete. The rocks
should be strong. Cracked or weathered rocks should not be selected. Rock fill
and granular material can also be used in place of large rocks.
• Pour a slab of mass concrete to the level of the water course.
• Fix formwork on the sides and ends of the structure and position the formers
which will form the vents through the causeway.
• Cast the main structure. If the space between two formers is more than 300
mm, as many large rocks as possible should be placed and then covered with
concrete, although the rocks must not be packed so tightly that voids are
formed into which the concrete cannot flow. The top 200 mm of the structure
must be free of large rocks as they should not directly support traffic loads.
Position a layer of standard reinforcing mesh 50-100 mm from the top of the

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structure. If standard mesh is not available, diamond pig netting is acceptable.

The reinforcement will protect the slab from damage as it dries and shrinks
and then, after it has set, as it heats and cools during the day.
• Construct walls of either masonry or concrete along the edges of the approach
slabs to the causeway to a level 150 mm below the finished level of the road.
Backfill to the top of the walls with a well draining gravel and compact to
refusal. Construct a concrete slab 150 mm thick with edges sitting on top of
the walls. Position a layer of standard reinforcing mesh 50 mm from the top of
this slab to protect against cracking.
• Construct side walls to the carriageway approaches. Provide a surface of
concrete, stone, brick or gravel to the level of the top of the walls. This
surfacing can be continued higher if the ascent is steep.
• Construct a key wall - a wall embedded 400 mm into the ground and whose
upper surface is at ground level - 2-2.5 metres downstream of the causeway.
Construct a 200 mm thick apron of stone masonry between the causeway and
the key wall.
• Construct guide posts and stepping stones. It may have been necessary to
embed reinforcing steel in the main structure before the concrete was poured
so that the posts are secured.

Stone masonry causeway

A stone masonry causeway is constructed from stone and cement mortar. If stone is
readily available, this option is often the cheapest. During stone masonry construction
each stone should be placed flat and in a position of stability. Mortar is used to fill the
voids between stones.

Figure 12 Stone masonry causeway

1. Excavate the foundation to 400-500 mm below the bed of the water course. If
the foundation material is weak, consider compacting the foundation,
displacing the weak material with rock fill or excavating further and
backfilling with a granular fill.
2. Excavate for side walls to 500 mm below slab foundation level. The wall
thickness should be between 300 and 400 mm.
3. Select a quantity of rock fill for filling the void between masonry walls. The
rocks should be strong. Cracked or weathered rocks should not be selected.

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4. Construct the walls, leaving openings for the vents. The use of pipe formers
will make this easier. The walls should be constructed to 200 mm below the
top level of the slab. Construct wet stone masonry around the formers to a
thickness approximately half the diameter of the vents. Fill the space to 200
mm below the top of the walls with rock fill. For stability, the rock fill should
be graded with the largest stones at the bottom and the smallest stones at the
top. Small quantities of concrete should be poured at random over the rock fill
to tie it together and prevent the rocks settling when traffic passes over the
completed causeway. Then construct a final 200 mm of wet masonry to the
level of the walls. Then add a 200 mm slab of wet masonry extending over the
side walls and flush with their outer surface.
5. Construct walls of masonry along the edges of the approach slabs to a level
150 mm below the finished level of the road. Backfill to the top of the walls
with a well draining gravel and compact to refusal. Construct a masonry layer
200 mm thick over the gravel.
6. Construct side walls to the carriageway approaches. Provide a surface of stone
or gravel to the level of the top of the walls. This surfacing can be continued
higher if the ascent is steep.
7. Construct a key wall - a wall embedded 400 mm into the ground and whose
upper surface is at ground level - 2-2.5 metres downstream of the causeway.
Construct a 200 mm thick apron of wet stone masonry between the causeway
and the key wall.
8. Construct guide posts and stepping stones. It may have been necessary to
embed reinforcing steel in the main structure before the concrete was poured
so that the posts are secured.

Brick masonry causeway

A brick causeway is constructed from bricks and cement mortar, although the bricks
must be very good quality. The environmental impact of the fuel used for brick firing
must also be assessed if brick causeways are to be specified.

1. Excavate for foundations 400-500 mm below the bed of the water course. If
the foundation material is weak, consider compacting the foundation,
displacing the weak material with rock fill or excavating further and
backfilling with a granular fill.
2. Excavate for the side walls 500 mm below this foundation level. The side
walls should extend alongside the approaches. The wall thickness should be
between 300 and 400 mm.
3. Construct the walls with bricks and cement mortar to the foundation level. Lay
5-6 courses of bricks across the base of the slab. Then place pipe formers for
the vents. Continue with the courses of bricks, laying them around the
formers. Place brick reinforcement wire at every third course and at every
course above each vent to protect against cracking. The top of the structure
should be at least 5 courses above the vents.
4. If the bricks polish or wear away when rubbed, a bituminous or concrete
overlay may be justified to provide the skid resistance to the slab. The side
walls may also be plastered with cement mortar for resistance against
abrasion.

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5. Construct brick walls along the edges of the approach slabs to a level 150 mm
below the finished level of the road. Backfill to the top of the walls with a well
draining gravel and compact to refusal. Construct a three courses of bricks
over the gravel with brick reinforcement wire between every course.
6. Construct side walls to the carriageway approaches. Provide a surface of stone
or gravel to the level of the top of the walls. This surfacing can be continued
higher if the ascent is steep.
7. Construct a key wall - a wall embedded 400 mm into the ground and whose
upper surface is at ground level - 2-2.5 metres downstream of the causeway.
Construct a 200 mm thick apron between the causeway and the key wall. It is
suggested that the apron is made from large rocks as brick can erode if the
water course carries debris.
8. Construct guide posts and stepping stones. It may have been necessary to
embed reinforcing steel in the main structure before the concrete was poured
so that the posts are secured.

MAINTENANCE

Maintenance of a causeway involves inspecting and repairing the following items.

• Vents may block with sediment and debris. It is important that vents,
particularly the low level base flow vents, are cleared promptly as the water
pressure can put the structure under stress.
• The erosion protection apron may be damaged by fast flowing water. If the
apron is not repaired, erosion can undermine the structure and lead to collapse.
Gabions are also prone to theft.
• Guide posts may be knocked off by errant vehicles and should be replaced.
• If floods are higher than expected, the improved surface may need to be
continued to a higher level.
• If the ramps become exposed, the road should be repaired and the level raised
up to the approach slabs.
• The site should be kept well vegetated, although high vegetation in the inlet or
outlet channels should be cut.

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