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8/5 : 150/5370-14
Asphalt Paving Ha... Govt. Publs. Dept.
Hot Mix Asphalt
U.S.Department
of Transportation
Federal Aviation Paving Handbook
Administration

AC : 150/5370-14 Advisory Circular

Date : 10/15/91

X
 Advisory
U.S.Department
ofTransportation
Circular
Federal Aviation
Administration

Subject: HOT MIX ASPHALT PAVING HANDBOOK Date: 10/15/91 AC No: 150/5370-14
Initiated by: AAS-200 Change:

1. PURPOSE. This advisory circular (AC) provides
guidance on asphalt paving operations including plant
operations, transportation of materials, surface prepara-
tion, laydown and compaction.
2. BACKGROUND . Agencies and contractors
share common concerns about the problems of prop-
erly constructing asphalt pavements. Training is a
major problem in a decentralized industry such as as-
phalt paving, where many procedures and contractors
operate on too small a scale to make long-term invest-
ments in personnel development; and, as a result, the
knowledge and field experience of field personnel is
not current.
In order to address this problem, the Transportation
Research Board (TRB) developed an asphalt paving
handbook under the auspices of several Federal and in-
dustry agencies. The handbook is aimed at governmen-
tal agency personnel and contractor employees in-
volved in the construction of asphalt pavements. It
concentrates on field practices at the asphalt plant
during mix production and at the paving site during
mix laydown and compaction. The handbook is includ-
ed in this AC as Appendix 1.

Rayna Ticke
LEONARD E. MUDD
Director, Office of Airport Safety and Standards

EPOSIT

FEB 31992

INDIA
LIM
 4

90

For sale by the U.S. Government Printing Office

Superintendent of Documents, Mail Stop: SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-9328
ISBN 0-16-036002-1
10/15/91 AC 150/5370-14

APPENDIX 1 - HOT MIX ASPHALT PAVING HANDBOOK

 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

PREFACE

Each year, more than $20 billion is spent in the United States to
construct asphalt pavements for highways and airports. Asphalt
paving contractors, public agencies, and the pavement research
community share concerns about the problems of properly construct-
ing these pavements. Pavement experts agree that highway and
airport agencies and their pavement contractors not only have
difficulty incorporating research findings into field practice , but also
have difficulty in consistently applying proven procedures from earlier
research experience . Training is a problem in such a decentralized
industry, where many producers and contractors operate on too small
a scale to make long-term investments in personnel development ; and ,
as a result, the knowledge and experience of field personnel is often
not up-to-date.

A working group of industry, government, and academic officials

assembled by the Transportation Research Board (TRB) * agreed
that a step towards addressing some of these problems would be the
development of an asphalt paving handbook, widely accepted by
major segments of the paving industry. Field manuals and handbooks
have been available from many agencies, but none has been adopted
by all major industry segments; and , as a result, personnel from
contractors and specifying agencies may be confused by conflicting
recommended practices. A single manual could reduce this confusion
and assist in the promulgation of good practice based on available
research and experience.

In 1988 , the TRB Executive Committee accepted the recommendation

for the preparation of such a handbook, and with financial support
from the American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials, the Federal Aviation Administration, the Federal Highway
Administration, the National Asphalt Pavement Association, and the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers proceeded with its development. The
handbook is being technically approved and distributed as a general
guide for asphalt paving construction not only by its financial sponsors
but also by the American Public Works Association and the National
Association of County Engineers" . Each agency followed its
individual process and submitted the manuscript for review by its
technical experts.

iii
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
10/15/91

To undertake this project, the National Research Council appointed

a study committee chaired by Jon A. Epps, Dean of the College of
Engineering, University of Nevada - Reno. The committee, with
members knowledgeable in the various aspects of asphalt pavement
construction practices and representing agencies, producers, and
contractors, commissioned James A. Scherocman to draft the
handbook under its direction . The final version incorporates changes
made in response to comments received from members of the
committee, approving organizations, and from other individuals
appointed to review the draft in accordance with the National
Research Council's report review guidelines.

This handbook covers the state of the art of asphalt paving operations
including plant operations, transportation of materials , surface
preparation, laydown, and compaction . It is aimed at the field
personnel who are responsible for these operations, both contractor
personnel who do the work and agency personnel who oversee and
inspect the work. It is hoped that the handbook will create a better
understanding of the processes involved and thereby result in
improved asphalt pavement construction.

The handbook is not intended to cover administration , contracting

procedures, site investigation, geometric design, structural design, or
mix design, although some general information is included concerning
contract administration and mix design. Therefore , in these areas
existing agency policies and procedures will have precedence .

The work was performed under the overall guidance of Thomas B.

Deen, Executive Director, and Robert E. Skinner, Jr., Director for
Special Projects. Herbert A. Pennock managed the project. Special
appreciation is expressed to Judith A. Klein for editing the handbook.

July 31, 1991

*The Transportation Research Board is a unit of the National Research Council,

which serves as an independent advisor to government on scientific and technical
questions of national importance . The Research Council, jointly administered by the
National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the
Institute of Medicine, brings the resources of the entire scientific and technical
community to bear on national problems through its volunteer advisory committees.

**This publication was approved as a Guide by the American Association of State

Highway and Transportation Officials Executive Committee on December 8 , 1990 .
This document is also being published as Federal Aviation Administration Advisory
Circular AC 150/5370-14 and as the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers publication
UN- 13 (CEMP-ET) .

iv
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART ONE

SECTION ONE BACKGROUND 1-1

Purpose and Organization of Handbook 1-1
Terminology 1-1
Workmanship 1-4

SECTION TWO PROJECT ORGANIZATION 1-5

Introduction 1-5
Project Documents 1-5
Preconstruction Conference 1-6
Ongoing Communication 1-6
Project Records 1-7
Safety 1-8

SECTION THREE MIX DESIGN AND THE JOB MIX FORMULA ……………. 1-10
Introduction 1-10
Material Properties 1-10
Mix Design Procedures 1-19
Laboratory- and Plant-Produced Mixes 1-20
Summary 1-23

PART TWO

SECTION ONE TYPES OF ASPHALT PLANTS 2-1

Introduction 2-1
Batch Plants 2-1
Continuous Mix Plants 2-4
Drum Mix Plants 2-4

SECTION TWO AGGREGATE STORAGE AND HANDLING 2-10

Introduction 2-10
Aggregate Stockpiles 2-10
Cold-feed Systems for New Aggregates 2-12
Cold-feed Systems for Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement 2-19
Addition of Hydrated Lime 2-21
Calibration 2-21
Summary of Aggregate Handling Operating Techniques 2-22

SECTION THREE ASPHALT CEMENT SUPPLY SYSTEM 2-24

Introduction 2-24
Storage Tanks 2-24
Pump and Meter System 2-25
Addition of Liquid Antistrip Materials 2-27
Calibration 2-27
Summary of Asphalt Cement Supply Operating Techniques 2-28

SECTION FOUR DRUM MIX PLANT 2-29

Introduction 2-29
Aggregate Entry 2-29
Burner System 2-29
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
10/15/91

Contents (continued)

Heat-Transfer Process 2-31

Asphalt Cement Injection 2-36
Mineral Filler and Baghouse Fines Feed System 2-38
Reclaimed Material Recycling Systems 2-40
Production Rates 2-42
Plant Efficiency 2-44
Summary of Drum Mixer Operating Techniques 2-46

SECTION FIVE SURGE AND STORAGE SILOS .... 2-48

Introduction 2-48
Conveying Devices 2-48
Bin Geometry 2-48
Top of the Silo 2-49
Surge Versus Storage 2-51
The Cone, Loadout, and Segregation 2-53
Summary of Silo Operating Techniques 2-54

SECTION SIX EMISSION CONTROL 2-56

Introduction 2-56
Fines Carryout 2-56
Primary Dry Collector 2-56
Wet Collector 2-58
Baghouse 2-59
Fugitive Dust 2-61
Summary of Emission-Control Operating Techniques 2-62

SECTION SEVEN BATCH PLANT .... 2-63

Introduction 2-63
Aggregate Handling 2-63
Addition of Hydrated Lime 2-65
Asphalt Cement Supply System 2-65
Addition of Liquid Antistrip Additives 2-65
Aggregate Heating and Drying 2-65
Screening and Storage of Hot Aggregate 2-66
Weigh Hopper 2-70
Pugmill 2-70
Producing Recycled Mix 2-74
Loading the Truck or Silo 2-77
Emission-Control Equipment 2-77
Calibration 2-77
Summary of Plant Operating Techniques 2-78

BIBLIOGRAPHY 2-79

PART THREE

SECTION ONE MIX DELIVERY………

.. 3-1
Types of Trucks 3-1
Hauling Procedures 3-4
Summary of Mix Delivery Techniques 3-9
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

Contents (continued)

SECTION TWO SURFACE PREPARATION 3-10

Introduction 3-10
Preparation of Existing Surface 3-10
Tack Coat 3-13
Surface Preparation Techniques 3-15

SECTION THREE MIX PLACEMENT …………. 3-17

Introduction 3-17
The Tractor Unit 3-17
The Screed Unit 3-25
Mix Placement Techniques 3-37

SECTION FOUR AUTOMATIC SCREED CONTROLS 3-40

Introduction 3-40
Automatic Screed Controls 3-41
Grade Control 3-43
Slope Control 3-48
Yield, Minimum Thickness, and Screed Controls 3-48
Automatic Screed-Control Operating Techniques 3-52

SECTION FIVE JOINT CONSTRUCTION 3-53

Introduction 3-53
Transverse Joints 3-53
Longitudinal Joints 3-64
Joint Construction Operating Techniques 3-69

SECTION SIX COMPACTION 3-70

Introduction 3-70
Definitions 3-70
Factors Affecting Compaction 3-70
Compaction Variables 3-81
Determination of the Rolling Pattern 3-86
Roller Operating Techniques 3-87

SECTION SEVEN EQUIPMENT AND MAT PROBLEMS .... 3-89

Introduction 3-89
Surface Waves 3-89
Tearing 3-91
Nonuniform Texture 3-92
Screed Marks 3-93
Screed Responsiveness 3-95
Surface Shadows 3-95
Precompaction Levels 3-96
Joint Problems 3-97
Checking 3-98
Shoving 3-100
Bleeding and Fat Spots 3-101
Roller Marks 3-103
Segregation 3-104
Other Pavement Problems 3-107

BIBLIOGRAPHY 3-108
:
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91 Appendix 1

Part One

INTRODUCTION
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

PART ONE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SECTION ONE BACKGROUND .... • 1-1

PURPOSE AND ORGANIZATION OF HANDBOOK 1-1
TERMINOLOGY .. 1-1
Hot-Mix Asphalt 1-1
Dense-Graded Asphalt Concrete 1-2
Large-Stone Mixes 1-2
Sand Mix 1-3
Open-Graded Mixes 1-3
Open- Graded Asphalt-Treated Permeable Material 1-3
Gap-Graded Asphalt Mixes 1-3
WORKMANSHIP 1-4

1111
SECTION TWO PROJECT ORGANIZATION ... 1-5
INTRODUCTION 1-5
PROJECT DOCUMENTS 1-5
PRECONSTRUCTION CONFERENCE • 1-6
ONGOING COMMUNICATION 1-6
Formal Meetings 1-6
Informal Meetings 1-7
Communication Form 1-7
PROJECT RECORDS 1-7
Plant Reports 1-7
Pavement Reports 1-8
Daily Diary 1-8
SAFETY .. 1-8

SECTION THREE. MIX DESIGN AND THE JOB MIX FORMULA 1-10
INTRODUCTION 1-10
MATERIAL PROPERTIES 1-10
Properties of the Asphalt Cement 1-10
Asphalt Cement Grade 1-10
Temperature-Viscosity Characteristics 1-11
Laboratory Mix Design 1-11
Plant-Produced Mix 1-11
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1 10/15/91

Part One Contents (continued )

Properties of the Aggregates 1-12

Shape 1-12
Surface Texture 1-12
Maximum Particle Size 1-12
Absorption 1-12
Gradation 1-12
Voids in Mineral Aggregate 1-16
Percent Passing No. 200 (75-μm) Sieve 1-16
Gradation Passing the No. 200 (75-μm) Sieve 1-16
MIX DESIGN PROCEDURES 1-19
Marshall Method 1-19
Hveem Method 1-19
AAMAS Method 1-20
LABORATORY- AND PLANT-PRODUCED MIXES .... ... 1-20
Asphalt Cement 1-20
Aggregate 1-20
Mixing Process 1-22
Compaction 1-22
SUMMARY 1-23

10/15/91
SECTION ONE
BACKGROUND
PURPOSE AND ORGANIZATION OF HANDBOOK
The purpose of this Hot-Mix Asphalt Paving Hand-
book is to describe the production and placement of
asphalt mixtures from a practical viewpoint . It is written
for two different, yet similar, groups of individuals. The
first group includes the governmental agency personnel,
consisting of people who carry such titles as resident
engineer, county engineer, municipal engineer, project
engineer, and plant or paving inspector. The second
group includes the contractor's employees. Individuals
who are part of this category carry titles such as project
superintendent, plant or paving superintendent, and
plant or paving foreman . The handbook concentrates on
field practices--at the asphalt plant during mix produc-
tion and at the paving site during mix laydown and
compaction.
Part One provides a brief review of project organiza-
tion, followed by the role of mix design relative to
mixture behavior during manufacture, paving, and
compaction. The importance of quality control on the
part of the contractor and quality assurance on the part
of the governmental agency is considered, together with
the differences between method-type specifications and
end-result-type specifications.
Part Two discusses the process of producing mix in
an asphalt plant. The aggregate stockpiling techniques
are discussed , along with the operation of the cold -feed
bins. Handling of the asphalt cement and delivery of this
material to the mixer is outlined . The handbook covers
both drum and batch plants used for blending and
mixing of the asphalt cement and aggregate .
The operation of a drum mix plant is analyzed , with
emphasis on the heat-transfer process that occurs inside
the drum and the methods used to blend the asphalt
cement with the aggregate, both inside and outside the
drum . The delivery of the mix from the drum to the
surge or storage silo is discussed, together with proce-
dures to deposit mix in the silo and discharge the
material into the haul truck. The three different types of
emission-control equipment used on plants are exam-
ined .
Components of batch plants are identified and
discussed. Emphasis is placed on operation of the screen
deck, hot bins, aggregate weigh hopper, asphalt cement
weigh bucket, and pugmill .
Page 1-1
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
The use of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) in
both drum and batch plants is described . Emphasis is
placed on entry location and potential problems with
normal plant operation when RAP is used in the mix.
Part Three focuses on the laydown site, where the
delivery of the mix to the paver is discussed . Methods
presented include depositing the mix into the paver
hopper directly from the truck, depositing the mix on
grade in a windrow, and using a windrow elevator or
other device. The preparation of the existing pavement
surface for placement of the mix is reviewed , with
emphasis on the application of a tack or prime coat. The
operation of the paver is reviewed in detail. The func-
tions of the primary parts of the tractor or drive unit
(hopper, wings, slat conveyor, and augers) are analyzed .
The principle of the free-floating screed and the forces
acting on the screed are examined . The use of automatic
screed controls on the paver is also discussed .
This handbook reviews the construction techniques
used to build transverse and longitudinal joints. It also
looks at the compaction process: the importance of
compaction, the equipment used to compact the mix,
and the rolling techniques used to achieve the required
degree of density in the mix. The final section of the
handbook reviews some of the more common problems
that may exist during and after the placement operation:
surface waves, checking, shoving, tearing, nonuniform
surface texture, screed marks, and auger shadows.
The format used in this handbook includes develop-
ing an understanding of the processes being described
and differentiating between proper and improper
construction methods. Recognition of a problem or
potential problem, a description of the possible cause of
the problem, and a discussion of probable solutions are
important sections of the handbook. The handbook is
written for those individuals actively involved in the
construction of asphalt pavements.
TERMINOLOGY
Hot-Mix Asphalt
The term hot-mix asphalt (HMA) is used generically
to include many different types of mix that are produced
at an elevated temperature in an asphalt plant . The
category of HMA is divided into three different types of
mixes, depending primarily on the gradation of the
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1 10/15/91

HOT MIX ASPHALT

(HMA)

Dense Graded Open Graded Gap Graded

Asphalt Concrete Asphalt-Treated

Permeable Material

Large Stone

Sand Mix

Figure 1-1 . Types of HMA mixes.

aggregate used in the mix (Figure 1-1) . The three mix
types are: (a) dense-graded, (b) open-graded, and (c)
gap-graded. Within the dense-graded category are three
different types of HMA mixes: dense- or continuously
graded, large-stone mix, and sand mix. The open-graded
classification includes open-graded mixes and open-
graded asphalt-treated permeable materials.
Dense-Graded Asphalt Concrete
Dense-graded asphalt concrete consists of a uniform
or continuous aggregate grading with an asphalt cement
binder. It is also called asphaltic concrete or bituminous
concrete .
The information provided in this handbook empha-
sizes the production, placement, and compaction of
conventional asphalt concrete mixtures. All asphalt
concrete mixes are, by definition , hot-mix asphalts. All
HMAs, however, are not asphalt concrete (Figure 1-1) .
The vast majority of the processes and procedures
discussed in this handbook are applicable to the other
types of HMA mixes. Because of differences in the
gradation of aggregates used in mixes and the type and
amount of asphalt cement blended with the aggregate,
some changes in the mix production, placement, and
compaction operations may be needed for each mix type
to produce a durable HMA mixture.
Large-Stone Mixes
By definition, a large-stone HMA mix is one that
contains some coarse aggregate that has a nominal size
greater than 1 in. In essence, this mix is still a dense-
graded material but has a greater percentage of larger
size coarse aggregate in the mix. The mix design cannot
be done using the standard 4-in. Marshall or Hveem
design molds. For the Marshall mix design method,
molds having a diameter of at least 6 in. should be used
to prepare the mixture samples. In addition, the amount
of compactive effort applied to the laboratory specimens
must be increased proportionately to achieve the proper
air-void content in the specimens. The measured stability
and flow values for the 6-in. specimens will also be
greater than for the standard 4 -in . specimens.
For plant production of large-stone mixes, some
additional equipment wear may occur in the batch plant
dryer and the drum mixer because of the use of the
larger aggregate . Further, additional wear may be experi-

Page 1-2

10/15/91
enced on the slat conveyor and the augers of the paver.
Because of the large-size aggregate, the compactive
effort applied to the mix must be monitored to prevent
excessive fracture of the larger aggregate pieces during
the compaction process. Vibratory rollers, pneumatic-tire
rollers, and static steel-wheel rollers can all be used . If
a vibratory roller is used , however, the applied force
(amplitude) should be at the lowest level that achieves
compaction without extending the number of passes and
the frequency of the vibration should be at the manufac-
turer's maximum rating for the amplitude selected .
Sand Mix
Sand mix is an asphalt mix that is made without
coarse aggregate . Typically, 100 percent of the aggregate
passes the 3/8-in. (9.5-mm) sieve and the majority of the
particles also pass the No. 4 (4.75-mm) sieve . The
asphalt cement content of this HMA mix is higher than
dense-graded mixes because of the large amount of
surface area of the fine aggregate. Unless manufactured
sand or an angular natural sand is used in the mix, the
stability of this type of mix is typically very low.
Sand mix can be produced in a batch plant or drum
mix plant without any significant changes in the plant
operation. Transport and placement of the mix is also
standard. Under the compaction equipment, however,
sand mix may tend to shove and check under steel-wheel
rollers, especially when constructed in relatively thick
layers (greater than 2 in .) . Vibratory rollers operated in
low amplitude and pneumatic-tire rollers with low tire
contact pressure and high contact area are usually used
to compact a sand mix course .
Open-Graded Mixes
An open-graded asphalt mixture is one that consists
primarily of coarse aggregate, a minimal amount of fine
aggregate, and asphalt cement binder. The main purpose
of this mixture is to provide a very open surface texture ;
one that will allow water to drain into the mix and that
provides a significant amount of large aggregate (macro-
texture) for contact with a vehicle traveling over the
pavement surface.
The mix design procedure for the open-graded mix
is different from that for a dense-graded HMA material
because of the lack of fines in the mix. Although film
thickness is greater for the same maximum size aggre-
gate size, the asphalt content is typically less . The
production of the open-graded mix in the plant is similar
to a dense-graded mix with one major exception. Open-
graded mixes that contain excess asphalt cement or that
are heated to very high temperatures will tend to drain
Page 1-3
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
(lose some of the asphalt cement film thickness around
the aggregate particles) while stored temporarily in a
surge silo and during delivery to the paver by a haul
vehicle. The placement of an open-graded mix is usually
conventional. The compactive effort needed with this
type of mix is generally less than that needed for dense-
graded mixtures. Because the open-graded mix is
normally placed as a relatively thin surface course layer,
two or three passes over the mix with a static steel -wheel
roller is all that is usually necessary to properly set this
high air-void-content material. When used as a very thin
friction course, a single pass may be sufficient .
Open-Graded Asphalt-Treated Permeable Material
An open-graded asphalt-treated permeable material
is designed primarily to allow for the passage of a large
quantity of water through the mix as quickly as possible .
The purpose of this layer is to provide a drainage course
within the pavement structure . The mix design consists
of coarse aggregate particles with 0-4 percent passing
the No. 200 (75 µm) sieve. In addition, the size of the
coarse aggregate is usually about 1 in ., although mixtures
with maximum size between 2 and 2-1/2 in. have been
used . The asphalt cement content of the mix is very low,
typically between 1.5 and 2 percent, because of the lack
of surface area of the coarse aggregate.
The production of the open-graded asphalt-treated
permeable material in a batch or drum plant is similar
to that of a dense-graded HMA material, except for the
possibility of a drain-down of the binder if the mix is
produced at too high a temperature or if the mix is held
for a long period of time (more than an hour) in a surge
silo. Drainage of the asphalt-cement film from the
aggregate particles can also occur in the haul vehicle
during transport to the paving site. Placement of the mix
is in the normal manner through the paver. The mix,
when placed in thick (greater than 6 in .) lifts, can be
relatively unstable under compaction equipment . State
DOTS ensure stability by requiring use of crushed
aggregate, use of a stiff grade of asphalt cement, and
control of temperatures before rolling. Typically only
two or three passes of a steel-wheel roller or a combina-
tion of steel-wheel and pneumatic-tire rollers are
necessary to properly compact the mix. In general, a
vibratory roller should not be used on an open-graded
asphalt-treated permeable material.
Gap-Graded Asphalt Mixes
A gap-graded asphalt mix is essentially the same as
an open-graded mix; however, the amount of fine
aggregate incorporated into the mix is usually greater
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
than the amount of fine aggregate used in the open-
graded mix. The aggregate gradation in the middle-size
aggregate [that between the No. 4 (4.75 - mm) and the
No. 30 (600 -μm) or No. 40 (425-µm) sieves ] is missing
or present only in small amounts. The production,
placement, and compaction of a gap-graded HMA mix
is similar to the processes used for an open-graded mix.
Draining of the binder from the aggregate during
temporary storage and transport is normally not a major
problem because of the amount of fine aggregate used
in the mix.
WORKMANSHIP
Three major factors directly affect the ultimate
performance of an HMA pavement: (a) the structural
design of the pavement layers, (b) the mix design, and
(c) the workmanship or construction procedures used to
produce, place, and compact the mix. The ultimate
durability of an asphalt mixture and pavement structure
is directly dependent on the quality of the workmanship
used to construct the project. The best set of specifica-
tions, if not followed, will not assure a good, long-lasting
pavement. The best mix design, if not duplicated in the
plant, will not provide the desired life of the pavement
under traffic . The most modern and sophisticated equip-
ment, if operated improperly, will not produce a mixture
that withstands the effects of the environment and
applied loads, nor will it provide the desired ride quality.
Poor workmanship can be one of the more significant
factors responsible for premature distress of an asphalt
pavement. Most asphalt pavements do not fail uniformly
from one end of a job to the other end . Within the
length of a project, failure normally starts at one or
more isolated locations and either remains localized or
spreads over a wider area.
Many times, poor workmanship evolves from an
ignorance of (a) the specifications, (b) proper construc-
tion techniques, or (c) proper operation of equipment.
On some projects, untrained or poorly trained personnel
produce, place, and compact mix without a complete
understanding of what is required : the materials, pro-
Page 1-4
10/15/91
cesses, and procedures to be used to construct the
asphalt pavement properly. On some jobs, however,
problems come from a lack of attention to the specifica-
tion requirements. For reasons of expediency (in order
to get the job done before the completion date, for
example) shortcuts are taken that can reduce the quality
of the mix being placed .
Marginal practices also have the potential to reduce
the service life of HMA. Many examples exist . Some-
times weather forecasts for rain are ignored when a
project is behind schedule or there is a rush to get the
job completed . When the rain comes and some truck-
loads of mix are on the way from the plant to the paver,
the tendency is to shut the plant down but to lay the mix
that is en route . Another example is when a roller
breaks down at the paving site but the compaction
process continues without a change in the production
rate at the plant or a slowdown in the speed of the
paver. In order to keep up, the remaining rollers merely
speed up to keep from falling too far behind the lay-
down machine. Only after it is determined that the
broken roller may be out of service for several hours
and no replacement roller is available is it typically
decided to alter the production and placement process
to accommodate the reduced number of rollers. Prob-
lems such as these are encountered regularly at a
construction site . The manner in which they are resolved
directly relates to the quality of the pavement being
constructed.
This handbook does not directly address workman-
ship but it is inherent in all of the discussions that
follow. Performing a task properly assures that the
asphalt concrete mix produced , placed , and compacted
has a better chance of performing well under traffic.
Ignorance of the correct procedures, or disregard for the
specifications, typically will reduce the ultimate life of
the HMA. Good specifications, mix design, and materi-
als cannot overcome poor workmanship . The ultimate
goal is to use both good specifications and good work-
manship to build a durable HMA pavement.

10/15/91
SECTION TWO
PROJECT ORGANIZATION
INTRODUCTION
The most essential part of project planning and
organization is communication . The project documents
are written instructions that describe in detail the
requirements. The preconstruction conference initiates
verbal communication between the representatives ofthe
agency and the contractor personnel. It sets the tone for
both the working relationship and direct communications
during the execution of the project.
It is difficult, if not impossible, to produce high-
quality work if open lines of communication do not exist
between the contractor's people and the agency's
personnel. Likewise, safety on the job cannot be main-
tained if communication between all parties is inade-
quate .
PROJECT DOCUMENTS
Project documents illustrate and describe work to be
done under the contract . Specific definitions of these
and other terms that apply directly to a project are
normally included in the first section of the governing
standard specifications .
• Plans: The drawings that show the location,
character, dimensions, and details of the work to be
done.
• Standard Specifications: The directions, provi-
sions, and requirements for performing the work illus-
trated and described in the plans. The items in the
standard specifications relate to or illustrate the method
and manner of performing the work or describe the
qualities and quantities of materials and labor to be
furnished under the contract.
• Special or Supplemental Specifications: Approved
additions and/or revisions to the standard specifications.
• Special Provisions: Additions or revisions to the
standard or supplemental specifications that are applica-
ble only to an individual project .
A number ofother documents are often incorporated
by reference into the standard specifications, supplemen-
tal specifications, and special provisions. Material specifi-
cations and test procedures from the American Associa-
tion of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) and the American Society for Testing and
Page 1-5
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Materials (ASTM) are often listed in the specifications
and become part of the contract documents just as if the
whole text were written into those specifications . Addi-
tional documents, such as the Manual on Uniform Traffic
Control Devices (MUTCD) and the Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA) regulations are also
treated in the same manner when referenced in the
specifications.
Many of the material specifications and test methods
that are written by AASHTO or ASTM for national use
are modified for use under local conditions . Governmen-
tal agencies often publish their own material specifica-
tions and test methods. These publications typically are
referenced in the contract documents and become part
of those documents. Inspection manuals or guidelines
are normally for use by the agency's representatives and
usually are not part of the contract documents.
If there is a discrepancy between the instructions and
specifications in any of the contract documents, a
definite hierarchy exists among the four major forms of
documents. The order of priority, from the highest to
the lowest, for the contract documents is usually defined
as the special provisions, the plans, the special or supple-
mental specifications, and, finally, the standard specifica-
tions. The order of priority corresponds to the docu-
ment's specific applicability to a particular project or
contract.
The plans and specifications need to be accurate and
complete, and they should leave little room for assump-
tions or for later reinterpretation. In addition, the plans
and specifications need to define the responsibilities of
the representatives of the agency as well as the contrac-
tor personnel . If method specifications are to be used,
the type and frequency of the inspection and testing
procedures must be given explicitly. If quality assurance-
quality control specifications are to be used , the require-
ments for the contractor to monitor its own work and
for the agency personnel to do the necessary acceptance
testing must be provided in detail. Accurate and com-
plete contract documents save many hours of later
discussion between the agency's representatives and the
contractor. 1
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
PRECONSTRUCTION CONFERENCE
A preconstruction conference is often held before
work commences on a project. During this meeting, the
overall tone is set for the job, preferably one of coopera-
tion. It is generally the responsibility of the agency's
representatives to outline the scope of the project and to
discuss the information provided in the contract docu-
ments. In addition , it is also the responsibility of the
agency personnel to discuss any unusual aspects of the
job--items that are not routine construction practices. A
list of personnel who will be assigned to the project
should be provided to the contractor .
The individuals representing the contractor should be
familiar with the job and be able to speak with authority
about what is to be accomplished . A progress schedule
for the job should be presented and discussed with the
agency's personnel. Any questions about the information
in the contract documents should be raised and clarifica-
tion requested, if necessary. A listing of key contractor
personnel who will be assigned to the project should be
provided, with clear lines of authority established .
The people in attendance at the preconstruction
conference should not assume that all of the other
individuals present understand fully and are in complete
agreement with the proposed progress schedule. Agree-
ment is needed on the methods to be employed to
complete the project on schedule, with a minimum of
delays and change orders. Because continuity of the
asphalt-paving operations is critical to providing a
quality pavement , the discussion between the agency and
the contractor personnel should include such items as
material sources, plant production rates, haul distances
and routes, paving widths and speed, and the type and
operation of the compaction equipment. If known, a list
of equipment that is to be used on the project should be
supplied by the contractor to the agency.
The role of each person on the project, for both the
agency and the contractor, should be discussed and
made clear. This requires that the supervisory personnel
define the tasks, authority, and responsibility of each of
the key individuals to be involved in the work.
Sampling methods and frequencies should be dis-
cussed . Test methods to be used should be reviewed to
assure that all individuals understand the purpose of
each test, the location and the personnel who are to
conduct the test, the time frame for the return and
communication of the test results, and the procedures to
be used if failing test results are obtained . If not ade-
quately covered in the specifications, the use of dupli-
cate or split samples (one for testing by the contractor
and one for testing by the agency) needs to be consid-
Page 1-6
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ered, as well as procedures for retesting inadequate
materials. The details of the quality control program,
both on the part of the contractor and the agency,
should be discussed so that everyone is aware of "who,
what, why, when, and how."
One of the most important items to be discussed at
the preconstruction conference is job safety. Safety is
not only a legal and financial responsibility of all the
people on the project but a moral responsibility as well.
This topic should include not only the safety of those
individuals working on the job (both contractor and
agency personnel) but also the safety of the traveling
public. Clear responsibility for maintenance of all traffic
control devices such as signs, pavement markings, and
flagging should be delineated . The name of the person
responsible for safety for the contractor should be
provided to the agency so that rapid and clear communi-
cations can be accomplished if safety problems occur.
All personnel involved in the project must be required
to comply with all safety standards applicable to the type
of construction and asphalt paving work to be carried
out.
ONGOING COMMUNICATION
Communication cannot stop once the preconstruction
conference is concluded . The quality of the work com-
pleted and the safety of those performing and inspecting
the construction are directly related to the quality of the
communication between the agency and the contractor.
It is important that the individuals in daily charge of the
project for both the agency and the contractor meet
periodically, both on a formal and on an informal basis,
to discuss the progress and quality of the work done to
date and the schedule for future work.
Formal Meetings
The frequency of the formal meetings depends on
the scope and the size of the paving job. On a major
project, the "update" meetings should occur at least
twice a week. Key personnel from both the agency and
the contractor should be present . The discussion should
include such items as the quantity of work completed,
the test results obtained, and any problems that have
occurred. The meeting should also focus on what is yet
to be accomplished : the schedule for the coming weeks .
Changes to be made in the progression of the work,
including personnel changes, different equipment use
and construction methods, and mix design information,
should all be discussed . Problems that have occurred and
that are anticipated should be communicated to both
parties and solutions explored .

10/15/91
If formal meetings are needed, they should be held
on a regularly scheduled basis, such as every Monday
morning at 8:00 a.m. at the project office. Everyone who
is supposed to attend the meeting should be there and
be on time. The meeting should be conducted jointly by
the agency and the contractor and should be used as a
forum for positive input to the job. A list of all individu-
als in attendance should be prepared , along with written
minutes of the meeting. These minutes should be com-
pleted and distributed to all involved people as quickly
as possible.
Informal Meetings
Informal meetings should be held on a daily basis
between the two individuals in charge of the job for the
agency and the contractor. Ideally, these meetings
should occur at a regularly scheduled time, but can be
held on the job site; at the asphalt plant or at the paver.
The purpose of the informal meetings is twofold . First,
the discussion should include what occurred the day
before, such as work completed, test results, and prob-
lem areas. The topics should include what is going to
happen in the next several days; an update on the
information exchanged at the last formal meeting.
Asphalt paving projects, like many construction
projects, are not always built as originally scheduled .
Changes occur because of material supply, equipment
breakdown, contractor and subcontractor schedules, and
weather conditions . When such changes do occur, it is
important that they be communicated between the
contractor and the agency and between the agency and
the contractor . Communication is a two-way process .
The informal meetings on a daily basis provide a forum
for the exchange of such information .
Communication Form
Communications should be oral and written. Much
information can be communicated in oral form . Impor-
tant information should be followed up in written form .
In some cases, formal letters should be written by the
contractor and by the agency when conditions on the
project change substantially. Often a less formal note
can be written to confirm the data that had already been
communicated orally. In addition , personnel for both the
agency and the contractor should keep daily diaries of
events that occur. If something happens that is impor-
tant enough to remember later on, it is important
enough to take the time to write it down immediately
after it happens so that the information is accurate and
complete.
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AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
PROJECT RECORDS
It is important that accurate and complete records be
kept for all construction projects. This is true for both
the project engineer and staff and for the contractor's
general superintendent, plant and paving superinten-
dents, and all foremen . Trying to reconstruct events at
a later time without written notes and complete test data
is usually frustrating and often results in conflicting
opinions as to exactly what happened . One procedure
should constantly be followed : if in doubt about whether
the information is important or beneficial, write it down.
Plant Reports
The results of all daily and periodic tests conducted
at the asphalt plant should be recorded . Although
different forms may be used, both the project inspection
personnel and the contractor employees should collect
essentially the same type of information . Further, the
contractor personnel should complete their own records,
even if not required to do so by the agency.
Some of the data that should be shown on the form
include: (a) project number and location information,
(b) weather conditions, (c) source of materials used on
the project, (d) job-mix formula information, (e) aggre-
gate gradation and asphalt content test data, (f) mix test
results, (g) the amount of each material (aggregate,
asphalt cement, and additives) used , (h) the number of
tons of asphalt mix produced, and (i) location on pave-
ment where daily production was placed . Any additional
information required by agency specifications, such as
the moisture content of the individual aggregate stock-
piles, should also be reported on the form.
It is important to record the date, time, and location
of all samples taken, and the name of the individual
taking the samples . If, for example, aggregate gradation
is determined from samples taken at two different places
(from the cold-feed belt and from the extracted mix) ,
the sampling location must be marked on the report.
Similarly, if asphalt content is normally determined by
nuclear gauge and occasionally checked by extraction,
the procedure used to measure the mix property should
be recorded .
Most forms should have a "Remarks" area. This
portion of the form should be used to indicate any
unusual occurrences or test results that took place
during the day. Failing test results should be highlighted
on the form . Additional comments about the possible
cause of the deficiency should be written under " Re-
marks." Any corrective action or changes to the mix
materials, plant-operating parameters, or test procedures
should be indicated . The results of those actions or
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
changes should also be indicated on the form.
Pavement Reports
Information on what occurred on the pavement
during the mix placement and compaction operations
also must be recorded . Again, the data gathered may be
reported in a different style by the paving inspector and
by the contractor's superintendent, but essentially the
same information should be reported by both . This will
allow for more meaningful discussion later if deficiencies
develop in the test results or in the performance of the
mix under traffic.
Some of the data that should be shown on the
paving-site form include: (a) project number and loca-
tion, (b) weather conditions, (c) the type and number of
tons of each mix placed and the exact location of that
mix--layer number, thickness, lane, and station number,
(d) the type and make of equipment used by the con-
tractor, (e) the density results obtained, and (f) the
smoothness results obtained . In addition, other data
should be reported, such as the type, amount, and
location of any tack coat material placed ; the location
(both transversely and longitudinally--station number) of
any tests taken; and a running total of the tons of each
mix laid on the project.
All samples taken must be marked properly to
indicate the location from which the material was gath-
ered, the time and date of the sampling, the reason that
the sample was taken, what quantity of material the
sample represents, and the name of the person who took
the sample. If a nuclear gauge is employed to determine
the relative density of the mix, any calibration proce-
dures used to check the reliability of the gauge should
be referenced .
The " Remarks " area on the pavement report form
should be used to report any unusual conditions or test
results that occur during the day. Failing test results
should be highlighted on the form and an explanation
provided, if possible, as to both the cause of the defi-
ciency and the steps taken to correct the problem . The
result of the corrective action should also be given.
Daily Diary
All project supervisors, both agency personnel and
contractor employees, should keep a detailed daily diary.
This document should be used to record any changes
that are made in the mode of operation of the asphalt
plant or the laydown and compaction equipment. It
should be the place to report any different or unusual
events that occur on the job. It can be used to document
other events, such as a listing of visitors to the project.
Page 1-8
10/15/91
It should also be used to record the reasons for delays
in paving (e.g., because of an equipment breakdown or
poor weather conditions) . The purpose of the daily
diary, then, is to save for possible later reference the
nonroutine events that happened during each paving
day.
For the information in a diary to be accurate and
meaningful, the data must be recorded in the book
shortly after the events occur . Ideally, the diary should
be updated at least twice a day: once near midday and
again at the end of the day. If job conditions and
schedules preclude making the midday entry, the events
of the day should always be written down upon comple-
tion of each day's activities . It is not practical to try to
recall and record what happened on Monday when it is
the following Wednesday evening or the end of the
week.
The information contained in the diary must be
detailed and complete. It should contain as much
detailed information as possible . If a conversation is held
with other project personnel concerning project activity,
regardless of whether they are agency inspection person-
nel or contractor employees, the date and location of
the conversation should be recorded . The names and
titles of any people involved in the discussion should be
written down, as well as the topics reviewed. The
outcome of each conversation, if it affects the progress
or the results obtained from the mix manufacturing and
placement operations, must be stated . Who told whom
to do what, and what was the reply? That is the type of
information that should be included in the daily diary.
The importance of the information contained in each
daily diary cannot be overemphasized . Many claims and
lawsuits have been settled on the basis of information
written in a diary. If one person involved in a dispute
can present information written in timely fashion in a
diary and the other individual can only rely on memory
to reconstruct the important events, the writer usually
will have an advantage in the settlement of the disagree-
ment. The information may also be useful for follow-up
research, determining reasons for premature failures,
etc.
SAFETY
The old saying " Safety is Everyone's Business" is
certainly true on an HMA paving project . From the
contractor's superintendent, to the front-end loader
operator at the asphalt plant, to the truck driver, to the
raker behind the paver, every individual who works for
the contractor must be aware continuously of the need
to practice safe work habits. Likewise, every person who

10/15/91
works as a representative of the agency, from the project
engineer, to the inspector at the plant, to the ticket
taker at the paver, must be aware of safe work habits.
Communication is one of the keys to a safe work
environment. Every individual should know what is
expected and know how to perform the assigned tasks.
Proper training in the operation of a piece of machinery
is essential for equipment operators, for example. Re-
training is necessary at frequent intervals because the
longer a person continues to perform the same task, day
after day, the more likely he or she is to do things by
"remote control" and ignore surrounding events. Every-
one, regardless of title or job function, must be aware
continuously of the need for safe work practices. Occu-
pational Safety and Health Administration regulations
must be known, understood, and followed by each
person involved in the construction project .
Safety talks are a good way to start the day for both
contractor and agency personnel. Several different
organizations publish short, concise safety presentations
that can be completed in 2 or 3 min. People need to be
reminded that they are operating in a potentially danger-
ous environment, both at the plant and the laydown site.
Daily talks are one way of accomplishing the task of
continuously reminding them . Further, if an unsafe work
practice is noticed, corrective action should be taken
immediately, even if the paving operation has to be shut
down until the unsafe practice is changed .
The people most likely to be hurt on an asphalt
paving project are those individuals who are new to this
type of work. Without adequate advance training, these
people do not fully understand all the differences
between following safe work practices and taking foolish
chances. Often new employees, working either for the
agency or for the contractor, want to show that they are
capable and can perform the tasks assigned to them. At
times their enthusiasm to excel and to please other
people can overcome their awareness of proper safety
practices.
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AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Another class of individuals who often suffer need-
less injuries are people who have been around the plant
and the paving operations for many years and who are
"comfortable" being around the equipment. Sometimes
these people perform their duties by rote . They typically
take short cuts because they have survived without injury
for many years. Safety should be as much a part of these
individuals' day as it is for the new people on the job.
Working around an asphalt plant is a potentially
hazardous occupation . Functioning equipment parts,
high temperatures, noise, and moving delivery and haul
trucks all add to the possibility of an accident occurring.
It is possible, if an individual is not trained to perform
a particular function, for him or her to get burned by
hot asphalt mix, to be sprayed with hot asphalt cement,
to have a hand caught in a piece of machinery, or to be
struck by a moving vehicle .
Working around an asphalt paving site is also a
potentially hazardous occupation. Individuals who are
working on the pavement around the paver (e.g., the
ticket taker, truck dump person, the screed operator,
and the rakers) are susceptible to being hit by passing
traffic. Further, these same people have the potential to
be hurt by equipment being used in the paving opera-
tion. People can be injured by the haul trucks backing
into or pulling away from the paver, as well as by
compaction equipment. In addition, all of the paving
personnel have the possibility of being burned by the hot
asphalt mix.
Constant care and vigilance is needed to prevent
accidents and injury. The Occupational Safety and
Health Administration, the National Asphalt Pavement
Association, state DOTS, and others have published
manuals that deal with safety at the asphalt production
plant and around a paving operation . These manuals
should be made available to all plant and paving person-
nel, both for the agency and for the contractor, and
should be required reading. Safety is everyone's business
on a construction project.
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
SECTION THREE
MIX DESIGN AND THE JOB MIX FORMULA
INTRODUCTION
Hot-mix asphalt has two primary ingredients : binder
and aggregate. The asphalt binder is usually asphalt
cement, which is obtained from the refining of crude oil.
Asphalt cements are graded either by penetration or by
viscosity. The aggregate used typically is a combination
of coarse and fine materials, with mineral filler as
needed . The aggregates are often available locally, either
from a pit or from a quarry. The mix design system
determines the correct proportion of asphalt cement and
aggregate needed to produce an asphalt mix that has the
properties and the characteristics to withstand the effects
of traffic and the environment for many years.
Mix design is performed in the laboratory generally
using one of two methods. The more common mix
design method is the Marshall method . This procedure
is followed by approximately 75 percent of the state
highway departments as well as the U.S. Department of
Defense and the Federal Aviation Administration . The
second procedure is the Hveem method . This method is
used by many public agencies in the western United
States.
Another mix design procedure is the asphalt- aggre-
gate mixture analysis system (AAMAS) recently pub-
lished by the National Cooperative Highway Research
Program. In this method , the traditional empirical means
of determining HMA mixture strength (or stability) have
been replaced by more rational test procedures. Mix
properties such as resilient modulus, indirect tensile
strength and strain at failure, and creep modulus values
are determined to estimate the performance of the
asphalt mix in the pavement under traffic. Test results
are used to home in on an optimal mix design that will
produce pavements resistant to distresses such as fatigue
and thermal cracking, rutting, stripping, and age harden-
ing.
On an asphalt paving project, the mix design can be
developed by one of three different entities: by the
governmental agency, by the contractor, or by a consul-
tant; depending on the requirements of the project
specifications. Regardless of who completes the labora-
tory mix design phase of the job, the result of the mix
design process is a job mix formula (JMF) . The JMF is
to be followed by the contractor in manufacturing the
Page 1-10
10/15/91
asphalt mix for the project.
This section discusses briefly the properties of the
asphalt cement and the aggregates used to produce an
asphalt mix. It also will review some of the differences
that can exist between laboratory- and plant-produced
mixes and differences between the job mix formula
values and the plant test results .
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Properties of the Asphalt Cement
Asphalt Cement Grade
The penetration of an asphalt cement is determined
at a temperature of 77°F. In general, the harder the
asphalt cement (the lower its penetration) the stiffer the
mix made with the material. At a given temperature a
mix containing 60-70 penetration -grade asphalt cement
typically will be stiffer and will require somewhat more
compactive effort by the rollers to achieve the desired
density than will a mix made using a 120-150 penetra-
tion-grade asphalt cement . Thus the stiffer mix must
either be placed at a higher temperature or a greater
compactive effort must be applied by the rollers to
achieve a given degree of density.
The viscosity of an asphalt cement is typically deter-
mined at two different temperatures: 140°F and 275°F.
A viscosity-graded material must fall within a range of
values at the lower temperature and meet a minimum
viscosity requirement at the higher temperature . In
general, a mix containing an AC-20 asphalt cement will
be stiffer, at a given temperature, than will an AC- 10
asphalt cement and require slightly more compactive
effort to reach a certain level of density.
For a particular asphalt cement prepared from a
given source of crude oil by a given refining method,
there is a relationship between the penetration of the
material and its viscosity. This relationship does not
hold , however, for different asphalt cements made from
different crude oils or by different refining processes.
Thus, an 85-100 grade asphalt cement might possibly
meet the viscosity specifications for either an AC- 10 or
an AC-20 grade material. The same is true for a viscosi-
ty-graded asphalt cement; an AC-20 material might have
a penetration as low as 40 or as high as 110, for exam-
ple.

10/15/91
Different asphalt cements ofthe same penetration or
viscosity grade may harden (decrease in penetration and
increase in viscosity) to different degrees during the
mixing process in a drum or batch plant . A mix manu-
factured with an asphalt cement that does not harden
much during the mixing process might be more tender
under the compaction equipment, at a given tempera-
ture, than will a similar mix made with an asphalt
cement that hardens to a greater degree in the batch
plant pugmill or inside the drum mixer.
Temperature-Viscosity Characteristics
The degree of change in viscosity of an asphalt
cement with a change in temperature is a very important
characteristic. The temperature susceptibility of the
asphalt cement is defined as the change in the flow
properties of the material with a change in temperature.
An asphalt mix made with an asphalt cement that is
highly temperature susceptible typically will be more
tender and tend to move more under the breakdown
rollers than will a mix made with an asphalt cement of
low temperature susceptibility. An asphalt cement that
has a flatter slope on a viscosity-temperature chart than
another asphalt cement is less temperature susceptible.
Two asphalt cements of the same penetration grade thus
can have considerably different characteristics at elevat-
ed temperatures. Although similar in consistency at
77°F , two 85-100 penetration asphalt cements may have
different flow properties at 275°F. Similarly, two asphalt
cements that have the same viscosity at 140°F can also
have significantly different viscosities at 275°F.
Thus, during the mixing and compaction process, two
binder materials of either the same penetration grade or
the same viscosity grade can contribute to different
stiffness characteristics in the mix and may influence the
degree of tenderness of the mix and the compactive
effort needed to obtain a predetermined level of density.
The asphalt cement that is more temperature suscep-
tible--has the steeper slope (higher ratio of change in
viscosity for a change in temperature)--will have a
greater effect on the properties of the mix. The true
effect of the asphalt cement properties on the cohesive-
ness of the mix, however, depends on and is interrelated
with many other properties of the mix, including the
characteristics of the aggregate, the concentration of
coarse aggregate, and the amount of laboratory compac-
tion used to determine the asphalt cement content and
the field compaction requirement.
Laboratory Mix Design
For the Marshall laboratory mix design process, the
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AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
selected mixing temperature and compaction tempera-
ture for the mix are determined by the viscosity of the
asphalt cement. The mixing temperature is selected as
the temperature at which the asphalt has a viscosity of
170 ±20 centistokes, and the compaction temperature is
chosen as the temperature at which the asphalt cement
has a viscosity of 280 ± 30 centistokes. The temperature
at which each of these two viscosity values occurs is
determined by plotting the viscosities measured at both
140°F and 275°F and interpolating the appropriate
temperature from the graph.
Using the viscosity of the asphalt cement to deter-
mine the laboratory mixing and compaction tempera-
tures provides binder materials that are of equal stiffness
even though those materials may have different degrees
of temperature susceptibility. This permits the mixing
procedures in the laboratory to be standardized and a
particular level of air voids to be obtained in the mix
with a given compactive effort of the Marshall hammer.
For the Hveem laboratory mix design method, the
mixing temperature for the asphalt cement is determined
by the grade of the material. A range of temperatures,
for both the asphalt cement and the aggregate, is given,
depending on the penetration or the viscosity grade of
the binder material. For compaction of the Hveem
specimens, a standard temperature of 230°F is used,
regardless of the grade of the asphalt cement used .
Plant-Produced Mix
The grade of asphalt cement used will influence, to
some degree, the mixing temperature selected . In
general, the lower the penetration or the higher the
viscosity of the binder material, the higher the tempera-
ture to which the asphalt cement should be heated in
order to pump the material properly (normally about
300°F) . The temperature susceptibility of the asphalt
cement is not a factor in the production of the mix.
The temperature susceptibility of the asphalt cement
may, however, be a factor during the compaction
process. In general, a mix containing a highly tempera-
ture-susceptible asphalt cement will stiffen more quickly
with a change in temperature than will a mix made with
an asphalt cement of lower temperature susceptibility.
This means that the compactive effort applied to the mix
by the rollers might need to be altered to achieve the
same degree of density. In addition , the mix containing
the more temperature - susceptible asphalt cement might
initially be somewhat more tender and tend to check and
shove more under the rollers. The degree of tenderness,
however, is also greatly affected by other mix character-
istics besides the properties of the binder material.
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
A change in the source of asphalt cement used on a
project, even though it is from the same supplier, can
affect the properties of the mix, particularly during the
compaction process . It is possible that a mix that can be
densified properly with one amount of compactive effort
from the rollers might become more tender (or more
stiff), requiring a different degree of compactive effort,
if the properties of the asphalt cement changed because
of a change in the asphalt cement source .
Project personnel are not normally notified by the
supplier when a change in the source of the asphalt
cement is made . If the specifications call for the use of
an AC-20 viscosity- graded asphalt cement, an AC- 20 will
be delivered . The properties of one AC-20, however, can
be very different from the properties of another AC-20
asphalt cement. It is good practice, therefore, for the
contractor to request that the asphalt cement supplier
provide a temperature -viscosity graph for each load of
material delivered to the plant. These graphs should be
reviewed as each load of asphalt cement is unloaded . If
the temperature-viscosity characteristics of the binder
material have changed significantly, adjustments may
need to be made in the plant-mixing and mix-compac-
tion processes .
Properties of the Aggregates
Various properties of the aggregate will have various
effects on the properties of the final asphalt mix. The
aggregate properties of interest include shape, surface
texture, particle size, absorption, gradation, voids, and
percent and gradation of material passing the No. 200
(75 μm) sieve .
Shape
The shape of the individual aggregate particles
affects the properties of the mix. Aggregate that is
rounded is more easily displaced by an applied load.
Aggregate that is angular (usually produced by crushing)
will have a greater degree of interlock when a load is
applied and will be more resistant to displacement by
that load. Crushed aggregate mixes may require a
greater compactive effort to obtain the required level of
density than mixes containing rounded gravel . In addi-
tion, the amount of surface area for each aggregate is,
in part, a function of its shape . An aggregate that has a
greater surface area will require a greater amount of
asphalt cement to obtain a given film thickness around
the aggregate particles.
Surface Texture
The smoother the surface texture of an aggregate
Page 1-12
10/15/91
particle, the greater will be its tendency to be tender
under the compactive effort of the rollers. A mix con-
taining an aggregate that has a rough surface texture,
similar to the particle with an angular shape, will
generally require more compactive effort to densify to a
given air void content.
Maximum Particle Size
Aggregate having different maximum particle sizes
can have different degrees of workability. Typically the
larger the maximum size of aggregate in a mix in
relation to the layer thickness and the greater the
amount of large aggregate in the mix, the more difficult
it is to compact the mix. Further, if the nominal maxi-
mum aggregate size exceeds one-half of the compacted
thickness of the pavement layer, the texture of the mix
can be affected and the degree of density obtained in
the mix by the compaction equipment may be reduced.
Although a relatively minor factor for most mixes in
comparison with the other aggregate properties, the
maximum particle size can be a significant factor in the
properties of the asphalt concrete mix when large-stone
(greater than 1 -in . nominal maximum size ) mix is being
produced. This is particularly true in regard to density,
and a field compaction test strip may be necessary to
determine the degree of density that can be achieved in
the large-stone mix.
Absorption
The amount of asphalt cement that is absorbed by
the aggregate also may have a major effect on the
properties of the asphalt mixture . If the aggregate
particles have high asphalt absorption, the asphalt
content in the mix must be increased to compensate for
the binder material that is drawn into the pores of the
aggregate and is unavailable as part of the film thickness
around those particles. If that asphalt content correction
is not made, the mix can be dry and stiff. The amount of
compactive effort needed to achieve density in the mix
would have to be increased and the mix would have a
tendency to ravel under traffic .
Gradation
The maximum size of an aggregate gradation is the
smallest sieve through which the entire amount ( 100
percent) of the aggregate is required to pass . The
nominal maximum size of an aggregate is the smallest
sieve through which the entire amount ( 100 percent) of
the aggregate is permitted to pass. For example, if 100
percent of an aggregate passes the 1 -in . ( 25-mm) sieve
and 90 to 100 percent of the same aggregate may pass

10/15/91
the 3/4-in. ( 19- mm) sieve, the maximum size of that
aggregate would be 1 in. and the nominal maximum size
would be 3/4 in .
The gradation of the coarse and fine aggregate has
a great effect on the properties of all HMA mixtures.
The potential effects can be evaluated using 0.45 power
gradation paper . This graph paper, which was developed
by the Federal Highway Administration in 1962 for
asphalt concrete mixes, is shown in Figure 1-2. Using
this graph, an estimate of the densest grading of the
combined coarse and fine aggregate, on a percent
passing basis, will plot as a straight line, as shown in this
figure. As illustrated , if 100 percent of the aggregate in
a particular asphalt concrete mix passes the 3/4- in .
(19-mm) sieve, the estimated densest gradation of
aggregates for that mix would lie on the line that
extends from that point at the upper-right portion of the
graph to the zero point at the lower-left corner of the
graph. This line is called the maximum density line.
The maximum density line can be used to estimate
several properties of the asphalt concrete mix before the
asphalt cement is added to the aggregate in the actual
laboratory mix design process. In this regard, it provides
some guidelines for the voids in mineral aggregate
(VMA) content of the mix. In general, an aggregate
gradation that is close to the maximum density line,
particularly below the No. 4 sieve, will have a lower
VMA content than will the gradation of the same
aggregate that is farther away from the maximum density
line--either above or below the line .
Many factors besides gradation have an effect on the
VMA content of the mix. In particular, the shape of the
aggregate as well as the surface texture of the aggregate
will cause the aggregate to have a different VMA
content even though several different aggregates may
have the same gradation when plotted on 0.45 power
gradation paper. A mix that contains angular aggregate
compared to rounded aggregate will typically have a
higher VMA content. Further, a mix that contains
aggregate with a rough surface texture will usually have
a higher VMA content than will a mix that contains
smooth textured aggregate, for the same gradation . In
addition, the properties of the fine aggregate generally
have a greater effect on the VMA content of the mix
than do the properties of the coarse aggregate . Thus the
0.45 power gradation paper maximum density line
should be used only as a guide in determining a starting
point for the actual laboratory mix design process .
Use of the sieve with 100 percent passing as the
origin for the maximum density line can lead to the use
of an improper line . As shown in Figure 1-2 , a mix with
Page 1-13
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
100 percent passing the 3/4-in . (19- mm) sieve and 99
percent passing the 1 /2-in . ( 12.5- mm) sieve would have
the same theoretical maximum density line as a mix that
has 100 percent passing the 3/4- in . sieve and only 88
percent passing the 1/2-in. sieve . The properties of two
mixes made with aggregates of these two gradations,
however, could be considerably different. For this
reason, a modification is normally made in the starting
location for the maximum density line . As shown in
Figure 1-2 , the modified maximum density line is drawn
from the sieve on which some aggregate is first retained .
In the example shown , if the amount of material passing
the 3/4-in. sieve was 100 percent and the amount of
aggregate passing the 1/2- in . sieve was 99 percent, the
latter value would serve as one end for the modified
maximum density line . If only 88 percent of the aggre-
gate passed the 1/2- in. sieve , that value would be em-
ployed as the starting point for the modified maximum
density line.
Also as originally developed, the aggregate gradation
that has the maximum density will generally contain a
high amount of material passing the No. 200 (75-μm)
sieve when plotted on the 0.45 power paper. In Figure
1-2 this value is approximately 8 percent . This amount is
higher than the amount of fine aggregate normally
permitted to pass the No. 200 sieve ; most mixes contain
from 2 percent to 7 percent passing that sieve. For this
reason, use of the graph paper may be further modified
to use the actual amount of aggregate passing the No.
200 sieve as the other end point for the maximum
density line instead of the zero point on the graph . This
line is called the gradation reference line and is illustrat-
ed in Figure 1-3.
The gradation reference line is drawn on the upper
right from the sieve on which any aggregate is first
retained--has a percent passing that is less than 100
percent. The line is drawn through the percent passing
the No. 200 (75-μm) sieve that is actually in the mix. In
Figure 1-3, the amount of aggregate passing the No. 200
sieve is assumed to be 3 percent . Using these two points,
as shown in Figure 1-3, provides the maximum density
line for the actual mix being manufactured.
In Figure 1-3 two different gradation reference lines
are shown. The first line is for a mix with 100 percent
passing the 3/4-in. ( 19 -mm) sieve, 99 percent passing the
1/2-in. (12.5 -mm) sieve, and 3 percent passing the No.
200 (75-μm) sieve . The second is for a mix with 100
percent passing the 3/4-in . ( 19-mm) sieve , 88 percent
passing the 1/2- in . ( 12.5 - mm ) sieve, and 3 percent
passing the No. 200 (75 -µm) sieve . Both of these mixes
would have the same maximum density line ( as shown in
 Appendix 1
AC 150/5370-14

CHART
GRADATION
REPRESENTS
SCALE
HORIZONTAL
THE
TO
RAISED
SIZES
.SIEVE
POWER
0.45
"S IMPLIFIED
INDICATED
PRACTICE
BYIZES
100 100

90 " 2 90
1/
ng
s"si2
80 / 80
pa 1 g
% in
99 ss
pa
70 x % 70
88

60 ne 60
Li
t y
n si

Page 1-14
50 De
m um "
3/4 "
1 "
1¼ "
1/2
xi SIEVES NO
Ma . .NO L
TOTA TOTAL
40 RETAINED .RET % %
PASSING ON WT
. % PASSINWT
.G % PASSING

PERCENT PASSING
30

20

10

50
No.
100
200 30 16 "
3/8 1/2

O
B

06
40
80
No. 20 10 "
¼4
SIEVE
SIZES
GAS
Figure
1-2
P. ossible
maximum
density
lines
using
FHWA
0.45
gradation
paper
.power
10/15/91
 10/15/91

GRADATION
CHART
HORIZONTAL
. IMPLIFIED
POWER
0.45
THE
TO
RAISED
SIZES
SIEVE
REPRESENTS
SCALE
"S
PRACTICE
BY
INDICATED
IZES
100 100

90 90

ne
80 Li 80
", 2 ) 0 ce
r en
1/ 20 e
.g ef
70 sNion R 70
s g on ne

70
70

pa s in ti Li
a
%9 as a,d
" ce
(9 p% Gr /2 ) 00 r en
60 3 1 2 e 60
.g ef
Nion R
s n
s g io
pa s in at

Page 1-15
50 % s ad
8( 8 pa Gr 3/4
" "
1¼
% "
1½
3
SIEVES .NO .NO AL
TOT TOTAL
40 % %
WT
.
PASSINGON RETAINED .RET PASSING
WT
. % PASSING
%

PERCENT PASSING
30

20

10

50
100
200
No. 30 16 "
3/8 "
1/2

91
80
No. 40
20 10 "
1/4
SIEVE
SIZES
Appendix 1
AC 150/5370-14

.line
refere
G nce
. radati
1-3
Figure on
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Figure 1-2). They have different gradation reference
lines, however, because of the amount of material
retained on the largest sieve .
Blends of aggregate that are finely graded are more
workable and easier to compact than are blends of
material that are coarsely graded . As shown in Figure 1-
4, when plotted on the 0.45 power gradation paper the
finer blend of aggregate (Gradation A) will fall above
the gradation reference line--to the fine side of the line,
with greater percentages of material passing each
particular sieve than for a coarsely graded combination
of aggregate. Coarse graded aggregates (Gradation B)
are normally more difficult to compact, but may result
in more rut-resistant pavement layers.
Voids in Mineral Aggregate
The voids in mineral aggregate (VMA) of a mix can
be defined as the volume of intergranular void space
between the aggregate particles of a compacted paving
mixture that includes the air voids and the effective
asphalt content, expressed as a percent of the total
volume of the sample. This room within the aggregate
gradation is at a minimum for a combination of coarse
and fine aggregate that has a gradation that is close to
the gradation reference line (Gradation C in Figure 1-5).
A mix with a low VMA content will become very sensi-
tive to total fluids content: asphalt cement content plus
any moisture in the mix . During placement and compac-
tion, the mix will tend to check and shove . Under traffic,
the mix will tend to rut and bleed if the asphalt content
is high and will tend to ravel if the asphalt content is
low.
An aggregate gradation that crosses the gradation
reference line, particularly in the fine aggregate portion
of the gradation (Gradation D in Figure 1-5) , will also
have a tendency to have low VMA contents. Aggregate
blends that have a pronounced hump in the grading
curve usually will be more tender than are mixes that
are more continuously graded , either above or below the
gradation reference line. The hump occurs because a
large amount of fine aggregate passes one sieve , such as
the No. 30 (600 -μm ) sieve , and is retained on the next
sieve, the No. 50 (300 µm) . The hump also typically
takes place, using a different series of sieves, between
the No. 40 (425-μm) and the No. 80 ( 180-μm) sieves.
The effect of the hump on the compactive effort
needed to obtain density depends on the severity of the
hump; the more pronounced the hump, the lower the
VMA, and generally the more tender the mix. A mix
with a hump in the fine aggregate portion of the total
grading curve may easily achieve the desired density
Page 1-16
10/15/91
level in the laboratory when made and compacted in
steel molds . That same mix, however, may be difficult to
compact to the required air void content on the pave-
ment; it normally will be tender and may check and
shove under the compaction equipment.
The 0.45 power graph paper can be used to evaluate
the potential for problems with the mix during the
placement and compaction operations. During the
production of the mix, the results from the extraction
test should also be plotted . Gradations that resemble
Gradations A or B in Figure 1-4 typically should pro-
duce durable mixtures that can be placed and rolled
without major problems. Gradations that look like
Gradations Cor D in Figure 1-5, however, may produce
asphalt concrete mixes that are tender and check or
shove during the compaction operation.
Percent Passing No. 200 (75-μm) Sieve
The amount of material passing the No. 200 (75 -µm)
sieve can have a variable effect on the ability to densify
a particular blend of coarse and fine aggregate. As the
amount of aggregate passing the No. 200 sieve increases,
the workability of the blend of aggregate increases, up
to a certain point. Beyond that level, as the amount of
fine aggregate that passes the No. 200 sieve increases,
the stiffness of the mix normally will increase .
Initially, the incorporation of some aggregate passing
the No. 200 (75-μm) sieve fills the voids in the total
aggregate gradation and makes the blend more continu-
ously graded . This tends to decrease the voids in mineral
aggregate content ofthe material combination and make
the blend of aggregate more workable . If an excess of
aggregate passing the No. 200 sieve is present, this
additional fine material pushes the other aggregate
particles apart, decreasing the contact between the
coarser aggregate particles and altering the compact-
ability of the aggregate blend . For most asphalt concrete
mixes, the amount of aggregate passing the No. 200
sieve should typically be in the range of 3 to 6 percent.
Gradation Passing the No. 200 (75-µm) Sieve
Not only does the amount of aggregate passing the
No. 200 (75 -μm) sieve have an effect on workability, the
gradation of that material can have a dramatic effect on
the tenderness of the blend of aggregate. Ifthe majority
ofthe aggregate that passes the No. 200 sieve is relative-
ly coarse (larger than about 40 µm) , most of this materi-
al will fill the voids in the coarse aggregate, decreasing
the void content of the aggregate blend and altering the
optimal asphalt content in the mix. If, however, the
material passing the No. 200 sieve is ultra-fine (a signifi-
 10/15/91

GRADATION
CHART
S
'THE 00
PRACTICE
IMPLIFIED
POWER
0.45
REPRESENTS
."SIEVE
TO
RAISED
SIZES
HORIZONTAL
SCALE SIZES
BYA
INDICATED
100 100

90 90

80 80

70 70
) e
n
f(i ne
A Li
60 n e 60
io nc

09
t e
a da fer

Page 1-17
Gr Re

)
e
50 n

rs
io 3/4 1 14
" "
12

a
t
da
ra SIEVES .NO .NO AL
TOT TOTAL

B (co
G
40 D % %

on
. RET
. PASSING
. % PASSING
PASSING ON RETAINEWT % WT

a ti

PERCENT PASSING
ad
Gr
30

20

10

50
100
200
No.
30 16 "
3/8 "
1/2

96
No.
80 40 20 10 "
14
SIZES
SIEVE
Appendix 1
AC 150/5370-14

mixes
coarse
.and
Cfine
of
omparison
1-4
Figure
 Appendix 1
AC 150/5370-14

GRADATION
CHART
HORIZONTAL
. IMPLIFIED
POWER
0.45
THE
TO
RAISED
SIZES
SIEVE
REPRESENTS
SCALE
"S
PRACTICE
BY
INDICATED
IZES
100 100

90 90

80 80
D
on
a ti
ad 70
Gr

70
60 ne 60
Li
n ce
re

Page 1-18
50 e
ef

C
R "3/4 1 14
" "
1½

n
on

io
i SIEVES NO
. .
NO

t
at TOTAL TOTAL

da
d % %

a
40 a RET
.

IIIII:
Gr PASSING
% PASSING

Gr
.
WT
PASSING ON RETAINED % .
WT

PERCENT PASSING
30

30
20

10

100
200
No. 50 30 16 3/8 1/2
No.
80 40 20 10 1/4
"
SIEVE
SIZES

values
.VMA
low
with
gradations
A. ggregate
1-5
Figure
10/15/91

10/15/91
cant portion of the aggregate smaller than 20 µm, with
some material as fine as 2 to 5 µm in size) , this material
can act to extend the volume of the asphalt cement and
can become part of the asphalt cement film around the
aggregate particles .
It is sometimes useful to conduct a hydrometer
analysis to determine the gradation of the filler material
that passes the No. 200 (75 -μm) sieve . That gradation
affects the workability of the total blend of aggregate
just as gradation of the aggregate retained above this
sieve does. The actual effect depends, however, on the
proportion of the material that is relatively coarse
compared with the portion of the material that passes
the No. 200 sieve that is ultra-fine (smaller than 20 µm) .
The finer the filler material, the greater the effect on
the workability of the total aggregate blend . This grada-
tion of the aggregate passing the No. 200 sieve is
particularly important if a baghouse is used on the plant
and the collected fines are returned to the plant for re-
incorporation into the mix.
MIX DESIGN PROCEDURES
To produce an asphalt mix design, asphalt cement
and aggregate are blended together in the laboratory.
The characteristics of each component, the relative
proportion of these two materials, and the air void
content of the compacted mix determine the physical
properties of the mix. Two common, but empirical,
methods of mix design are in use: the Marshall method
and the Hveem method . Both methods have the same
purpose: to determine the " optimum" asphalt cement
content for a particular combination of aggregate .
Details on these two methods can be found in the
Asphalt Institute Manual MS-2.
Marshall Method
The Marshall method of mix design, which is limited
to mixtures containing aggregates that have a maximum
size of 1 in. or less, uses three test procedures to deter-
mine the properties of the mix: a determination of the
bulk specific gravity, measurement of Marshall stability
and flow, and analysis of specimen density and voids
content. The stability value gives a measure of the load
under which the specimen fails, and the flow value
provides a measurement of the deformation of the
specimen at failure. Mixes that have low stability and
high flow values are too plastic and tend to distort (rut
and shove) easily under load . Mixes that have very high
stability and very low flow values are brittle and may
crack readily. A density and voids analysis is conducted
to determine the air void content, the amount of voids
Page 1-19
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
in the mineral aggregate, and the unit weight of the
material.
The "optimum " asphalt cement content of the mix is
determined from a family of plots based on mix proper-
ties measured at different asphalt contents. Unit weight,
stability, flow, air void content, and voids in mineral
aggregate content are plotted against asphalt content.
The "optimum " asphalt cement content is usually calcu-
lated as the average asphalt content at the point of
maximum unit weight, maximum stability, and at an air
void content of 4 percent. In addition , the flow value
must be between certain limits and the voids in mineral
aggregate content must be above a minimum value . In
some cases, the "optimum" asphalt cement content is
selected based only on the amount needed to achieve 4
percent air voids in the mix, and the other mix proper-
ties are checked at that asphalt cement content to see if
they comply with the specification requirements.
The optimum asphalt content is a function of the
amount of compactive effort used to densify the mix.
Typically, two different compactive efforts (50 blows per
side and 75 blows per side) are used in the laboratory to
simulate the amount of compaction that will take place
under both the compaction equipment at the time of
construction and under traffic with time. The higher
compactive effort (75 blows) will result in a lower
optimum asphalt content in the mix for any given aggre-
gate gradation.
Use of the Marshall method to determine the job
mix formula for mix production does not mean that the
mix produced will perform satisfactorily during place-
ment and compaction or long-term under traffic . Mixes
that have high Marshall stability values may still shove
under the rollers and/or undergo permanent deforma-
tion (rutting) when subjected to heavy loads. Mixes that
have adequate VMA, however, normally perform
significantly better than mixes made with the same
aggregate and asphalt cement but that are low in VMA
content.
Hveem Method
The Hveem mix design method uses a series of tests
to determine "optimum" asphalt cement content . Those
test procedures include use of the centrifuge kerosene
equivalent test to determine an approximate asphalt
content, preparation of test specimens at a range of
asphalt contents both below and above the approximate
optimum asphalt content, a stability test to evaluate the
resistance to deformation, and a swell test (rarely run)
to determine the effect of water on the volume change
and permeability of the specimen .
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
The Hveem stability test measures the lateral pres-
sure that results from the application of a vertical load.
The higher the Hveem stability, the more resistant the
mix is to distortion. The amount of air voids in the mix
is determined from both the measured bulk specific
gravity of the mix and the maximum specific gravity of
the mix, which is calculated from the specific gravity of
the asphalt cement and the specific gravity of the
aggregate in the mix. An appropriate allowance is made
for the amount of asphalt cement absorbed by the
aggregate.
Compliance of the job mix formula with the Hveem
mix design criteria does not guarantee that the mix will
not be tender during the construction process or that it
will be durable over time and traffic. The Hveem
method is used primarily to pick an asphalt content for
the mix in order to fit inside a range of mix properties.
AAMAS Method
The asphalt -aggregate mixture analysis system
method of mix design, recently published by the Nation-
al Cooperative Highway Research Program, should
provide mixtures that are better able to perform under
traffic. The resilient modulus value, indirect tensile
strength, and creep modulus value are more related to
the distress mechanisms that affect the durability of an
asphalt pavement: fatigue, permanent deformation,
moisture damage, disintegration, and low-temperature
cracking.
LABORATORY- AND PLANT- PRODUCED MIXES
Differences may exist between the properties of an
asphalt mix designed in the laboratory and the " same"
job mix formula produced in a batch or drum mix plant .
It is important to look at those differences and under-
stand how and why the test properties or characteristics
conducted on mix produced in a plant might vary
significantly from the results predicted from tests
conducted on laboratory-produced material.
Asphalt Cement
In an asphalt cement storage tank, the binder is held
in bulk and usually is circulated continuously by a pump.
The amount of aging and hardening that occurs during
storage is minimal. In the lab, the asphalt cement can be
heated in an oven for various periods of time . It usually
is handled in small quantities in containers that are open
to the air. Although some hardening does occur during
this laboratory mixing process, the degree of hardening
is generally less than that which occurs during mix
production at the asphalt plant . The degree of hardening
Page 1-20
10/15/91
that may take place in the laboratory, however, is quite
variable .
Asphalt cement is normally produced in a refinery by
a steam distillation/vacuum process . The light products
in a barrel of crude oil are driven off at various temper-
atures, leaving behind a soft residue . Some of the light
products can remain in the asphalt cement, however,
depending on the type of refining procedure used and
the type of crude oil processed . If a single-stage refinery
is operated , a considerable amount of the lighter prod-
ucts (light ends) can remain in the asphalt cement.
Aggregate
In the laboratory, gradation of the aggregate to be
incorporated into the mix can be determined by conduct-
ing either a dry-sieve or a wet-sieve analysis. If the
aggregate is clean, the difference between the two test
results will be minimal. If the aggregate is dirty and has
a great amount of fine material clinging to the coarse
aggregate particles, there may be a considerable differ-
ence between the dry and wet gradations. For this
reason, the aggregate gradation used in the laboratory
should represent the actual gradation of the aggregate
to be used in the mix at the plant.
In the field, the materials are incorporated into the
mix as received from the aggregate supplier. If there is
a considerable amount of fines clinging to the coarser
material, those fines are put into the cold-feed bin with
the coarser material and delivered to the dryer or drum
mixer . This change in gradation does not normally exist
in the laboratory, particularly if a washed aggregate
gradation is used in the mix design . Thus, a difference in
aggregate gradation, from lab to field, can exist.
As the aggregate passes through a batch plant dryer
or drum mixer, its gradation is usually changed to some
degree . The amount of the change ( an increase in the
amount of fines in the mix) is a function of many vari-
ables but is primarily related to the hardness of the
aggregate. As the abrasion resistance of the aggregate
decreases, the amount of fines generated inside the
dryer or the drum normally increases . For a hard ,
durable aggregate, the amount passing the No. 200
(75-μm) sieve may increase no more than 0.2 percent
when processed. If a soft aggregate is used , the amount
of the aggregate passing the No. 200 sieve may increase
by as much as 1 or 2 percent.
All materials will vary in gradation from the average
value for the percent passing each sieve. This is recog-
nized by assigning allowable tolerance values, about that
average value, to each sieve size . Thus, the aggregate in
the cold-feed bins can be expected to fall within a range

10/15/91
of gradations instead of on an exact gradation. In the
laboratory, however, the aggregate is sieved into differ-
ent fractions and then recombined to an exact gradation
curve . The degree of precision in the lab is significantly
greater than what occurs at an asphalt batch or drum
mix plant .
The aggregate used to make laboratory samples is
completely dry; there is essentially no moisture in the
material. For aggregate heated in a batch plant dryer, it
is possible to reduce the moisture content to about 0.1
percent, by weight of the aggregate, but in most cases
the moisture content in the aggregate will range up to
0.5 percent, depending on the amount of moisture in the
incoming aggregate, the production rate of the dryer,
and the aggregate discharge temperature. Rarely will the
aggregate discharged from a typical dryer be completely
without some retained moisture . For aggregate pro-
cessed through a drum mix plant, the moisture content
in the mix at discharge typically is less than 1.0 percent
but can be higher, depending on the same variables as
for the batch plant. Although there should be no more
than 0.5 percent moisture retained in the plant- produced
mix, differences will exist in the amount of moisture
between the lab- and plant-produced mix.
In the lab oven, the aggregate is uniformly heated
throughout, and the coarse and fine portions of the
aggregate will both be at approximately the same
temperature. In the plant dryer or drum mixer, the
coarse aggregate usually is heated to a lower tempera-
ture than is the fine aggregate and there is often a
distinct temperature differential between the two
fractions of aggregate . In a batch plant, the temperature
is generally equalized during pugmill mixing. In a drum
mix plant, however, a heat balance is not always ob-
tained unless the material is held in the surge silo for a
period of time.
If a wet scrubber is used on either a batch or drum
mix plant, any fines captured are carried out of the dryer
or drum mixer and wasted . These fines are no longer
part of the aggregate gradation . If a baghouse is used as
the emission-control device on either type of plant, some
or all of the collected fines can be returned to the mix.
If the fines from the baghouse are wasted , a slightly
different aggregate gradation will exist in the mix, similar
to that which occurs when the plant is equipped with a
wet-scrubber system. If all of the baghouse fines are
returned to the mix, the gradation of the aggregate still
may be different from the gradation of the aggregate
tested in the laboratory because the baghouse will collect
ultra-fine aggregate particles not normally separated
from the other aggregate particles during the laboratory
Page 1-21
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
mix design procedure. Thus the type of emission - control
equipment used on the batch or drum plant can signifi-
cantly affect the properties of the asphalt mixture . The
amount of fines can change the filler/asphalt ratio and
thus also change the stiffness of the resulting asphalt
mix. The change in the type and amount of fines nor-
mally is not taken into account in the laboratory mix
design procedure.
Baghouses operate at different efficiencies, depend-
ing on the pressure drop between the dirty and clean
side of the filter bags. If the bags are clean and the
pressure drop is small, the fines-laden exhaust gases will
pass through the fabric filter and some of the very fine
particles will go out the plant stack. As the bags become
more heavily coated with material and as the pressure
drop increases, more of the fines are captured on the
coating already on the bags. Thus, as the loading on the
bags is increased, the baghouse actually becomes more
efficient and a greater volume of fines as well as a finer
gradation of material is returned to the mix in either a
batch or drum mix plant. The change in the amount of
fines captured and sent back to the plant can be sub-
stantial.
If the plant is equipped with only a dry collector
(knockout box or cyclone), most of the fines returned to
the mix will be larger than the No. 80 or No. 100
(180-μm or 150-μm) sieve . With the use of a fabric filter,
particles as small as 5-μm size (smaller than the asphalt
cement film thickness on the aggregate) can be reincor-
porated into the mix. These ultra-fine particles, which do
not exist separately during the laboratory mix design
procedure, can act like extra asphalt cement, causing the
mixture to look greasy and become tender. Thus, a
stable mix in the lab can be soft and tender in the field
if the baghouse is returning ultra-fine aggregate particles
back into the plant. For any plant equipped with a fabric
filter, not only the quantity of the baghouse fines needs
to be known, but also the gradation of those fines
should be determined .
If RAP is incorporated into the mix, this material is
normally mixed in the laboratory until it is thoroughly
heated and blended with the new aggregate. In the
plant, however, the amount of mixing and heat transfer
that occurs from the new aggregate to the reclaimed
material is a function of many variables, such as the
amount of RAP in the mix, the point of introduction of
the RAP, the temperature of the new aggregate, and the
amount of mixing time available . In addition, the
reclaimed material may add a significant amount of fines
[percent passing the No. 200 (75 -μm) sieve ] to the mix.
Finally, both Marshall and Hveem mix design proce-
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
dures are limited to 1 -in.-maximum-size aggregate . For
larger-size aggregate that is often used in base course
layers, modifications to the aggregate gradation or
sample size must be made . This causes differences in the
properties of the mixes produced in the laboratory
compared with plant-manufactured mix. For mixes
containing 1.5 in. maximum aggregate, a 6- in . mold
should be used . A method is being developed to use 6-
in. specimens in lieu of the standard 4-in. specimens.
Mixing Process
As the mix time increases in a batch plant pugmill,
the degree of aging of the asphalt binder also increases.
For relatively short wet mix times (28 to 35 sec) , the
average asphalt cement will decrease 30 to 45 percent in
penetration. For longer wet mix times (up to 45 sec) , the
penetration of the asphalt cement may be up to 60
percent less than the original value . Higher mixing
temperatures increase the degree of hardening of the
asphalt cement. Thus, the mix produced in a batch plant
pugmill can be much stiffer than the same material
produced in the laboratory with essentially unaged
asphalt cement unless the laboratory binder material is
continually reheated .
The amount of hardening of the asphalt cement that
occurs in a drum mix plant may be less, more, or the
same as that in the pugmill of a batch plant . The degree
of hardening is quite variable and is a function of the
thickness of the asphalt cement film around the aggre-
gate particles, as well as many other factors . Less
hardening generally occurs during the coating process as
the moisture content of the incoming new and reclaimed
aggregate increases, as the volume of aggregate in the
drum increases, as the mix discharge temperature
decreases, and as the production rate of the plant
increases.
The laboratory mixing process is accomplished by
hand or by machine, with the time necessary to blend
the asphalt cement and aggregate together dependent on
the efficiency of the mixing process. Usually several
minutes are required to obtain complete coating of the
aggregate. During this period, the asphalt cement is
exposed to the air and some hardening takes place . The
degree of hardening is a function of the aggregate
temperature and the mixing time . The change in asphalt
cement properties will not be the same as the change
that will occur during mix production in a batch or drum
mix plant. Thus, the stiffness of a mix produced in the
laboratory will probably be less than that of a plant-
manufactured mixture .
Asphalt mix samples obtained from the plant or from
Page 1-22
10/15/91
the pavement before compaction may be sent in loose
condition to a district or central laboratory for future
testing. The amount of hardening that occurs in the
›inder material depends on the time between the manu-
facture and testing, as well as on the storage conditions
(temperature and the availability of oxygen). The
process of reheating the sample, including the time and
temperature of heating and any remixing of the sample
if compaction is not completed in the field , also can
have a significant effect on the measured properties of
the mix. Thus, the laboratory handling process can affect
the differences found between plant- and laboratory-
prepared samples.
Compaction
Several methods, including Marshall hammer,
California kneading compactor, and gyratory shear
compactor, are commonly available to compact asphalt
concrete specimens in the laboratory. The purpose of
any lab compaction process is to simulate, as closely as
possible, the degree of density produced in the field by
the rollers and the density of the mix after some time
under traffic . This simulation includes such factors as air
void content, aggregate particle orientation, and void
distribution . Intra-laboratory and inter-laboratory test
results have indicated that the degree of compaction
obtained in the lab can be highly variable .
The compaction process in the laboratory is very
quick, usually completed within 2 or 3 min . This is in
direct contrast to actual roller operations in the field ,
which use an infinite variety of roller combinations,
roller passes, and roller patterns and in which final
density levels might not be attained until 30 min or
longer after the mix is placed by the paver. Also, during
the laboratory compaction process, the mixture tempera-
ture is relatively constant . On the pavement, the temper-
ature of the material is continually decreasing with time.
In the lab, the compaction effort is usually applied
before the mix temperature drops to 240°F (Marshall)
or 220°F (Hveem) . In the field, the mix may cool to
175°F or less before the compaction process is complet-
ed .
In the lab, the asphalt mix is compacted against a
solid foundation, whereas in the field a wide variety of
base types and stiffnesses are encountered . An asphalt
mix can be placed as part of a newly constructed pave-
ment as the first layer on top of a soft subgrade soil or
as the surface course on a full-depth asphalt concrete
pavement structure . The material can be used as an
overlay on a distressed asphalt pavement or as resurfac-
ing on a portland cement concrete (PCC) pavement.

10/15/91
The ability to obtain a particular level of density in an
asphalt mixture depends in part on the rigidity of the
base being laid over and on the type of compaction
equipment used. The differences between some pave-
ment base conditions and laboratory base conditions can
be significant. A test section will establish the compac-
tive effort necessary to obtain specified density in the
asphalt mix.
SUMMARY
The objective of any mix testing on plant-produced
asphalt mixtures is to compare the test results to the
laboratory job mix formula. The attempt is made to
make the plant-produced mix equal the laboratory job
mix formula. This is most often difficult to accomplish
because of all the variables that exist at the plant--from
the type of plant used to the operating conditions at
each particular plant. Major differences between labora-
tory and plant mixes often exist in the gradation of the
aggregates, the degree of hardening of the asphalt
cement, and the addition of fine aggregate from the
emission-control equipment, to focus on only a few of
multiple factors. In addition, compaction conditions are
considerably different between the laboratory and the
mix under the various rollers in the field .
The job mix formula produced in the laboratory,
therefore, should be treated only as an initial mix design,
used primarily to pick an asphalt cement content. The
Page 1-23
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
desired properties of the mix should be checked and
verified on the plant-produced, laboratory-compacted
asphalt mixture. Daily tests should be run to determine
the characteristics of the mix actually being manufac-
tured (mix verification). All of the mix values should be
within the range required by the mix design process. If
the test results on the plant-produced mix indicate
compliance with the job mix formula requirements, the
plant should continue to operate. If one or more of the
mix properties is outside the desired range, an investiga-
tion should be made quickly to determine the cause and
the extent of the deficiency. In most cases, however, the
plant should not be shut down nor drastic changes made
in the mix design on the basis of only one set of test
results. In addition, if major differences in gradation
exist between the aggregate used in the laboratory mix
design process and the aggregate used in the plant, the
job mix formula should be adjusted and/or the mix
design should be rerun.
Problems that develop in the batch or drum mix
plant and on the pavement during the laydown and
compaction process are discussed in the section on mat
problems in Part Three. Many of these problems, such
as checking and shoving, can be related to deficiencies
in the mix design used to create the job mix formula and
to differences between the JMF mix properties and the
properties of the mix actually produced in the plant.
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

Part Two

ASPHALT PLANTS
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

PART TWO

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ZZZZ
SECTION ONE TYPES OF ASPHALT PLANTS

Z
INTRODUCTION •
BATCH PLANTS 2-1
CONTINUOUS MIX PLANTS • 2-4
DRUM MIX PLANTS 2-4
Parallel-Flow Drum Mixer 2-4
Counter Flow Drum Mixer 2-6

SECTION TWO AGGREGATE STORAGE AND HANDLING 2-10

INTRODUCTION 2-10
AGGREGATE STOCKPILES 2-10
COLD-FEED SYSTEMS FOR NEW AGGREGATES 2-12
Cold-Feed Bins and Feed Conveyors 2-13
Gathering Conveyor 2-15
Scalping Screens and Devices 2-15
Charging Conveyor 2-18
Batch Plants 2-18
Drum Mix Plants 2-18
Individual-Bin Weigh Bridges 2-19
COLD-FEED SYSTEMS FOR RECLAIMED ASPHALT PAVEMENT 2-19
Single-Feed Drum Mix Plants 2-21
Split-Feed Drum Mix Plants 2-21
ADDITION OF HYDRATED LIME • 2-21
CALIBRATION ... 2-21
SUMMARY OF AGGREGATE HANDLING OPERATING TECHNIQUES 2-22

SECTION THREE ASPHALT CEMENT SUPPLY SYSTEM ... 2-24

INTRODUCTION • 2-24
STORAGE TANKS 2-24
PUMP AND METER SYSTEM 2-25
Batch Plants 2-25
Drom Mix Plants 2-25
Asphalt Cement Delivery 2-25
Temperature Compensation 2-27
ADDITION OF LIQUID ANTISTRIP MATERIALS 2-27
CALIBRATION 2-27
SUMMARY OF ASPHALT CEMENT SUPPLY OPERATING TECHNIQUES 2-28
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1 10/15/91

Part Two Contents (continued)

SECTION FOUR DRUM MIX PLANT ... 2-29

INTRODUCTION 2-29
AGGREGATE ENTRY 2-29
BURNER SYSTEM ... 2-29
Fuel 2-29
Burners 2-30
HEAT-TRANSFER PROCESS 2-31
Temperatures Inside the Drum 2-31
Flight Design 2-32
Increasing the Veil of Aggregate 2-34
Heat Transfer 2-36
ASPHALT CEMENT INJECTION ..... 2-36
MINERAL FILLER AND BAGHOUSE FINES FEED SYSTEM 2-38
Mineral Filler 2-38
Baghouse Fines 2-39
RECLAIMED MATERIAL RECYCLING SYSTEMS ... 2-40
Single-Feed 2-40
Split-Feed 2-40
PRODUCTION RATES ... 2-42
PLANT EFFICIENCY 2-44
Mix and Stack Temperatures 2-44
Mix Discharge Monitoring 2-45 -
SUMMARY OF DRUM MIXER OPERATING TECHNIQUES 2-46

SECTION FIVE SURGE AND STORAGE SILOS 2-48

INTRODUCTION 2-48
CONVEYING DEVICES 2-48
BIN GEOMETRY 2-48
TOP OF THE SILO 2-49
Mix Delivery 2-49
Batcher 2-50
Rotating Spreader Chute 2-51
SURGE VERSUS STORAGE 2-51
Insulation and Heat 2-51
Storage 2-52
THE CONE, LOADOUT, AND SEGREGATION ... 2-53
Silo Cone 2-53
Loading and Segregation 2-53
Loading Hopper 2-54
SUMMARY OF SILO OPERATING TECHNIQUES .... ... 2-54

SECTION SIX EMISSION CONTROL .. 2-56

INTRODUCTION 2-56
FINES CARRYOUT 2-56
PRIMARY DRY COLLECTOR 2-56
WET COLLECTOR • 2-58
BAGHOUSE .. 2-59
FUGITIVE DUST 2-61
SUMMARY OF EMISSION-CONTROL OPERATING TECHNIQUES 2-62
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

Part Two Contents (continued)

SECTION SEVEN BATCH PLANT • 2-63

INTRODUCTION 2-63
AGGREGATE HANDLING • 2-63
Aggregate Stockpiles 2-63
Cold-Feed Systems for New Aggregates 2-64
Cold-Feed Systems for RAP 2-64
ADDITION OF HYDRATED LIME 2-65

ASPHALT CEMENT SUPPLY SYSTEM .... • 2-65

Storage Tanks 2-65
Pump System 2-65
ADDITION OF LIQUID ANTISTRIP ADDITIVES …….. 2-65
AGGREGATE HEATING AND DRYING 2-65
SCREENING AND STORAGE OF HOT AGGREGATE 2-66
Hot Elevator 2-66
New Aggregate 2-66
Reclaimed Material 2-66
Screen Deck 2-68
Hot Bins 2-69
New Aggregate 2-69
RAP 2-69
WEIGH HOPPER • 2-70
New Aggregate 2-70
Reclaimed Material 2-70
PUGMILL 2-70
Capacity 2-70
Mixing Time 2-71
Dry Mix Time 2-71
Wet Mix Time 2-71
Total Mix Time 2-73
PRODUCING RECYCLED MIX 2-74
Recycling Variables 2-74
Moisture Content 2-75
Mix Discharge Temperature 2-75
Amount of Reclaimed Material 2-75
Dryer Operation 2-75
Visible Emissions 2-75
LOADING THE TRUCK OR SILO 2-77
EMISSION- CONTROL EQUIPMENT · • • 2-77
CALIBRATION ... 2-77
SUMMARY OF PLANT OPERATING TECHNIQUES 2-78

BIBLIOGRAPHY ... ... 2-79


10/15/91
SECTION ONE
TYPES OF ASPHALT PLANTS
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of a hot-mix asphalt plant is to blend
together aggregate and asphalt cement to produce a hot,
homogeneous asphalt paving mixture. The aggregate
used can be a single material, such as a crusher run
aggregate or a pit run material, or it can be a combina-
tion of coarse and fine aggregates, with or without
mineral filler. The binder material used is normally
asphalt cement but can also be an asphalt emulsion or
one of a variety of modified materials. Various additives,
including liquid and powdered materials, can also be
incorporated into the mixture.
There are two basic types of plants currently in use
in the United States: batch plants and continuous mix
plants. Within the continuous mix plant category, there
are two different types of facilities: the older continuous
mix plant and the modern drum mix plant. Within the
drum mix plant category, both parallel flow and counter
flow plants are operated . Each plant type fulfills the
same ultimate purpose, but the operation and flow of
the materials through the plant is different. The asphalt
mixture, however, should be essentially similar regardless
of the type of plant used to manufacture it.
A brief description of the flow of materials and the
operation of batch plants, continuous mix plants, and
drum mix plants is provided in this chapter . A more
detailed discussion of drum mix and batch plants follows.
The equipment and procedures common to both types
of plants (aggregate stockpiling and cold-feed systems,
asphalt cement supply system, surge silos, and emission-
control equipment) are described jointly. The operations
of the parallel-flow drum mixer as well as the batch
plant counter flow dryer and mixing tower are discussed
in separate sections . The old-style continuous mix plants
are not covered in a separate section , because very few
of them are still in operation.
BATCH PLANTS
The major components of a batch plant are the cold-
feed system, asphalt cement supply system, aggregate
dryer, mixing tower, and emission-control system. The
plant tower consists of several elements: hot elevator,
screen deck, hot bins, weigh hopper, asphalt cement
weigh bucket, and pugmill . These components are shown
in Figures 2-1 and 2-2.
Page 2-1
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
The aggregate used in the mix is removed from
stockpiles and placed in individual cold-feed bins. Each
different size aggregate is proportioned out of its bin by
the size of the opening of the gate at the bottom of each
bin or by use of a variable-speed belt feeder. Generally,
belt feeders beneath each bin deposit each aggregate on
a gathering conveyor located under all of the cold-feed
bins. The gathering conveyor transports the combined
aggregate to the charging conveyor, which carries it up
to the aggregate dryer.
The dryer operates on a counter flow basis. The
aggregate is introduced into the dryer at the upper end
and moves down the drum both by the drum rotation
(gravity flow) and by the flight configuration inside the
rotating dryer. The burner is located at the lower end of
the dryer, and the exhaust gases from the combustion
and drying process move toward the upper end of the
dryer, against the flow (counter to the flow) of the
aggregate. As the aggregate is tumbled through the
exhaust gases, the material is heated and dried . Moisture
is removed and carried out of the dryer as part of the
exhaust gas stream. The hot, dry aggregate is discharged
from the dryer at the lower end .
The hot aggregate is transported to the top of the
plant mixing tower by a bucket elevator. Upon discharge
from the elevator, the aggregate normally passes through
a set of vibrating screens . The finest aggregate material
goes directly through all the screens into the No. 1 hot
bin. The coarser aggregate particles are caught by the
different size screens and deposited into one of the
other hot bins. The separation of aggregate in each of
the hot bins depends on the size of the openings in the
screen that is used in the screen deck and the gradation
of the aggregate in the cold-feed bins.
The aggregate is held in the hot bins until it is
discharged from a gate at the bottom of each bin into a
weigh hopper. The correct proportion of each aggregate
is determined by weight. If reclaimed material is used in
the mix, it typically is entered into the weigh hopper as
an additional aggregate .
At the same time that the aggregate is being propor-
tioned and weighed, the asphalt cement is pumped from
its storage tank to a separate weigh bucket located on
the tower just above the pugmill. The proper amount of
material is weighed into the heated bucket and held
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Figure 2-1 . Typical batch plants (Barber-Greene).
until it is needed in the pugmill .
The aggregate in the weigh hopper is emptied into a
twin shaft pugmill, and the different aggregate fractions
are mixed together. After this brief dry-mix time, the
asphalt cement from the weigh bucket is discharged into
the pugmill and the wet-mix time begins. The mixing
time for the blending of the asphalt cement with the
aggregate should be no more than that needed to com-
pletely coat the aggregate particles with a thin film of
Page 2-2
10/15/91
the asphalt cement material . The total time in the
pugmill, made up of dry-mix time and wet-mix time, can
be as short as 28 sec, in most cases.
When mixing is complete, the gates on the bottom of
the pugmill are opened and the mix is discharged into
the haul vehicle or into a conveying device that carries
the mix to a silo and eventually into the truck. For most
batch plants, the time needed to open the pugmill gates
and discharge the mix is approximately 7 sec. Thus, the
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

Fourteen Major Parts

1. Cold bins 9. Hot bins
2. Cold feed gate 8
10. Weigh box
3. Cold elevator
11. Mixing unit -- or pugmill
4. Dryer 12. Mineral filler storage 1
6
5. Dust collector 13. Hot asphalt cement storage 9
6. Exhaust stack 14. Asphalt weigh bucket
7. Hot elevator
www
8. Screening unit
10

11 14

1 3 5
4

CO 12 13
www.2

Figure 2-2. Batch plant components (Asphalt Institute).

total mixing time for a batch would be about 35 sec
(dry-mix time + wet-mix time + mix discharge) in most
cases.
The plant is equipped with emission-control devices,
both primary and secondary collection systems . Either a
wet-scrubber system or a dry- fabric filter system (bag-
house) can be used as the secondary collection system to
remove particulate matter from the exhaust gases that
flow out of the dryer and send clean air to the atmosph-
ere through the stack.
If RAP is incorporated into the mix, the material is
placed in a separate cold-feed bin from which it is
delivered to the plant . It can be added to the new aggre-
gate in one of three locations: the bottom of the hot.

Figure 2-3. Continuous- mix plant (J. Scherocman).

Page 2-3
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1 10/15/91

elevator, the hot bins, or the weigh hopper, with the last
location being the one most commonly used. Heat
transfer between the superheated new aggregate and the
reclaimed material begins as soon as the two materials
come in contact and continues during the mixing process
in the pugmill .
CONTINUOUS MIX PLANTS
An old-style continuous mix plant is shown in Figures
2-3 and 2-4 . The components of this type of plant
include the cold-feed system, asphalt cement supply
system , aggregate dryer, hot-bucket elevator, screen unit,
hot bins, mixing unit and holding hopper, and emission-
control system .
The cold-feed bins are similar to those used on a
batch plant, and typically a constant-speed feeder belt is
located under each bin. Material is proportioned from
each bin by the size of the discharge gate opening and
deposited on the gathering conveyor. The aggregate is
transferred to a charging conveyor for delivery to the
dryer. Inside the dryer the moisture in the combined
aggregate is removed as the material is heated from
ambient temperature to the desired mixing temperature .
The dried and heated aggregate is then carried up an
inclined bucket elevator to the screen deck, where it is
divided into various sizes and temporarily held in small
hot bins.
The aggregate is continuously removed from the bins,
proportioned according to the desired gradation in the
mix, and transported to the pugmill. The asphalt cement
is kept in a storage tank and then pumped to the mixing
tower, where it is sprayed on the aggregate. The asphalt
cement, measured by volume instead of weight, is mixed
continuously with the aggregate as the two materials are
moved toward the discharge end of the pugmill by the
mixing paddles. Mixing time can be increased or de-
creased by changing the retention or dwell time of the
aggregates in the pugmill, usually by altering the setting
of the pugmill discharge end gate or by reversing one or
more sets of paddles.
Because the mixing is a continuous process, a small-
capacity, temporary holding hopper is provided at the
discharge end of the mixer to store the material until it
can be delivered into a haul truck. For emission-control
purposes, the plant is equipped with a primary dry
collector and a secondary wet collector or a baghouse.
If a recycled mix is being produced, the RAP materi-
al is placed in a separate cold-feed bin and transported
to the pugmill by a charging conveyor . This material is
added proportionately, by volume, to the new aggregate
that has been superheated in the dryer. The heat
transfer and mixing of the two materials is accomplished
as they move through the pugmill.
DRUM MIX PLANTS
Parallel-Flow Drum Mixer
The parallel-flow drum mix plant, shown in Figures
2-5, 2-6, and 2-7, is a form of the old-style continuous
mix plant. It consists of five major components: the cold-
feed system, asphalt cement supply system, drum mixer,
surge silo, and emission-control equipment .
The cold-feed bins are used to proportion the
material to the plant . Variable-speed feeder belts are
used under each bin. The amount of each aggregate

C E
B
Α D
ད་
F H
I

G
K

PRQS T
0
N

L M

A Cold aggregate storage and feed; B Dryer; C Dust collector; D Gradation control unit; E Mixer; F Grizzly; G Fan; H Vibrating screen;
I Transfer pump; J Pugmill ; K Pugmill jacket; L Belt feeder; M Reciprocating feeder; N Flights; O Collected fines; P Gates; Q Mineral
filler feed; R Aggregate sample point; S Metering pump; T Discharge Hopper
Figure 2-4. Continuous- mix plant components (Asphalt Institute).

Page 2-4

10/15/91
Figure 2-5 . Typical drum mix plant (Barber-Greene).
drawn from each bin can thus be controlled by both the
size of the gate opening and the speed of the belt feeder
to provide accurate delivery of the coarse and fine
material. The aggregate on each feeder belt is deposited
onto a gathering conveyor that runs beneath all of the
cold-feed bins. The combined material is normally
passed through a scalping screen and transferred to a
charging conveyor for transport to the drum mixer.
The charging conveyor is equipped with two devices
that are used to determine the weight of the aggregate
being delivered to the plant : A weigh bridge under the
conveyor belt measures the weight of the aggregate
passing over it at an instant of time, and a sensor is used
to determine the speed of the belt. These two values are
used to compute the wet weight of aggregate, in tons per
hour, entering the drum mixer. The plant computer, with
the amount of moisture in the aggregate provided as an
input value, converts the wet weight to dry weight to
control the amount of asphalt cement needed in the mix.
The conventional drum mixer is a parallel-flow
system ; the exhaust gases and the aggregate move in the
same direction. The burner is located at the upper end
(aggregate inlet end) of the drum. The aggregate enters
the drum either from a charging chute above the burner
or on a slinger conveyor under the burner. The aggre-
gate is moved down the drum by a combination of
Page 2-5
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
gravity and by the flight configuration inside the drum.
As it travels, the aggregate is heated and the moisture
removed . A dense veil of aggregate is built up near the
midpoint of the drum length to assist in the heat-trans-
fer process .
If RAP is added to the new aggregates, it can enter
the drum in one of two locations: it can be combined
with the new aggregate at the burner end of the drum
(the single-feed method, which is very seldom used ), but
most often is deposited from its own cold-feed bin and
gathering/charging conveyor into an inlet located at the
center of the drum length (split-feed system) . In the
latter process, the reclaimed material is protected from
the high-temperature exhaust gases by the veil of new
aggregate upstream of its entry point.
The new aggregate and reclaimed material, if used,
move into the rear half of the drum. The asphalt cement
is pulled from the storage tank by a pump, fed through
a meter where the proper volume of asphalt cement is
determined, and then through a pipe into the rear of the
drum . The asphalt cement is injected onto the aggregate .
Coating of the aggregate occurs as the materials are
tumbled together and moved to the discharge end of the
drum . Mineral filler and/or baghouse fines are also
added into the back of the drum, either just before, or
in conjunction with, the addition of the asphalt cement.
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Automatic
Weighing System
Cold Feed Conveyor
Cold Feed Bins
Drum Mixer
Asphalt
Storage Tank चि Asphalt Pump
Figure 2-6. Drum mix plant components (Asphalt Institute).
The asphalt mix is deposited into a conveying device
(a drag slat conveyor, belt conveyor, or bucket elevator)
for transport to a surge silo. The silo converts the
continuous flow of mix into a batch flow for discharge
into the haul vehicle.
In general, the same type of emission-control equip-
ment is used on the drum mix plant as on the batch
plant. A primary dry collector and either a wet-scrubber
system or a baghouse secondary collector can be used.
If a wet-scrubber system is used, the collected fines
cannot be recycled back into the mix and are wasted. If
the baghouse is used, the collected fines can be returned
in whole or in part to the mixing drum or they can be
wasted.
In the late 1980s, a number of variations to the
conventional drum mix plant were introduced to the hot-
mix asphalt-paving industry. One of these plant types is
the "coater" plant. For this type of drum mixer (which is
really a type of continuous mix plant instead of a drum
mixer), the asphalt cement injection pipe has been
removed from the drum. This modification removes the
asphalt cement from exposure to the high-temperature
exhaust gases and reduces both hydrocarbon and visible
@
Virgin
Aggregate
Figure 2-7. Parallel-flow drum mix plant (Astec) .
Page 2-6
10/15/91
Hot-Mix Conveyor
Mix
Surge
Silo
Dust Control
Collector Van
emissions from the plant . The uncoated aggregate, which
is heated and dried inside the parallel-flow drum, is
discharged into a single- or dual-shaft mixing chamber,
where it is sprayed with asphalt cement. The blending of
the asphalt cement and the aggregate takes place as the
materials move from one end of the mixing unit to the
other. When mixing is complete, the material is deliv-
ered to the device used to transport it to the silo. Figure
2-8 is an illustration of the " coater" type of drum mix
plant.
Counter Flow Drum Mixer
A recent development in continuous mix plant design
is the counter flow drum mix plant. The development of
this plant type is an effort to improve the heat-transfer
process inside the drum and to reduce plant emissions.
As shown in Figure 2-9, the aggregate enters the
drum from the upper end, whereas the burner is located
near the lower end of the drum, similar to its position
on a batch plant dryer. The aggregate moves down the
drum against the flow of the exhaust gases--in a counter
flow direction. No asphalt cement is introduced into the
aggregate within the main portion of the drum. An
Exhaust
Liquid
Asphalt
Hot
Mix

10/15/91
Virgin
Aggregate
Figure 2-8. Drum mix coater cutaway (Astec) .
extension to the drum is used , as shown in Figure 2-10,
to provide for the mixing of the heated and dried
aggregate with the asphalt cement. This mixing takes
place behind (downstream of) the dryer in a separate
mixing chamber or zone, out of contact with the exhaust
gases from the burner.
If RAP is used in the asphalt mix produced in a
counter flow drum mix plant, it is introduced into the
drum downstream of the burner. Thus the RAP does
not come in contact with the high-temperature exhaust
gases from the burner and visual hydrocarbon emissions
are not generated. The reclaimed material is heated by
Recycle Asphalt
Product
Air
Liquid
Asphalt
Hot
Mix
Figure 2-9. Counter flow drum mixer components (Astec) .
Page 2-7
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Recycle Asphalt
Product
Exhaust
Liquid
Asphalt
overheating the new aggregate in the upper end of the
counter flow dryer and blending the two materials
together in the lower portion of the drum, between the
burner and the discharge end of the mixing unit.
In some counter flow drum mix plants, the mixing
section is placed on the outside of (around) the primary
drum , as seen in Figures 2-11 and 2-12. The asphalt
cement in this double barrel plant is introduced into the
aggregate after the aggregate is discharged from the
inner drum into the outer drum . The blending of the
two materials occurs as the aggregate and asphalt
cement are conveyed back uphill in the outer drum by
Exhaust
Virgin
Aggregate
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1 10/15/91

HOT OR

Figure 2-10. Counter flow drum mixer (Gencor) .

e
doubl berel

AST

Figure 2-11 . Double barrel plant (Astec).

Page 2-8
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

a set of mixing paddles attached to the inner drum. The
inner drum rotates, whereas the outer drum is station-
ary.
As in the normal counter flow drum mixer, the RAP
material in the double barrel process enters the drum
between the inside and outside dryer drums, away from
the exhaust gases from the burner. This keeps the RAP
from contact with the high-temperature exhaust gases
and thus reduces the possibility of the generation of blue
smoke during the recycling process.
Because the number of "coater" parallel-flow drum
mix plants and counter flow drum mix plants in use is
limited , and because their operation is essentially similar
to that of a drum mixer and a dryer, no further discus-
sion of the operation of these types of continuous mix
plants will be undertaken in this manual.

Liquid Asphalt
Recycle Asphalt
Product Exhaust

00
0 000
000

00 Virgin
000
100 Aggregate

Hot
Mix

Figure 2-12. Double barrel drum mixer (Astec) .

Page 2-9
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
SECTION TWO
AGGREGATE STORAGE AND HANDLING
INTRODUCTION
The information discussed in this section concerns
the stockpiling and the handling of both new aggregate
and RAP material for use in any asphalt plant. This
section discusses proper stockpiling techniques, both for
placement of the aggregate in the stockpile and for
removal of the aggregate from the stockpile . Care must
be taken to minimize possible segregation of the aggre-
gate, both coarse and fine, during the stockpiling and
handling process .
This section also contains a review of the discharge
of the aggregate from the cold-feed bins onto the
individual bin feeder conveyor belts, as well as the
passage of the aggregate onto the gathering conveyor
and the delivery of the aggregate, sometimes through a
scalping screen, to the charging conveyor and finally to
the batch plant dryer or to the drum mixer . There is
also a discussion, in the section on drum mix plant
operations, of the use of a weigh bridge system on the
charging conveyor to determine the amount of aggregate
being fed into the drum .
This section reviews delivery of RAP from its cold-
feed bin to the batch or drum mix plant. It points out
that the charging conveyor can deposit the reclaimed
material into three locations on a batch plant and two
locations on a drum mix plant. There is an examination
of calibration of the cold-feed system , with information
provided on the proper methods to use to check the rate
of aggregate delivery from the individual cold -feed bins
and over the weigh bridge system.
AGGREGATE STOCKPILES
Quality control of hot-mix asphalt, regardless of
whether a batch or drum mix plant is used to manufac-
ture the mix, begins with the stockpiles of aggregate that
are to be processed through the plant and incorporated
into the mix. The aggregate should be stored on a clean
surface, with the different sizes of coarse and fine aggre-
gate kept separated . Care should be exercised both
during the stockpiling process and during the removal
process to minimize segregation of the aggregate in each
pile. If segregation of a particular size of coarse or fine
aggregate does occur, an effort should be made to blend
the segregated materials together before the aggregate
is delivered into the cold-feed bins. This is difficult to
Page 2-10
10/15/91
do, however, and care must be taken with this operation
to prevent the segregation problem from becoming
worse.
Aggregate should be stockpiled on a clean, dry,
stable surface and should not be allowed to become
contaminated with foreign materials such as dust, mud,
or grass. Fugitive dust in the aggregate stockpile area
should be controlled so that the dust does not coat the
surface of the aggregates and does not alter the grada-
tion of the material in each stockpile . The stockpiles
should be constructed to be free draining to ensure that
the moisture content of the aggregate is as low as
possible . Paved stockpile pads have been used to
facilitate drainage and provide a solid working platform.
Excess moisture in the aggregates, particularly in the
fine aggregates (sand) , increases the cost of drying the
aggregates and reduces the production capacity of the
plant. The moisture content of each aggregate size
should be determined at least twice a day and the
average moisture content of all the aggregates entered
into the plant computer system .
In order to reduce the amount of moisture that
accumulates in the aggregate, especially from rain, it is
often cost-effective to cover the aggregate stockpiles.
This cover typically is in the form of a roof or a shed.
Sometimes only the fine aggregate (sand) stockpile is
covered because the fine aggregate usually has a higher
moisture content than the coarser aggregate .
The stockpiles of the various aggregate sizes should
be kept separated --by physical barriers, if necessary-- at
all times. The cold-feed bins and feeders are calibrated
to provide a specific amount of each different size
aggregate from each bin. If the various materials are
blended in the stockpiles, a combination of sizes will
occur in each cold -feed bin . This blending of the
aggregate will cause variations in the gradation of the
HMA produced by a drum mix plant and can cause
problems with unbalanced hot bins in a batch plant.
Segregation of the stockpiled aggregate is a major
concern. Many aggregate problems are caused by
mishandling of the aggregate during stockpiling and
loadout operations. Whenever possible , aggregate
should be stockpiled by individual size fractions. A well-
graded or continuously graded material can easily
segregate if mishandled . Aggregate of larger size, par-

10/15/91
Figure 2-13. Segregated stockpile (Asphalt Institute).
ticularly when combined with smaller sizes of stone, has
a tendency to roll down the face of a stockpile and
collect at the bottom, as shown in Figure 2-13.
Prevention of segregation begins with the construc-
tion of the stockpile. As illustrated in Figure 2-14,
stockpiles should be constructed in horizontal or gently
sloping layers. If trucks are used to carry the incoming
aggregate to the plant site, each load should be dumped
Figure 2-14. Layered stockpile (Asphalt Institute) .
in a single pile as seen in Figure 2-15 . Any construction
procedure that results in the aggregate being pushed or
dumped over the side of the stockpile should be avoid-
ed, because these practices may result in segregation .
Trucks and loaders should be kept off of the stockpiles,
because they cause aggregate breakage, fines generation,
and contamination of the stockpile .
Aggregate coming off of the end of a stacking
conveyor or radial stacker can be segregated by the
wind. Aggregate being stockpiled by a stacker can also
be broken by the fall from the stacker. Segregation and
breakage can be minimized by use of a rock ladder.
Page 2-11
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Figure 2-15. Truck dump stockpile (Asphalt Institute).
Proper operation of the front-end loader used to
load haul trucks or charge the cold-feed bins of the
asphalt plant will also reduce the aggregate segregation
and gradation variation problems. As shown in Figure
2-16, a stockpile of continuously graded aggregate will
be segregated when produced by a stacker. The outside
edge of the stockpile will be coarse, and the aggregate
below and slightly behind the head pulley will be fine .
Significant changes in gradation can result from burrow-
ing straight through the stockpile . The loader operator
should remove the aggregate in a direction perpendicu-
lar to the aggregate flow and should work the entire face
of the stockpile. This practice will minimize aggregate
gradation changes in the mix produced by the asphalt
plant.
The loader operator should be careful when cleaning
the edges of the stockpile so that yard material is not
pushed or dumped into the stockpile, contaminating the
stockpile. When loading out of a stockpile, the loader
operator should make sure that the loader bucket is in
the stockpile and not in the yardstone .
When loading from a stockpile built in layers, the
loader operator should try to get each bucket load by
entering the lower layer at the approximate midpoint of
that layer and scooping up through the overlying layer.
This results in half the aggregate being from each layer.
This procedure also reblends the aggregate, which , in
turn, reduces segregation . Removal of aggregate from
a stockpile should be planned so that a minimum
amount of aggregate is disturbed with each bucket load.
This is accomplished by rolling the bucket up, instead of
pulling or scooping the bucket up through the stockpile.
Removal of aggregate from the bottom of a large
stockpile of aggregate will result in the coarse aggregate
rolling down the face of the pile and gathering at the
bottom and will increase the average moisture content
of the aggregate .
Besides working the face of the stockpile, the loader
operator should practice good stockpile management .
A good practice is to rotate stockpiles so that the first
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Figure 2-16. Conveyor delivery of aggregate (J. Scherocman) .
material put into the stockpile is removed first. Areas
of the stockpile that are segregated should be reblended
by the loader operator at the stockpile. The operator
should definitely not feed one or two loads of coarse
aggregate and then one or two loads of fine aggregate
into the cold-feed bins in an attempt to blend the
aggregate . This type of procedure will cause significant
problems in meeting the required aggregate gradation in
the mix, no matter what type of plant is used to produce
the mix. The best approach to minimizing segregation,
however, is to use proper stockpiling techniques in the
first place, instead of relying on the loader operator to
attempt to blend segregated materials adequately.
Generally, RAP should be stockpiled using the same
techniques described for new aggregate. In hotter
climates, however, it may be desirable to limit the height
of the RAP stockpile in order to reduce the tendency
for the material to consolidate and bind back together
under its own weight. Typical maximum RAP stockpile
heights are in the range of 10 to 12 ft for mixtures
having relatively high asphalt contents.
Separation of the larger particles from the smaller
RAP pieces will typically occur more readily than with
new aggregate because the reclaimed material will
usually contain a greater variety of particle sizes than
will individual new aggregate sizes. Normally this is not
Page 2-12
10/15/91
a problem because the RAP pieces will usually break
down inside the drum mixer or in the batch plant
pugmill during the heating, drying, and mixing process.
If a significant amount of large chunks of RAP (pieces
greater than 2 in. in size) are fed into the plant at one
time, however, those chunks may not be properly heated
and mixed with the new aggregates and asphalt cement.
Thus, care should be taken to assure that the RAP
material that is fed into the plant is as consistent in
gradation, from coarse to fine, as possible. It is often
necessary to screen out and then crush the largest pieces
of RAP to assure proper heat transfer and mixing of the
reclaimed and new aggregates inside the drum mixer.
COLD- FEED SYSTEMS FOR NEW AGGREGATES
The cold-feed systems on an HMA batch and drum
mix plant are typically similar. Each consists of cold-feed
bins, feeder conveyors, a gathering conveyor, and a
charging conveyor. On most drum mix plants and on a
few batch plants, a scalping screen is included in the
system at some point. If RAP is also being fed into the
plant to produce a recycled mix, an additional cold-feed
bin or bins, feeder conveyor and/or gathering conveyor,
scalping screen, and charging conveyor are necessary to
handle the extra material.

10/15/91
Figure 2-17. Cold -feed bin with dividers between bins (Barber-Greene) .
Cold-Feed Bins and Feed Conveyors
The flow of aggregates through a plant begins at the
cold-feed bins, as seen in Figure 2-17 . The plant is
equipped with multiple bins to handle the different sizes
of new aggregates used in the mix. Most cold-feed bins
are rectangular in shape, have sloping sides, and have a
Bin Opening.
Configuration
Effective Area
Dead Area
Figure 2-18. Cold-feed bin with rectangular opening
(Astec).
rectangular (Figure 2-18) or trapezoidal (Figure 2-19)
opening at the bottom. A bulkhead or divider should be
used between each cold -feed bin, as shown in Figure
2-17, to prevent overflow of the aggregate from one bin
into an adjacent bin. As seen in Figure 2-20, if no
Page 2-13
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
bulkheads are used between the bins, aggregates that
should be in one bin can combine with the aggregates of
a different size in the adjacent bin . This commingling of
aggregate sizes can significantly alter the gradation of
the mix being produced, particularly in a drum mix
plant , where no screens are used to resize the aggregate
Bin Opening
Configuration
Effective Area
Figure 2-19. Cold -feed bins with trapezoidal opening
(Astec) .
after it is dried . If bulkheads are not in place between
the cold-feed bins and mixing of the different size
aggregates is a problem, these devices should be in-
stalled. Care should be taken not to pile aggregate
higher than the top of the bulkheads .
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
10/15/91

Figure 2-20. Overfilling cold-feed bins (J. Scherocman).

Each cold-feed bin is equipped with a gate to control
the size of the discharge opening on the bin and a
conveyor belt to draw aggregate out of each bin at a
controlled rate. On some plants, the speed of the
conveyor belt under the bin is not variable. The amount
of aggregate that is withdrawn from the bin is deter-
mined by the setting of the gate opening. The degree of
control exercised over the amount of aggregate with-
drawn from each bin is thus governed by the number of
gate settings on each feeder gate . The size of the gate
opening is set by raising or lowering the gate by a hand
or electric- powered crank or wheel, or by unbolting,
moving, and rebolting a sliding plate on one end of the
bin.
Most cold-feed bins are equipped with variable-speed
belt feed conveyors under each bin, as shown in Figure
2-21 . The gate opening for each bin is set to deliver a
relative amount of aggregate in proportion to the
amount of each aggregate needed in the mix; the more
of a particular aggregate required, the larger the open-
ing of the bin discharge gate. The speed of each
individual conveyor is then set to determine the exact
amount of each material withdrawn from the bin. If
small changes are needed in the amount of material to
be delivered from one bin, the speed of the feeder
conveyor can be increased or decreased to accommodate
the change. Theoretically, it is possible to withdraw
aggregate from the bin using the full range of the belt
speed, from 1 to 100 percent of the maximum belt
speed. In practice, only 20 to 80 percent of the maxi-
mum belt speed (ideally, 50 percent) should be used
when determining the size of the bin gate opening. This
will allow the plant operator some leeway to vary the
production rate of the plant for changes in operating
conditions without having to change the setting of the
gate opening.
If a large change is needed in the feed rate for a
particular size of aggregate, however, the gate opening
at the discharge end of the bin needs to be adjusted .
The speed setting of each belt feeder is displayed on the
operator's console in the plant control trailer and is
typical shown as a percentage of the maximum belt

Figure 2-21 . Cold -feed bin belt feeder (NAPA).

Page 2-14

10/15/91
O O
Figure 2-22. Discharge from cold-feed conveyor to gathering conveyor (J. Scherocman).
speed. If the feeder belt under a given cold-feed bin is
operating at a level less than 20 percent or more than 80
percent, the gate setting may need to be changed to
allow the belt to operate closer to the center of its speed
range for the selected production rate.
The speed setting for each individual belt feeder is
adjusted independently to allow the proper amount of
aggregate to be pulled from each particular bin. Once
determined, the speed of all the belt feeds is synchro-
nized so that a change in the speed of one belt feeder is
proportional to the change in the speed of all the other
belt feeders. Thus, if the production of the plant is
increased from 250 to 350 tons per hour, a change in the
master control setting causes a corresponding propor-
tional change in the speed of all the feeder belt convey-
ors.
Each cold-feed bin and its companion feed conveyor
should be equipped with a "no flow" device that will
alert the operator when no aggregate is coming out of
the cold-feed bin. If the bin is empty or if the aggregate
has bridged over the discharge opening in the bin and
no material is being discharged onto the gathering
conveyor, the " no flow" sensor (typically a limit switch)
indicates the condition by sounding an audible alarm or
automatically shutting down the plant after a preset
time.
Page 2-15
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Gathering Conveyor
As shown in Figure 2-22, aggregate deposited from
each belt feeder is dropped onto a gathering conveyor
that collects the aggregate discharged from each of the
bins. The speed of the gathering conveyor, which is
located beneath all of the individual feed conveyors, is
constant. The amount of aggregate deposited on this
conveyor is a function of the size of the gate opening
and the speed of the feeder conveyor under each cold-
feed bin.
To reduce the amount of buildup that may occur on
this conveyor, particularly when the various aggregates
are wet, the coarser aggregates should be placed on the
belt first. The sand, which typically has the higher
moisture content, if placed on the conveyor belt first,
can stick to the belt and may need to be continually
removed. This may affect the gradation of the aggregate
in the mix .
Scalping Screens and Devices
On drum mix plants it is desirable to insert a scalping
screen into the cold-feed system to prevent oversize
material from entering the mixer. Scalping can some-
times be accomplished successfully by placement of a
screen over the top of the cold-feed bins. In many
cases, however, this screen is only a grizzly-type device
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
SARBER-GREENE
Figure 2-23. Scalping screen (Barber-Greene).
with large openings. Because of the large volume of
aggregate that is delivered at one time from the front-
end loader to a cold-feed bin, a screen that has small
openings cannot properly handle the flow of aggregate
from the loader bucket to the bin. Thus, scalping
screens employed on top of the cold-feed bins are
normally used only for the larger size coarse aggregate
and for reclaimed material.
A scalping screen is most often placed somewhere
between the end of the gathering conveyor and the
drum to remove deleterious materials such as tree roots,
vegetable matter, and clay lumps, as well as oversize
aggregate (Figure 2-23) . It is not normally necessary to
pass quarry-processed aggregates through a scalping
screen, although it is always good practice to do so to
prevent any extraneous oversize material from entering
the drum and the mix. A scalping screen should be used
as part of the cold-feed system on a batch plant if the
screens have been removed from the mixing tower or if
The size of the openings in
the screens are bypassed .
Page 2-16
10/15/91
the smallest screen (the bottom screen if a double- deck
screen is being used) is typically slightly bigger than the
maximum size aggregate used in the mix.
Scalping devices can be tailored to the needs of each
individual plant . Typically only a single-deck scalping
screen is used. Some plants employ a two-deck scalping
screen, which controls two different top -size aggregates
without changing the screen (Figure 2-24) . If both
screens are being used, a flop gate at the lower end of
the second screen is used to redirect the aggregate
caught on the bottom screen to the charging conveyor.
The flop gate can be operated either manually or
automatically. The openings in the screen can be either
square or slotted . The advantage of the use of the
slotted screen is that a smaller screen area can be used
to handle a given volume of material.
Some scalping screens are equipped with a bypass
chute . This allows the aggregates on the gathering
conveyor to be deposited directly on the charging
conveyor without passing through the screen. This
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

Figure 2-24. Double-deck scalper (Astec) .

procedure is sometimes used when quarry-processed
aggregate or aggregate free of any deleterious material
is fed to the plant.
Instead of a scalping screen at the end of the gather-
ing conveyor, one make of cold-feed bins includes a
small scalping screen under each cold-feed bin, which is
illustrated in Figure 2-25. The aggregate from a particu-
lar bin falls off the belt feeder and onto the scalping
screen. Properly sized material passes through the
screen and onto the gathering conveyor. Oversized
pieces are rolled down the screen into a reject chute
that deposits the aggregates in a pile for subsequent
disposal. Because the size of these individual-bin
scalping screens is quite small, if they become blinded or
clogged, the proper amount of aggregate will not pass
through the screen onto the charging conveyor. Thus
the operation of such scalping screens should be moni-
tored on a regular basis.

C
CHATTANOOGATE
AS , TENNESSEE USA

Figure 2-25. Individual scalping screen under each bin (Astec) .

Page 2-17
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
10/15/91

Figure 2-26. Charging conveyor with weigh bridge system (J. Scherocman).

Charging Conveyor constant speed that is independent of the other con-

Batch Plants veyors. The weigh bridge itself is located near the
The combined coarse and fine aggregates are dis- midpoint of the charging conveyor.
charged from the gathering conveyor onto the charging A weigh idler, as seen in Figure 2-27, is the heart of
conveyor for transport to the drum. For a batch plant, the weigh bridge system. This idler is different from the
this conveyor delivers the aggregate to the inclined chute fixed idlers on the conveyor frame. It is free to move
at the upper end of the dryer. The charging conveyor is WINDSHIELDS LOAD CELL
a simple belt that operates at a constant speed but BELT GUIDES WEIGH IDLER
FOR CONSTANT
carries a variable amount of aggregate, depending on the ALIGNMENT
volume of aggregate delivered from the cold-feed bins.
The conveyor should normally be equipped with a device
(scraper blade or brush) to clean off the belt as it
revolves.

Drum Mix Plants
For a parallel-flow drum mix plant, the charging
conveyor carries the aggregate to a charging chute above
the burner on the drum or to a slinger conveyor under
the burner. From one of these two entry points, the
aggregates are introduced into the mixing drum . For
this type of plant, the charging conveyor contains a
weigh bridge system (shown in Figure 2-26) that mea-
sures the amount of aggregate, in tons per hour, being
fed to the drum mixer. The weigh bridge, or belt scale ,
determines the weight of aggregate passing over the
weigh idler. The charging conveyor operates at a
GRAVITY TAKE UP
FOR CONSTANT BELT
TENSION AND SCALE
ACCURACY
BELT SPEED SENSOR
Figure 2-27. Weigh bridge idler and gravity take up
(Barber-Greene).
and is attached to a load cell. As the aggregates pass
over the weigh idler, the weight of the material is
recorded as an electrical signal in the computer control
system . The weight value by itself is meaningless,
however, because it covers only an instant of time. Thus

Page 2-18

10/15/91
the charging conveyor is also equipped with a belt speed
sensor, as shown in this same figure . This device ,
usually located on the belt takeup pulley, is a tachome-
ter, which, coupled with the diameter of the pulley,
measures the actual speed of the conveyor belt.
To obtain an accurate belt speed reading, it is essen-
tial that the charging conveyor belt be tight around the
gravity takeup pulley, as shown in Figure 2-27. Any
slippage of the belt over the speed sensor will result in
an erroneous reading and an incorrect wet aggregate
weight input value to the drum mixer. Some conveyors
are equipped with an air-actuated takeup system that is
located on the tail shaft pulley and operates in a manner
similar to the gravity takeup system. Its purpose is to
keep the belt tight and eliminate the potential problem
of inaccurate belt speed sensor readings.
The information from the weigh idler on the belt
scale and from the belt speed sensor is combined to
determine the actual weight of aggregate, in terms of
tons per hour. This value is the wet weight of the
aggregate and includes the moisture in the aggregate.
The wet weight of this material is converted to dry
weight by the plant computer in order to add the proper
amount of asphalt cement to the mix, using a manual
input of the average moisture content in the combined
coarse and fine aggregates.
The moisture content of each of the aggregates being
fed into the plant should be checked regularly and the
average amount of moisture in the incoming aggregate
determined . The determination should be made when-
ever the moisture content of the aggregate stockpiles has
·
changed, such as after a rain, or a minimum of twice a
day. This frequency can be reduced to a minimum of
once a day during periods of consistent dry weather
conditions.
If the aggregates being carried on the belt are rela-
tively dry, all the aggregates that pass over the weigh
bridge will enter the drum. If the moisture content of
the aggregate is high, however, some of the fine aggre-
gate may stick to the charging conveyor belt. This
"extra" material will not be fed into the drum, but will
remain on the belt. If not removed by a scraper, the
additional material will continually be detected by the
weigh bridge and the plant computer will calculate a
greater weight of aggregate entering the drum than is
actually occurring. This will cause the computer to
signal the asphalt pump to deliver additional asphalt
cement to the plant to compensate for the additional
aggregate. Thus the belt scraper or brush should be in
place, continually cleaning the charging conveyor belt as
it carries aggregates to the mixing drum.
Page 2-19
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Individual-Bin Weigh Bridges
On a few plants, the individual cold-feed bins may be
equipped with weigh bridge systems located on the
individual-belt feeder conveyor. For this type of setup,
the conveyor belt under each individual cold-feed bin
must be longer than belt feeders without the weigh
bridge . Usually a plant with individual cold -feed weigh
bridges will not have a weigh bridge installed on the last
feeder conveyor closest to the drum mixer. Another
standard weigh bridge is installed on the charging
conveyor. This latter system provides data on the
combined weight of all the aggregates, the same as the
weigh bridge system on most drum mix plants.
The plant computer and controls are able to display
the amount of aggregates pulled from each cold-feed
bin. The amount of material delivered from the bins
equipped with individual weigh bridges is read directly,
after the amount of moisture in each aggregate fraction
is deducted . The weight of aggregate discharged from
the last bin is determined by subtracting (by use of the
computer) the amount of aggregate weighed by the
individual feeders from the total aggregate weight
measured by the weigh bridge located on the charging
conveyor, adjusted for moisture content .
COLD-FEED SYSTEMS FOR RECLAIMED ASPHALT
PAVEMENT
The cold-feed system for handling RAP is essentially
the same as the conventional cold-feed system for new
aggregates . On most plants, as shown in Figure 2-28,
this is done through the use of a separate cold -feed bin.
The bin (or bins) is similar to the cold -feed bins used for
new aggregates except that all four sides of the RAP
feed bins are usually much steeper. The steeper sides
allow the asphalt-coated aggregates to be discharged
from the bins more easily. This is particularly important
in hot weather, when the RAP can become sticky. The
steeper sides reduce the tendency of the reclaimed
material to bridge the opening at the bottom of the bin.
If a separate cold-feed bin arrangement is used for
the reclaimed material, there is normally a variable-
speed belt conveyor under each bin . The bins are also
provided with a gate that can be set at various openings.
The RAP, typically delivered to the bin by front-end
loader, is discharged onto the feeder conveyor. If only
one cold-feed bin is used, the RAP on the feeder
conveyor is transferred to a charging conveyor. If more
than one cold-feed bin is employed, the feeder conveyor
under each bin delivers the RAP to a gathering convey-
or and then to the charging conveyor. The RAP then
should be passed through a scalping screen to remove
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Figure 2-28. RAP bin (J. Scherocman).
any oversized pieces of asphalt mixture or deleterious
material. An alternative setup is to place a scalping
screen or fixed-bar grizzly over the cold-feed bin itself
and thus remove any oversize and foreign material
before it enters the bin. Another alternative setup is to
place a small crusher in the system between the cold-
feed bin and the charging conveyor to reduce the size of
any oversize RAP pieces.
After exiting the scalping screen, the RAP is dropped
onto the inclined conveyor for transport to the plant. If
it is being carried to a batch plant, the material can be
Figure 2-29. RAP & virgin feed bins (J. Scherocman).
Page 2-20
10/15/91
delivered to the boot (bottom) of the hot elevator, to
one of the hot bins at the top of the plant, or to the
weigh hopper. If the reclaimed material is being trans-
ported to a drum mix plant, the charging conveyor will
be equipped with a weigh bridge system that measures
the weight of the material passing over it as well as the
speed of the belt itself. This weight, in tons per hour,
includes the moisture in the RAP. The average mois-
ture content value is manually input into the plant
controls and the dry weight of the RAP calculated by
the plant computer. The information determined from

10/15/91
the weigh bridge system on the RAP charging conveyor
is combined with the data from the new aggregate weigh
bridge system to determine the plant input tonnage.
Single-Feed Drum Mix Plants
A very limited number of drum mix plants have only
one set of cold-feed bins. Some of the bins are used to
hold the new aggregates and the other bins are used to
handle the RAP, as shown in Figure 2-29. For one type
of plant, the new and reclaimed aggregates are both fed
at the same time into the burner end of the drum mix
plant. In this case, the RAP is handled exactly like the
new aggregates . It can be deposited underneath or on
top ofthe new aggregates, depending on which cold-feed
bins are selected to hold the asphalt-coated aggregates.
The reclaimed material is often deposited on top of the
new aggregate so that it can be exposed to a water spray
(used to reduce potential emission problems) when
traveling up the charging conveyor .
Split-Feed Drum Mix Plants
Most parallel-flow drum mix plants are equipped
with a split-feed system to handle the RAP. Typically,
a separate cold-feed bin and conveyor system is used to
feed this material into the drum mixer through a rotary
center inlet. On some plants, however, a separate cold-
Feeding Four Virgin Materials
Feeding Three Virgin & One Recycle
Feeding Two Virgin & Two Recycle
Figure 2-30. Feeding virgin and reclaimed aggregate
(Astec).
feed bin is not used for the reclaimed material. In this
case, the material is placed in one or more of the
conventional cold-feed bins. The gathering conveyor
under the bin or bins is modified, however, by dividing
it into two different belts, each moving in a different
Page 2-21
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
direction, as illustrated in Figure 2-30 . The gathering
conveyor under the feeder belts for the new aggregate
carries this material to a charging conveyor moving to
the burner end of the drum mix plant. The gathering
conveyor under the feeder belts for the reclaimed
aggregate transports the RAP to a separate charging
conveyor that carries the RAP to an inlet location near
the midpoint of the mixing drum length.
Regardless of what cold -feed bin system is used for
the RAP, a weigh bridge and speed sensor are employed
to measure the amount of reclaimed material moving up
the charging conveyor and into the drum. Although
using the same cold-feed bin system to handle both new
and reclaimed asphalt pavement saves the cost of a
separate cold-feed bin or bins for the RAP, the chance
of bridging the opening at the bottom of the bin increas-
es because of the shallower angle of the sides of the
conventional cold-feed bins.
ADDITION OF HYDRATED LIME
In order to reduce the occurrence of moisture dam-
age, hydrated lime is sometimes added to the mix at a
rate of 1 to 2 percent by weight of aggregate. This
material may be added in one of two different forms: as
a dry powder or as a slurry. If it is used as a slurry, it is
typically proportioned as one part hydrated lime to three
parts water. The lime can be added by mixing it with
the aggregate on the cold-feed belt or by introducing it
into the rear of the drum similar to a conventional
mineral filler. When the hydrated lime is added in dry
form to the aggregate, the specifications usually require
that the moisture content of the combined coarse and
fine aggregate be at least 3 percent to assure that the
lime is adequately attached to the aggregate particles as
the aggregate enters the drum mixer. The addition of
lime as a mineral filler is discussed in Section Four.
The dry lime or slurry is added to the aggregate as it
moves along the gathering conveyor or up the charging
conveyor. The lime is normally placed on top of the
aggregate and then is mixed with the aggregate using
one of several different methods. That mixing may take
place when the aggregate passes through the scalping
screen, through a set of plows or mixing paddles on the
belt, or in an in-line pugmill placed in the cold -feed
system between the gathering conveyor and the charging
conveyor.
CALIBRATION
The rate of aggregate flow from a cold-feed bin
should be determined to ensure that the proper propor-
tion of each aggregate is delivered from the bin to the
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
plant to obtain the proper gradation for the mix. The
method used to calibrate the cold -feed bins depends on
the type of plant being used and on the type of feed
conveyor under each bin.
Each cold-feed bin should be calibrated at a flow
volume that will be within the range of material that will
be delivered from the bin during mix production .
Ideally, the bin should be checked at rates that are
approximately equal to 20 percent, 50 percent, and 80
percent of the estimated operational flow rate .
If a cold-feed bin is equipped with a constant-speed
feeder belt, the only way to change the amount of
aggregate delivered from the bin is to vary the size of
the gate opening. In this case, the size of the gate
opening at which the calibration procedure is conducted
depends on the proportion of aggregate to be drawn out
of the bin. If, according to the mix design information,
25 percent of the total amount of the aggregate needed
in the asphalt mix should come out of one bin, that bin
should be calibrated at the gate opening size that will
typically provide that rate of flow. In addition, the
calibration procedure should be completed at both the
next larger and the next smaller gate setting to allow for
small changes in production rate. If significant changes
in production rate are anticipated, the cold-feed bins
should be calibrated at whatever gate openings are
needed to provide the proper amount of that size
aggregate to the plant .
Many cold-feed bins on batch plants and the vast
majority of the cold-feed bins on drum mix plants are
equipped with a variable-speed feeder belt in addition to
a means to change the size of the gate opening under
the bin. The gate opening on the cold-feed bin should
be set at a level to deliver the proper amount of aggre-
gate at the desired plant production rate. In addition ,
the bin should also be calibrated at three different
feeder belt speeds: 20 percent, 50 percent, and 80
percent of the range of speed of the feeder belt. The
best operating conditions for the cold-feed bin would be
to provide the proper amount of aggregate from the
preset gate opening with the feeder belt operating at 50
percent of its maximum speed. This would permit the
plant operator some latitude to increase or decrease the
production rate of the plant without having to change
the setting of the gate opening at the bottom of the
cold-feed bins.
The calibration of each cold - feed bin is accomplished
by drawing aggregate out of a bin for a specific period
of time and determining the weight of the aggregate
delivered in that time interval. In most cases, a truck's
empty (tare) weight is determined . Aggregate is with-
Page 2-22
10/15/91
drawn from the cold-feed bin and delivered , usually by
means of a diverter chute on the charging conveyor , into
the truck. After a set period of time, the flow of the
aggregate is stopped and the truck is weighed to deter-
mine the amount of aggregate delivered . For cold- feed
bins equipped with only a constant-speed feeder belt, the
weighing process is accomplished for a variety of gate
opening settings. For cold-feed bins that are equipped
with variable -speed feeder belts, the calibration process
is repeated at different gate opening settings as well as
at at least three different belt speeds per gate opening.
On a drum mix plant, the weigh bridge must also be
calibrated . This is accomplished by running aggregate
over the weigh idler for a given period of time. Instead
of being delivered to the drum mixer, the aggregate is
diverted into an empty, tared truck. After the selected
time period has passed, the aggregate flow is terminated
and the amount of aggregate in the truck is measured by
weighing the truck. The weight determined is compared
with the weight of aggregate calculated by the plant
computer system . To be correct, the two weights should
be within the tolerance band set by the particular
government agency and typically within 1.0 percent of
each other (assuming that the weigh bridge is accurate
to 0.5 percent and that the truck scale is also accurate to
0.5 percent).
For many drum mix plants, the weigh bridge should
be calibrated at a production rate that is near the esti-
mated normal production rate for the plant. If the
drum mixer is going to run at 90 percent of capacity, the
calibration of the weigh bridge should be completed at
three production rates: 70 , 85, and 100 percent of
capacity. This calibration, however, will probably not be
correct if the plant is run at a much lower capacity, such
as 60 percent. In this case, the calibration procedure
should be repeated at the lower production rate (brack-
eting the estimated rate with one rate above and one
rate below the most probable production level) .
Because of the differences in the operating proce-
dures of different makes and models of cold-feed bins
and asphalt plants, it is difficult to generalize the exact
calibration procedure that should be used . The calibra-
tion instructions provided with the plant should be
followed .
SUMMARY OF AGGREGATE HANDLING OPERAT-
ING TECHNIQUES
Several key items should be monitored when viewing
the handling of new and reclaimed aggregates, both in
the stockpiles and when being fed into a batch or drum
mix plant. They are:

10/15/91
• The stockpiles should be built on a clean, dry, and
stable foundation. Positive drainage for each pile should
be provided. Aggregate of different sizes should be
stockpiled separately from one another.
• The moisture content of each aggregate should be
determined at least twice each day, and more often if
moisture conditions change. The average moisture
content of the incoming aggregate to the plant dryer or
drum mixer should be inputted into the plant control
system in order to permit proper setting of the burner
controls, to calculate the dry weight of the incoming
aggregate, and to determine the plant production rate.
To reduce the moisture content of the aggregate in the
stockpiles, covering of the aggregate piles--particularly
the fine aggregate--with a roof should be considered .
• Stockpiles should be built in horizontal or gently
sloping layers. Any stockpiling procedure that results in
aggregate being pushed or dumped over the side of a
stockpile should be avoided in order to prevent segrega-
tion. Travel on stockpiles by trucks and front-end
loaders should be minimized to prevent aggregate
breakage and the generation of fines.
⚫ The front-end loader should work the full face of
the stockpile, removing the aggregate in a direction
perpendicular to the flow of the aggregate into the
stockpile . The front-end loader operator should go
straight into the stockpile, roll the bucket up, and then
back out instead of scooping up through the stockpile.
This will minimize segregation caused by the larger-size
aggregate rolling down the face of the stockpile . The
front-end loader operator is the key in providing a
consistent proportion of material to the plant and in
minimizing segregation.
• Ifthe coarser aggregate stockpiles are segregated ,
the loader operator should not place one bucketful of
coarse material and then a bucketful of finer material in
the cold-feed bin. The segregated materials should be
blended by the loader (or by other means) before the
material is introduced into the cold-feed bins.
• Cold-feed bins that are kept relatively full of
aggregate should be separated by a bulkhead between
each bin at the top of the bins so that aggregate that is
supposed to be in one bin cannot overflow into an
adjacent bin.
• The discharge end of the feeder conveyor should
be equipped with a "no flow" device to indicate to the
Page 2-23
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
plant operator when inadequate aggregate is being
delivered from a cold-feed bin.
• Ifthe plant is equipped with variable-speed feeder
conveyors, those conveyors should be run at a speed that
is between 20 percent and 80 percent of the maximum
belt speed . Ideally, the speed of the feeder conveyor
should be in the middle of the speed range to allow for
small increases and decreases in plant production
capacity without the necessity of changing the cold-feed
bin gate-opening settings. The feeder conveyor should
be calibrated at the speed at which it will typically run.
• A scalping screen should be placed in the cold-
feed charging system of a drum mix plant or a batch
plant operated without screens to remove any oversize
and deleterious material from the aggregates.
• For drum mix plants, the weigh bridge should be
checked to see if the weigh idler is free to move and
that the conveyor belt is tight around the gravity takeup
pulley to assure an accurate belt speed sensor reading.
• The cold-feed bin(s) used for RAP should have
steep sides to prevent the material from bridging the
gate opening at the bottom of the bin.
• The reclaimed aggregate feed system, both on a
batch and on a drum mix plant, should include a scalp-
ing screen over the cold-feed bin or at some other point
in the material flow process .
• Cold-feed bins should be calibrated . For bins
equipped with constant-speed feeder belts, the flow of
aggregate from the bins should be determined at three
different gate opening settings : one at the plant produc-
tion rate, one greater than the estimated rate , and one
lower than the estimated production rate.
• For cold-feed bins equipped with variable-speed
feeder belts, the bins should be calibrated at three
different gate openings as well as at three different belt
speeds. The belt speeds should be approximately 20
percent, 50 percent, and 80 percent of the range of the
possible belt speeds .
• The weigh bridge on the charging conveyor of a
drum mix plant must also be calibrated . This should be
accomplished by collecting and weighing the amount of
aggregate that passes over the weigh bridge in a set
amount of time and comparing that weight with the
weight determined by the plant computer system. For
the weigh bridge to be calibrated properly, the two
weights should be within 1.0 percent of each other.
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1 10/15/91

SECTION THREE
ASPHALT CEMENT SUPPLY SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION A lesser-used style of asphalt cement storage tank is

This section discusses the asphalt cement supply the "direct fired" tank. In this system, the asphalt cement
system, which consists of two major parts. The first is heated by direct heat exchange from the combustion
includes one or more storage tanks to store the asphalt source through a series of heat tubes to the asphalt
cement until it is needed by the mixing plant. The cement. Care needs to be used with this type of tank to
second is a pump and meter system used to draw asphalt prevent overheating of the asphalt cement immediately
cement from the storage tank in proportion to the adjacent to the heat tubes.
amount of aggregate being delivered to the batch plant All storage tanks should be completely insulated and
pugmill or drum mixer. heated, and all the lines for both asphalt cement and
heating oil should be insulated to prevent loss of heat .
STORAGE TANKS Both the line used to fill the tank from the asphalt
All asphalt cement storage tanks, as shown in Figure cement transport truck or rail car and the discharge line
2-31 , must be heated to properly maintain the correct from the tank to the plant should be located near the
temperature of the asphalt cement to assure that its bottom of the tank. The return line from the pump
viscosity is low enough so that it can be pumped and
mixed with the heated and dried aggregate. Most asphalt
cement storage tanks are heated with a hot oil system
and are equipped with a small heater to heat and main-
tain the temperature of the heating oil . The hot oil is
circulated through a series of coils inside the asphalt
cement storage tank, as shown in Figure 2-32, and the
heat is then transferred from the oil, through the coils ,
to the asphalt cement . This heat-transfer process reduces
the viscosity of the asphalt cement, causing it to flow
upward and circulate , and causing new, lower-tempera-
ture asphalt cement to come in contact with the heating
coils. Thus, the hot oil system, through a set of thermo-
couples and solenoid valves, maintains the proper
temperature of the asphalt cement, generally in the
range of 300°F to 350°F, depending on the grade and
type of asphalt cement being used .
Figure 2-32. Finned hot-oil tubes (Heatec).

KSATEC

HEATED

Figure 2-31 . Asphalt cement storage tank (Heatec).

Page 2-24

10/15/91
should be located so that the asphalt cement enters the
tank at a level beneath the surface level of the asphalt
cement stored in the tank and does not fall through the
air. This will reduce the oxidation of the asphalt cement
during the circulation process.
If the HMA plant is equipped with more than one
asphalt cement storage tank, the capability should exist
to pump material from one tank to another. It is impor-
tant that the plant operator know from which tank
material is being pulled, especially if more than one
grade or type of asphalt cement is being stored in
different tanks.
All asphalt cement storage tanks contain a "heel" of
material at the bottom of the tank. This asphalt cement,
located beneath the heating coils, usually does not
circulate efficiently. The volume of material in the "heel"
depends on the type and style of the storage tank, the
location of the heating coils, and the amount of time
since the tank was last cleaned . It is recognized, howev-
er, that some asphalt cement will typically remain in the
bottom of an "empty" tank. It is possible, therefore, that
placing asphalt cement of one type or grade into a tank
that previously contained a different type or grade can
cause an alteration of the properties of the asphalt
cement to the point at which it no longer meets specifi-
cations.
The capacity of an asphalt cement storage tank can
be calculated from its diameter and length measure-
ments. The amount of material in the tank can be
determined using a tank "stick." The stick measures the
distance from the top of the dome or the top of the tank
down to the level of the asphalt cement in the tank (the
point at which the tank stick just touches the top of the
material) . This distance is noted and the capacity of the
asphalt cement remaining in the tank below this level is
determined from the tank manufacturer's calibration
chart.
When asphalt cement is delivered from a transport
vehicle into a storage tank, it is very important to ensure
either that the tank is clean or that it already contains
the same type of material as is being pumped into the
tank. If the tank is empty at the time the new material
is being added, the tank should be checked to ensure
that no water has accumulated in the bottom. If asphalt
cement is loaded on top of an asphalt emulsion or on
top of a layer of water in the tank, violent foaming of
the asphalt cement will occur, creating a very severe
safety problem. Care should be taken to assure that all
valves are in the proper position to prevent pressure
from building up in the lines and causing an explosion
and possibly severe burns .
Page 2-25
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
PUMP AND METER SYSTEM
Batch Plants
For batch plants, two different systems typically exist
to transfer asphalt cement from the storage tank to the
weigh bucket near the pugmill . The type of system
depends on the location of the return line: whether one
or two asphalt cement lines are present from the pump
to the weigh bucket.
In the single-line process, as shown in Figure 2-33,
two lines extend from the storage tank to the pump , but
only one line extends from the pump to the weigh
bucket. The pump is a constant-volume, constant-speed
unit that runs continuously. Asphalt cement is always
being pulled from the storage tank through the pump
and circulated back to the tank. When asphalt cement
is needed in the weigh bucket, a valve on the end of the
line at the top of the weigh bucket opens and material
is discharged into that bucket. When the proper amount
of asphalt cement is in the bucket, determined by weight
(not volume), that valve is shut and a pressure relief
valve at the pump is opened. The asphalt cement then
passes through the pump but is recirculated back to the
storage tank, in the second line, instead of being sent to
the plant . A variation of this system allows the asphalt
cement to circulate through the pump itself instead of
being returned back to the storage tank.
In the dual-line process, one line is used to deliver
asphalt cement to the weigh bucket and the second line
is used to return the "excess" asphalt cement back to the
storage tank. The asphalt cement passes through the
pump to a three-way valve at the bucket. When asphalt
cement is needed in the weigh bucket, the valve opens
and the material is discharged into the bucket. When
the preselected weight is reached, the valve closes and
the asphalt cement is recirculated in the second line
back to the storage tank.
Because the amount of asphalt cement used in most
batch plants is measured by weight, no correction is
needed for the temperature of the asphalt cement . On
a few old batch plants, however, the amount of asphalt
cement delivered is determined by volume. In this case,
the amount of asphalt cement delivered to the pugmill
must be corrected, based on both the temperature and
the specific gravity of the asphalt cement. This can be
accomplished using the procedure given in ASTM
Specification D 4311 .
Drum Mix Plants
Asphalt Cement Delivery
For most drum mix plants, three different systems
exist to pull the asphalt cement from the storage tank,
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1 10/15/91

C
A TE
PE

Figure 2-33. AC single-line circulating system (Heatec) .

meter it, and pump it to the plant . Those three pro- the asphalt cement to be recirculated back to the tank
cesses include: (a) a constant-volume pump with a when it is not needed by the plant.
variable-speed motor, (b) a constant-volume pump with The third system consists of a constant-volume pump
a constant-speed motor with a metering valve, and (c) a driven by a constant-speed motor. In this setup, the
variable-volume pump with a constant-speed motor. same volume of asphalt cement is pulled from the
The use of a particular pump and meter system is storage tank at all times. A proportioning valve is
dependent on the make, model, and date of manufacture placed in the line between the pump and the asphalt
of the plant and on the choice made by the individual cement meter. The position of the valve determines the
plant owner. volume of material sent through the meter. The propor-
For the system that uses a variable-volume pump
REGISTER
driven by a constant-speed motor, the amount of asphalt
cement pulled from the storage tank is controlled by -PULSER
VARIABLE VOLUME
changing the volume of asphalt cement being pumped . POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT SPRAY/CIRCULATE
PUMP VALVE
The volume needed at the pump is determined by the
METER
plant computer in proportion to the amount of aggre-
gate being fed into the plant. As the amount of aggre-
gate entering the drum mixer increases, the volume of
asphalt cement pulled through the pump also increases.
When the plant is not using asphalt cement, the material
continually passes through the pump and meter and PUMP
ADJUSTER
through a three-way valve that is set to circulate the
asphalt cement to the storage tank instead of to the -Interlocked to aggregate flow
-Feed back loop control for constant
plant. This process is shown in Figure 2-34.
monitoring.
A second system incorporates a fixed-displacement
(constant -volume) pump driven by a variable-speed Figure 2-34. Schematic asphalt pump system (Bar-
motor. The quantity of asphalt cement delivered to the ber-Greene) .

meter is varied by changing the speed of the variable- tioning valve sends some of the asphalt cement through
speed motor. The amount of material sent to the plant the meter and the rest back through the recirculating
is also dependent on the aggregate feed rate. A three- line to the storage tank. The system also has a valve
way valve in the system downstream of the meter allows downstream of the meter that allows the asphalt cement

Page 2-26
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

sent through the meter to be recirculated to the tank. aggregates, and reclaimed aggregates, if used) and the
This valve is used during the warm-up period for the asphalt cement weight provides the production rate for
meter and during the calibration process. Again, the the drum mixer, in tons of HMA per hour. The asphalt
position of the proportioning valve is determined by the pump system is time delayed so that the asphalt cement
aggregate feed rate into the drum mixer, both of which increase or decrease reaches the drum at the same time
are controlled by the plant computer. that the increased or decreased material flow reaches
that point in the drum.
Temperature Compensation
Asphalt cement expands when heated. Thus the ADDITION OF LIQUID ANTISTRIP MATERIALS
volume of asphalt cement at 325°F will be somewhat Liquid antistrip additives are typically added to the
greater than its volume at 275°F. This latter volume will asphalt cement to improve the adhesion of the binder
be more than the volume at 60°F, which is the standard material to the surface of the aggregate . The additives
temperature for determining the volume of asphalt can be placed in the asphalt cement at several different
cement using conversion charts that are based on the locations. The additive can be in-line blended with the
specific gravity of the asphalt cement. If the specific asphalt cement as that material is pumped out of the
gravity of the asphalt cement and its temperature are tank truck or tank car and into the tank. The additive
known, the volume measured at the elevated tempera- can also be added to the asphalt cement in the tank,
ture can easily be converted to the "standard" volume at
60°F using the procedure given in ASTM Specification
D 4311.
The volume of asphalt cement moving through the
meter changes with temperature. Some meters are set
to measure the temperature of the asphalt cement
moving through the system and send that information
together with the volume data to the plant computer.
The specific gravity of the asphalt cement is set manually
on the controls. The computer then calculates the
volume of asphalt cement being fed into the plant at the
standard temperature of 60°F and converts that amount
to a weight that is displayed on the plant console.
On some meters, a temperature-compensating device,
as shown in Figure 2-35, is installed directly on the
meter stand itself. As the temperature of the asphalt
cement changes, the meter senses the change and, based
on the specific gravity of the asphalt cement, calculates
the volume of asphalt cement, at 60°F, passing through
the meter. This corrected volume (and corresponding
Figure 2-35. Temperature- compensating meter (Bar-
weight) is then sent to the plant console for display.
ber-Greene).
Regardless ofthe system employed, the asphalt pump
system must be capable of changing the volume of
asphalt cement sent through the meter in direct re- with the two different materials circulated together for

sponse to the demand of the aggregate supply. The
response of the pump system must be directly related to
the change in the amount of material measured by the
aggregate weigh bridge system. In addition, the volume
of asphalt cement measured at any given temperature
must be converted to the volume of asphalt cement at
60°F. At this standard reference temperature, the
weight ofthe asphalt cement can be determined in terms
a period of time before the treated asphalt cement is
sent to the drum mixer. The most common method,
however is to add the liquid antistrip material to the
asphalt cement, using an in-line blender, as the binder
material is pumped from the storage tank to the rear of
the drum mix plant.
CALIBRATION

of tons of material per hour, the same as for the aggre- The pump and meter system on the batch or drum
gate feed rate. The total of the aggregate input (new mix plant needs to be calibrated to assure that the

Page 2-27
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
proper amount of asphalt cement is being delivered to
the mix. For a batch plant operation, the amount of
asphalt cement needed is measured by weight (although
a few older batch plants measure the asphalt cement by
volume) by placing the asphalt cement in the plant
weigh bucket. For a drum mix plant, the amount of
asphalt cement is measured by volume as it is pumped
through a meter into the rear of the drum.
For a drum mixer, the amount of asphalt cement is
calibrated by pumping the material into an empty con-
tainer, the tare weight of which is known . Most often,
an asphalt distributor truck is used for this purpose.
The actual weight of the material delivered to the
container is determined . The weight of the material that
the metering system indicates has been delivered is then
determined by multiplying the corrected volume deliv-
ered from the meter totalizer by the specific gravity of
the asphalt cement . With some systems, this calculation
is done automatically. The actual weight is compared
with the metering system-calculated weight. The values
should be within the required tolerance band (typically
1.0 percent) for the asphalt cement supply system to be
in proper calibration.
SUMMARY OF ASPHALT CEMENT SUPPLY OPER-
ATING TECHNIQUES
The asphalt cement supply system, composed of the
storage tank and the pump/meter system, should be
checked as follows:
• The asphalt cement in the storage tank should be
Page 2-28
10/15/91
kept at a constant temperature, normally between 300°F
and 350°F. The tank should be properly insulated . All
hot oil lines should be insulated and the asphalt cement
lines jacketed and insulated.
• The asphalt cement fill line, discharge line, and
recirculation line should all enter the tank so that the
asphalt cement added or removed from the tank is
charged or discharged below the surface of the material
in the tank .
• The volume of asphalt cement in the tank must
be converted to a standard volume at 60°F when a tank
stick check is made of the amount of material in the
tank.
• The amount of asphalt cement used in a batch
plant is measured by weight so that no volume correc-
tion for temperature is needed .
• A correction for temperature must be made for
the volume of asphalt cement passing through the
asphalt cement meter on a drum mix plant if the meter
is not equipped with an automatic temperature-compen-
sating device. The correction is based both on the
actual temperature of the asphalt cement and its specific
gravity at 60°F.
• The asphalt cement supply system should be cali-
brated by weighing the amount of material delivered in
a known amount of time. The "corrected" amount is
determined in conjunction with the knowledge of both
the temperature and the specific gravity of the asphalt
cement.
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

SECTION FOUR
DRUM MIX PLANT

INTRODUCTION leakage air, (c) percent casing (shell) loss, (d) fan gas
This section is concerned with the processing of the temperature, (e) percent moisture removed from the
aggregate and the asphalt cement inside the parallel-flow aggregate, (f) mix discharge temperature, (g) use of
drum mixer. It reviews the methods used to introduce No. 2 fuel oil, and (h) the specific heat of the aggregate.
the aggregate into the drum. The operation of the The maximum output for the burner under these
burner is discussed, along with the three-step heating, conditions can be found on the rating plate attached to
drying, and heating process that occurs as the aggregate each burner. The actual operating conditions for the
moves down the drum. The importance of the veil of burner may be different from the conditions used to rate
aggregate across the whole cross section of the drum is the burner, however.
stressed. The methods for introducing the asphalt
cement into the drum and onto the aggregates are
considered, as well as the systems used to deliver both
mineral filler and/or baghouse fines into the drum.
The addition of RAP into the drum, primarily by use
of a split-feed system for the new aggregate and the
RAP, is discussed . Information is provided on the
factors that affect the production rate of the plant .
Finally, the relationship between the mix discharge
temperature and the exhaust gas temperature as it exits
the drum is analyzed in order to determine the efficiency
of the heat-transfer process inside the drum mixer.

AGGREGATE ENTRY
One of the two ways to introduce new aggregate
from the charging conveyor is by means of a charging
chute located above the burner. The aggregate is
delivered into a sloped chute and slides by gravity into
the drum. The chute, shown in Figure 2-36, is angled to
push the aggregate away from direct contact with the
Figure 2-36. New aggregate feed through charging
burner flame and toward the rear of the drum.
chute (Cedarapids).
The aggregate can also be deposited on a slinger
conveyor belt that is located beneath the burner, as
illustrated in Figure 2-37. On some plants, the speed of
this conveyor can be changed and is often increased Fuel

when a combination of new aggregate and RAP is being
fed into the burner end of the plant. The greater speed
of the slinger conveyor allows the combined aggregate to
be deposited farther down the drum, away from the
flame.
BURNER SYSTEM
Most burners are designed to burn more than one
type of fuel with only minor changes in the burner
settings. Three types of fuel are used: gaseous, liquid,
and solid. Gaseous fuels include both natural gas and
liquid petroleum gas. Liquid fuels include propane,
butane, No. 2 fuel oil, heavy fuel oil (Nos. 4 through 6) ,
and reclaimed oil. Pulverized coal and pelletized

The burner provides the heat necessary to dry and biomass are examples of solid fuels.
raise the temperature of the aggregate. Burners are The fuel selected should be at the proper consistency
rated by a Uniform Burner Rating Method that is based for complete atomization at the time of combustion .
on eight criteria: (a) percent excess air, (b) percent No. 2 fuel oil will burn at ambient temperatures, without

Page 2-29
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Figure 2-37. New aggregate feed through slinger conveyor (J. Scherocman).
preheating, because it has a viscosity less than 100
saybolt seconds universal (ssu) . For proper atomization,
heavy fuel oil, such as No. 5 or No. 6, must be preheat-
ed before burning to reduce the viscosity below 100 ssu
in order to atomize the fuel properly for complete
combustion of the fuel. Some reclaimed oil, which has
been filtered and dewatered, burns well. Other re-
claimed fuel, contaminated with heavy metals, hazardous
waste, and/or water, burns erratically and incompletely
and generally should not be used in an HMA plant
burner. Incomplete combustion is not normally a
problem when gaseous fuels are used.
Unburnt fuel can cause difficulty with the burner, the
plant, and the mix, and is a waste of money as well. It
can cause clogging of the burner nozzle, difficulties in
lighting the burner, and increased maintenance costs.
Incomplete combustion can result in unburnt fuel enter-
ing the emission-control equipment: coating and blinding
the filter bags in a baghouse (increasing the opportunity
for a baghouse fire) or covering the wastewater pond
surface with fuel if a wet-scrubber system is used. It
also reduces the amount of heat available to dry the
aggregate, and thus increases fuel consumption and
operating costs. Further, it can lower the temperature
of the exhaust gases, which can result in condensation in
the baghouse.
Unburnt fuel can change the properties of the HMA.
First, the fuel can reduce the viscosity of the asphalt
cement binder material and reduce the amount of
hardening that the binder undergoes during the mixing
process. It can also impinge directly on the surface of
Page 2-30
10/15/91
the coarser aggregate particles, resulting in the forma-
tion of a brown stain on the aggregate and a reduction
of the film thickness of the asphalt cement on those
surfaces. These two problems can affect the stiffness
and the stability of the asphalt mix produced by the
asphalt plant.
Unburnt fuel problems can be recognized in several
ways. A flame eye, which is an electronic device used to
sense the color of the burner flame, can be employed to
monitor the hue of the burner flame and shut down the
burner if the color is not proper to indicate complete
combustion of the fuel. A uniform, constant roar from
the burner is usually a good sound (although it is
possible to have a problem with unburnt fuel even when
the noise of the burner is constant) . A " coughing,"
"sputtering," "spitting" burner provides an indication of
possible incomplete combustion of the fuel. If fuel is
condensing on the filter bags, the pressure drop across
the baghouse will increase and the bags will be stained
with fuel. When a wet-scrubber system is used, the
water in the wastewater pond surface will be covered
with an oil sheen.
Burners
The primary function of the burner is to blend the
proper amounts of air and fuel together to obtain com-
plete combustion of the fuel. Two primary types of
burners are used on aggregate dryers and drum mixers.
Most plants are equipped with a burner that requires
from 30 to 45 percent of the air needed for combustion
to be forced through the burner by a blower on the

10/15/91
AIR EXHAUST
FAN
BURNER
BLOWER
30% FORCED AIR
70% INDUCED AIR
Figure 2-38. Induced forced burner (Astec) .
FUEL
R
BLOWER
Figure 2-39. Forced-air burner (Astec) .
burner itself. The remaining 70 to 55 percent of the
combustion air is pulled by the exhaust fan on the plant
into the combustion zone around the burner. This type
of equipment, a combined induced and forced draft
burner, is shown in Figure 2-38 . Some burners operate
with all of the air needed for combustion being forced
through the burner by a blower. This second type of
burner, shown in Figure 2-39, is known as a force draft,
a total air, or 100 percent air burner. These latter
burners are generally much quieter than are the induced
draft burners and are more fuel efficient.
Some burners must be adjusted by the plant operator
(a) as the amount of aggregate inside the dryer or drum
mixer changes, (b) as the amount of moisture in the
aggregate increases or decreases, and (c) as the aggre-
gate discharge temperature is changed in order to
control the drying and heating of the material. Most
burners are equipped with an automatic device that
controls the fuel input to maintain a relatively constant
discharge temperature for the aggregate (or for the mix
in a drum mixer) .
Page 2-31
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
A lack of either air or fuel will reduce the efficiency
of the burner. Usually the availability of air is the
limiting factor. The exhaust fan, besides providing the
induced air, must also pull the moisture vapor (steam)
created in the drying process and the products of com-
bustion through the dryer or drum mixer. The capacity
of this fan is a controlling factor in the heating and
drying of the aggregate. The volume of the exhaust
gases (air, moisture vapor, and combustion products)
pulled by the fan is constant, depending on the setting
of the damper in the system.
The efficiency of the system is also affected by air
leaks in the system. Because the fan pulls a constant
volume of exhaust gases, at a constant damper setting,
through the system from the burner and through the fan,
any air that enters the system downstream of the burner
reduces the amount of secondary air that can be pulled
by the fan. Air leaks should be eliminated in order to
provide the proper volume of air at the burner to com-
bust the fuel completely. A damper, operated manually
or automatically, should also be placed in the ductwork
to control the amount of air entering the system.
HEAT-TRANSFER PROCESS
Temperatures Inside the Drum
The temperature ofthe burner flame exceeds 2500°F.
The temperature of the exhaust gases just before they
enter the emission-control equipment should be in the
range of 250°F to 320°F, depending on the discharge
temperature of the mix. Typical temperature profiles
for the exhaust gases and the aggregate along the length
of the drum are shown in Figure 2-40. The difference
in the exhaust gas and the mix discharge temperatures
represents the efficiency of the heat-transfer process and
the amount of heat that is available to dry and heat the
aggregates. Perfect heat transfer would require that the
mix temperature and the exhaust gas temperature be
equal at the point at which the mix is discharged from
the plant .
A measure of the efficiency of the heat-transfer
process is, therefore, obtained by comparing the mix
discharge temperature with the temperature of the
exhaust gases at the time the gases exit the drum. It is
often difficult, however, to determine the temperature of
the exhaust gases accurately at this location; this temper-
ature differential is normally measured in the ductwork
at a point between the end of the drum mixer and the
entry of the exhaust gases into the emission- control
equipment. This is done by means of a thermocouple
attached to the ductwork upstream of the point where
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
VENTURI - MIXER
1000 1600 2600
1800 1200 700
450° Virgin
70° Virgin Aggregate
Figure 2-40. Drum temperature profiles (CMI) .
the exhaust gases are drawn into the wet-scrubber or
baghouse system. For efficient operation of the drum
mixer, the temperature of the exhaust gases, before
entry into the emission-control system, should be within
20°F of the mix discharge temperature .
A comparison cannot normally be made between the
mix discharge temperature and the temperature of the
exhaust gases at the point at which they exit the plant
stack. If a wet scrubber is employed on the plant, the
water used to impinge on the dust particles in the
exhaust gases will naturally cool the gases. For both
wet-scrubber and baghouse emission-control systems, any
leakage air that is drawn into the ductwork and emis-
sion-control equipment between the end of the drum
and the stack will reduce the temperature of the exhaust
gases before they leave the stack. Thus, the comparison
between the mix discharge temperature and the exhaust
gas temperature must be made in the ductwork before
the gases enter the emission-control equipment . The
comparison should not be made between the mix
discharge temperature and the stack temperature ,
particularly for plants equipped with a wet-scrubber
system .
For example, if the exhaust gas temperature in the
ductwork is 360°F and the mix discharge temperature is
280°F, the veil of aggregate inside the drum is probably
incomplete and the drum is being operated inefficiently.
This causes several problems: increased fuel use, possi-
ble separation of some of the very fine aggregate
particles from the rest of the aggregate in the drum , and
increased deterioration of the filter bags, if a baghouse
is used .
The temperature of the exhaust gases must also be
controlled at the location where the asphalt cement is
Page 2-32
10/15/91
Gas Stream
Temp .
70° Recycle Material
500 450 390 320 300
290 Mix.
Temp.
injected. Certain asphalt cements, depending on the
source of the crude oil and the refining process used to
produce the material, may contain small amounts of
volatile material or "light ends" that can be driven off at
temperatures as low as 600°F. Visible emissions can be
avoided if the temperature of the exhaust gases is below
this value at the location where the asphalt cement
enters the drum .
Exhaust gas temperatures will normally be higher
when a recycled mix is being produced . This is related
to the reduction in the density of the veil of aggregate
upstream of the reclaimed material entry point (when a
split-feed system is being used) and less efficient heat
transfer. The greater the amount of RAP used in the
recycled mix, the lesser amount of new aggregate, and
the less complete the veil of material ahead of the re-
claimed material entry point . In order to prevent the
production of visible emissions (blue smoke) during
recycling, the temperature of the exhaust gases should
be below about 400°F at the point the reclaimed materi-
al enters the drum to prevent the generation of visible
emissions from the plant stack.
Flight Design
The aggregate fed into the burner end of the drum
mixer moves down the length of the unit by a combina-
tion of gravity flow and the lifting flights as the drum
rotates. Factors that affect the length of time for an
individual aggregate particle to pass through the drum
include: the length and diameter of the drum, the slope
of the drum, the number and type of flights inside the
drum , the speed of rotation of the drum , and the size of
the aggregate particles. In general, it takes about 4 to
8 min for an incoming aggregate particle to reach the

10/15/91
Figure 2-41 . Rotary drum mixer flights (J. Scherocman).
discharge end of the drum.
Each drum plant manufacturer uses a different
pattern, shape, number, and location for the flights
inside the drum, as shown in Figures 2-41 and 2-42.
Although named differently by the various manufactur-
ers, the flights used in the various sections of the drum
generally serve the same purpose: to expose the aggre-
gate to the heat from the burner gases without dropping
it through the flame, to remove the moisture from the
aggregate, to coat the aggregate with asphalt cement,
and to heat the coated material to the proper discharge
temperature .
Because the drum mixer operates on a parallel - flow
basis, to protect the asphalt cement from the high
temperatures, the burner flame should be short and
bushy and not extend very far into the drum. The burner
flame must have enough room, however, to expand and
combust the fuel completely . The incoming aggregate
cannot be deposited directly into the fire or it will
quench the flame. Thus, the first flights at the upper
end of the drum are used to direct the aggregate into
the drum beyond the tip of the flame.
The next flights are used to lift some of the aggre-
gate from the bottom of the drum, and begin to tumble
Page 2-33
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
the material through the exhaust gases. As the aggre-
gate moves down the drum, an ever greater amount of
aggregate is lifted and tumbled . Near the midpoint of
the length of the drum, a veil of aggregate is developed
across the whole cross-sectional area. This veil is essen-
tial to accomplish the heat transfer from the exhaust
gases so that the drying and heating of the aggregate can
take place. The more complete the veil, the more
efficient and effective the heat-transfer process, the less
fuel consumed, and the lower the particulate emissions
from the plant .
Near the drum midpoint, some drum mixers are
equipped with devices to retard the flow of the aggre-
gate down the drum. A ring can be inserted inside the
drum to reduce the diameter at that point. A buildup of
aggregate occurs in front of the ring, creating a heavier
veil of material. Some drum manufacturers install
"kicker" or reverse- angle flights at this same location to
intercept the aggregate and turn it back upstream,
concentrating the aggregate in one area in order to
increase the density of the veil and improve the heat
transfer. Although restricting the diameter of the drum
in some fashion is beneficial in order to increase the
density of the veil of aggregate inside the drum, the
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Figure 2-42. Drum flights (J. Scherocman).
reduced cross-sectional area also causes the velocity of
the exhaust gases to increase, thereby potentially increas-
ing the amount of emissions from the drum mixer.
Farther down the drum length, the asphalt cement is
injected into the drum and mixing flights are used to
combine the aggregate with the asphalt cement. These
flights also allow the asphalt cement-coated particles to
continue to be heated by the exhaust gases, complete the
heat-transfer process, and raise the mix temperature to
the desired level for discharge . At the rear of the drum,
discharge flights are employed to deposit the material
into the discharge chute for transport to the surge silo.
As mentioned previously, the actual design of the
flights that may be present inside a particular mixing
drum will be different for the various makes, models ,
and date of manufacture of the drum. The primary
purpose of the flights is to accomplish the proper
transfer of heat from the exhaust gases to the aggregate
and to blend the aggregate and asphalt cement together
adequately. As the flights inside the drum wear from
the abrasive action of the aggregate moving through the
drum, the efficiency of the heating and drying process
can be reduced. Thus, the condition of the flights
Page 2-34
10/15/91
should be checked on a regular basis. (The amount of
wear on the flights depends on the operating conditions
for the plant and the type of aggregate being processed .)
Worn and missing flights should be replaced as neces-
sary. In addition, if proper heat transfer is not being
completed, the type and location of the flights used
inside the drum can be altered to improve the veil of
aggregate moving across the cross section of the drum at
its midpoint .
Early drum mix plants were constructed with a 4:1
length-to-drum-diameter ratio that was used for batch
plant dryers; an 8-ft-diameter dryer was 32 ft in length.
The current trend is to use longer drums to obtain more
complete heat transfer from the exhaust gases to the
aggregate and to reduce emission problems, particularly
when a recycled mix is being produced. Some current
drum mixers have length-to-diameter ratios of 5: 1 and
6: 1 . Thus, an 8 -ft-diameter drum mixer might be 40 to
48 ft in length .
Increasing the Veil of Aggregate
To increase the density of the veil of new aggregate,
kicker flights, dams, donuts, or retention rings are
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

MODRU CONTRA
M EQUIPMECTORS
NT CO
RECYCL
MAT

Figure 2-43. Adjustable drum leg supports for changing drum slope (J. Scherocman).

employed to retard the flow of material down the drum .
Another method used to achieve the same effect is to
lower the slope of the drum, as shown in Figures 2-43
and 2-44. The reduction in slope (from a maximum of
6 percent to a minimum of 2 1/2 percent, or 3/4 in./ft to
5/16 in./ft) increases the dwell or residence time of the
aggregate in the drum and thus provides more time to
complete the heat-transfer process . The additional
aggregate retained in the drum because of the lower
slope also causes a denser veil of material across the
drum cross section, further improving the degree of heat
transfer.
Lowering the slope of the drum does not normally
cause a change in the plant production rate. Although
it takes somewhat longer for an individual aggregate
particle to travel through the drum when the slope is
decreased, the actual production rate should be un-
changed in terms of tons per hour. Power requirements
S

BARBER -GREENE

UM
THERMODR

Figure 2-44. Measuring drum slope (J. Scherocman).

Page 2-35
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
for the electric motors used to turn the drum are in-
creased because of the extra weight of aggregate in the
drum . The net result, however, is a better veil of aggre-
gate, more complete heat transfer, and a reduction in
the temperature of the exhaust gases at all locations in
the drum .
Several manufacturers have developed drum mixers
that change in diameter along the length. The drum is
one diameter at one or both ends and a smaller diame-
ter in the center portion of the drum, as shown in
Figure 2-45. The change in diameter allows more room
for combustion of the burner fuel and provides for
development of a denser veil of aggregate in the drum
by squeezing the same volume of material that was
tumbling in an 8 1/2-ft diameter drum, for example, into
a 7-ft-diameter section, significantly increasing the
density of the aggregate veil. In this case, the reduced
diameter works in the same manner as the installation of
a ring inside the drum. This heavier veil improves the
efficiency of the heat-transfer process. The velocity of
the exhaust gases, however, is also increased because of
the smaller diameter, potentially increasing the amount
of particulate emissions carried out into the emission-
control equipment and also possibly reducing production
levels.
Heat Transfer
While the exhaust gas temperature is being reduced
as these gases move down the drum, the temperature of
the aggregate is increasing as it travels in a parallel
direction. The heat-transfer process takes place in three
ways. The first is convection; heat energy is transferred
from the exhaust gases to the aggregate. The second is
radiation; heat energy is transferred from one heated
aggregate particle to another aggregate particle and
from the shell and flights of the drum to the aggregate.
The third is conduction; heat energy is transferred within
the aggregate particles.
Figure 2-45. Dual-diameter drum (Caterpillar-CMI) .
Page 2-36
10/15/91
The aggregate enters the drum at ambient tempera-
ture and begins to be heated immediately. As the
material moves down the drum, its temperature is
increased until it reaches a point upstream of the drum
midpoint, where its temperature remains relatively
constant because the heat from the exhaust gases is
being used to evaporate the moisture in the aggregate.
The amount of time the aggregate temperature remains
constant depends in part on the amount of moisture in
the incoming material. The porosity of the aggregate is
also a factor, with the more porous material taking
longer to remove all the moisture from the internal
pores in the aggregate. Finally, because of its lesser
mass and greater surface area per unit weight, the fine
aggregate (sand) is typically heated more quickly than
the coarse aggregate.
Once most of the moisture has been removed from
the aggregate, its temperature begins to rise again.
After the aggregate is coated with asphalt cement,
mixing flights are employed in most drum mix plants to
tumble the mix, partially exposing the material to the
exhaust gases. The mix reaches the required discharge
temperature as it approaches the end of the drum . Thus
the aggregate, as it proceeds down the drum, undergoes
a heating, then a drying, and then another heating cycle.
The moisture content of the aggregate decreases gradu-
ally in the front portion of the drum and then more
rapidly as it reaches the temperature needed to vaporize
water. If the dwell time in the central portion of the
drum is long enough, the moisture content of the mix at
discharge can be reduced to less than 0.2 percent. The
moisture content of the mix at discharge is almost always
less than 0.5 percent .
ASPHALT CEMENT INJECTION
On a few older drum mix plants, the asphalt cement
supply line enters from the front of the drum, at the
burner end . The diameter of the pipe used depends on
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

the capacity of the plant, with a 2- to 4-in . line typically

used . The asphalt cement is not normally sprayed
through a nozzle but is injected into the drum merely by
passing out of the end of the pipe. The actual point of
discharge varies, but tends to be toward the midpoint of
the drum length rather than close to the burner.
One advantage of early asphalt cement introduction
is quick capture of the dust particles in the aggregate by
the binder material. This action reduces the amount of
particulate carryout by encapsulating the fines in the
asphalt cement. Three disadvantages are present: the
asphalt cement may be hardened more by exposure to
the higher-temperature exhaust gases, the production of
blue smoke from volatilization of the light ends from
certain asphalt cements can be increased because of
these higher exhaust gas temperatures, and an increase
in the moisture content in the mix at discharge may
occur because the asphalt cement coats the aggregate
particles before all the water in the material is removed.
On most parallel-flow drum mix plants, the asphalt
cement is injected through a pipe coming in from the
rear of the drum, as illustrated in Figures 2-46 and 2-47.
The location of the asphalt cement entry in many cases
is at a point approximately 40 to 30 percent of the
length of the drum from the mix discharge end of the
mixer (60 to 70 percent of the way down the drum from
the burner end) . At this location, the small amount of
moisture remaining in the aggregate causes the volume
of the binder to expand by foaming and helps to coat
the aggregate. In a drum mix plant, coating rather than
mixing may be the more appropriate term for the blend-
ing of the asphalt cement with the aggregate.
If the moisture content in the aggregate is still high
at the point where the asphalt cement is injected , the
coating of the aggregate particles may be delayed until
more moisture is removed . When the average moisture
content of the incoming aggregate is very low (less than
1 percent), incomplete coating of the aggregate may
occur. In this latter case, it may be necessary to add Figure 2-46. Asphalt and fines feed lines (J. Scher-

water to the incoming aggregate on the cold-feed belt or ocman) .

to change the design of the flights inside the drum in

order to improve the aggregate coating by the asphalt
cement.
If the asphalt cement being used contains volatile
material and results in excessive blue smoke emissions,
it may be necessary to pull the asphalt cement supply
pipe toward the mix discharge end of the drum. This
change reduces the exposure of the asphalt cement to
the higher-temperature exhaust gases and decreases the
generation of visible hydrocarbon emissions. If the veil
of aggregate at the mid length of the drum is adequate,
however, it should not be necessary to pull the asphalt
cement line back. The movement of the supply line can
decrease the uniformity of the coating of the binder on
the aggregate if it is too close to the discharge end of
the drum .
Some drum mix plants, however, have the asphalt
cement injection line completely removed from the
drum. The aggregate is heated and dried in the drum
but exits uncoated . The aggregate is discharged into a

Page 2-37
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1 10/15/91

Convection Coating Zone

of Thermodrum
From bulk mineral
Filler Storage

Fines Injection w
ww High Bin
ww
Indicator

Asphalt Injection Low Bin

Indicator
SURGE
HOPPER
Vane Feeder with
Variable Speed Drive

From Asphalt
Metering Pump
Pneumatic Fines
Blower

Figure 2-47. AC line discharge end and mineral filler feed system (Barber-Greene) .

single- or twin-shaft coater unit (screw conveyor), where
the asphalt cement is sprayed on it, as shown in Figure
2-48. The mixing of the materials occurs as the aggre-
gate and asphalt cement are moved along the drum mix
coater. The blended material is then deposited into a
transfer device for transport to the surge silo. The drum
mix coater plant is a return to the original continuous
mix plant technology.
rotate, but no material will be sent to the plant.
The mineral filler-type material can be delivered to
the charging conveyor on the cold-feed system and
delivered into the drum as part of the aggregate. This
is not recommended for several reasons. First, there is
a problem of dusting of the filler material when it is

MINERAL FILLER AND BAGHOUSE FINES FEED

SYSTEM
Two types of aggregate fines, mineral filler and
material collected in a dry emission-control system , can
be fed into a drum mix plant, either individually or in
combination with one another. The basic equipment
needed to handle each type of material is essentially the
same . The primary differences between the various
systems concern the degree of sophistication in the DustRen
controls used to meter the materials.

Mineral Filler
Mineral filler-type material, such as hydratedlime,
portland cement, fly ash, or limestone dust, is stored in
a silo or other appropriate container and is delivered to
the plant through a vane feeder system or small weigh
hopper located at the bottom of the silo, as seen in Figure 2-48. Mixing auger in "coater" drum mix plant
Figure 2-47. The speed of the feeder is related to the (Astec).
amount of new and reclaimed aggregate being delivered
to the drum . The silo is normally equipped with an deposited on the incoming aggregate. Second, the very
aerating system to keep the mineral filler from packing fine filler has a tendency to become airborne easily
into a tight mass and bridging the opening to the feeder. inside the drum (picked up in the exhaust gas air
If the flow of filler is restricted, the vane feeder will still stream) and carried either to the discharge chute on the

Page 2-38

10/15/91
drum or into the emission-control equipment. Thus,
some of the filler can be carried out of the drum mixer
instead of being incorporated into the mix.
It is also possible to blend the mineral filler-type
material with the asphalt cement in the storage tank
before the combined materials are fed into the plant.
This is rarely done, however, because of problems of
separation and settlement of the heavier mineral filler
(higher specific gravity) from the lighter asphalt cement
whenever plant production is interrupted.
The mineral filler from the vane feeder thus typically
enters the delivery pipe and is conveyed pneumatically
through the line and into the rear of the drum. The
filler can be discharged in one of several ways: deposited
from the line onto the aggregate at the bottom of the
drum or fed into a mixing device, where it is coated with
the asphalt cement before it is dropped into the drum ,
as shown in Figure 2-49.
<
H LIQUID ASPHALT LINE
<< DUST LINE
IMPINGING CONE
Figure 2-49. AC-MF- BH fines mixing device (Astec) .
If the mineral filler is discharged directly into the
drum mixer, it can be either upstream or downstream of
the asphalt cement injection point. If the filler is placed
into the drum upstream of the asphalt cement entry
point, it is usually dropped directly on the aggregate in
the bottom of the drum. Because the filler is dry and of
very small particle size, it is easy for this material to be
caught in the exhaust gas air stream . If this occurs,
some portion of the filler will remain in the mix, but a
major portion of the material, depending on drum
operating conditions, can be carried out of the drum and
into the emission-control equipment.
If the mineral filler is discharged from its feed pipe
into the drum after the asphalt cement has been injected
into the drum mixer, a greater portion of the filler is
usually captured in the mass of asphalt cement and
• Page 2-39
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
aggregate. Because it comes into contact with the
asphalt cement very quickly after exiting its feed pipe,
the mineral filler has less chance of becoming airborne
and being carried out of the drum. If the mineral filler
and asphalt cement are blended together in some form
of mixing device as the asphalt cement is being intro-
duced into the drum, minimal carryout of filler material
normally occurs.
Baghouse Fines
If a baghouse (fabric filter) is used as the emission-
control equipment on the plant, either all or a portion
of the material captured in that device can be fed back
into the drum mixer. The fines captured in the bag-
house are carried, usually by a screw conveyor, through
an air lock and then fed pneumatically through a pipe
into the rear end of the drum, as seen in Figure 2-50.
The baghouse fines are typically not metered but are
returned on a continuous basis and discharged into the
drum in a fashion similar to that of mineral filler.
Occasionally a surge of fine material may be carried
back to the drum mixer. If plant operating characteris-
tics cause such surges of baghouse fines to occur regu-
larly, the fines should be collected in a small surge silo
and then metered back into the plant using a vane
feeder system. (If the baghouse fines are not needed to
satisfy mix design requirements, they can be wasted
instead of being returned to the mix.)
The returned fines must be incorporated into the
asphalt mixture and not be allowed to recirculate back
to the baghouse. This is accomplished by ensuring that
the fines are kept out of direct contact with the high-
velocity exhaust gases and are quickly coated with
asphalt cement. If the fines are carried back to the
baghouse, they will be caught and again returned to the
drum mixer. Soon the baghouse will be overloaded with
fines, because new fines are continually being generated
by the plant. The baghouse will become plugged and
will not operate properly. It is essential, therefore, that
any mineral filler and/or baghouse fines be coated with
asphalt cement before they can be picked up by the
exhaust gases and carried out of the mixer.
The amount and gradation of the baghouse fines
returned to the asphalt mix inside the drum can have a
significant effect on the properties of the mixture pro-
duced. Before any fines are returned to the mix, a
laboratory analysis should be conducted to determine
the characteristics of the baghouse fines and the change
in mix properties that may occur when various quantities
of baghouse fines are returned to the mix, or wasted .
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Convection Coating Zone
of Thermodrum
Fines Injection
Asphalt Injection
Figure 2-50. Baghouse fines feed system (Barber-Greene).
RECLAIMED MATERIAL RECYCLING SYSTEMS
Single- Feed
On the few remaining plants that use a single-feed
system to deliver both the new aggregate and the RAP
to the burner end of the drum mixer, several methods
are used, alone or in combination, to protect the as-
phalt-coated material from direct contact with the flame
and to reduce the generation of visible hydrocarbon
emissions. One method is to spray water on the com-
bined aggregate on the charging conveyor before it
enters the drum . The degree of protection offered by
the additional water on the surface of the aggregate
depends on the amount of moisture already in and on
the reclaimed material, the amount of water applied
(typically between 1 and 4 percent by weight of re-
claimed aggregate), and the position of the reclaimed
material on the charging conveyor --underneath or on
top of the new aggregate.
A second procedure is to increase the speed of the
slinger conveyor under the burner in order to throw the
combined aggregates farther down the drum. The more
the asphalt-coated materials are kept from the flame,
the less hydrocarbon emissions are generated.
A third method uses a heat shield to reduce the con-
tact of the combined aggregate with the flame, as shown
in Figure 2-51 . This device spreads the flame out
around the circumference of the drum and decreases the
concentration of heat at any one point near the flame.
The performance of the heat shield is dependent on its
location inside the drum , the amount of RAP in the mix,
the moisture content of new and reclaimed aggregate,
and the required mix discharge temperature. The
Page 2-40
10/15/91
Collected dust
from Fabric Filter
w
ww
Vane Feeder
with Fixed
Speed Drive
From Asphalt
Metering Pump
Pneumatic Fines
Blower
efficiency of the heat shield can be determined by the
amount of blue smoke that is generated during the
recycling operation.
Split- Feed
Because of inherent emission -control problems using
the single-feed method, split-feed systems, in which the
RAP is fed to the drum mixer separately from the new
aggregates, are most often used to produce recycled
asphalt mixes. The new material is delivered to the
burner end of the drum mix plant in a conventional
manner. The RAP is delivered into a separate entry
point near the midpoint of the drum length, as shown in
Figure 2-52.
A variety of designs are used for the intake system to
introduce the RAP into the drum. Typically, the drum
has a series of ports or entry chutes, illustrated in Figure
2-53, cut into the shell to allow the RAP to be intro-
duced from the charging conveyor as the drum turns.
At the point that the RAP enters the shell, a short
length of the flighting is often removed or configured so
that the asphalt-coated material can easily be added to
the new aggregate. The RAP begins heating as soon as
it enters the port . The combined aggregate is picked up
by the flights, and the heating and drying of the new
material and the RAP is continued .
When reclaimed material is charged into the drum at
its midpoint, less new aggregate is placed into the drum
at the burner end, reducing the density of the veil of
aggregate upstream of the RAP entry and decreasing the
amount of heat transferred from the exhaust gases to
the new aggregate. Thus, the temperature of the gases
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91 Appendix 1

E
UR
R M RAT
I FO S M PE
10 ft-14 ft UN GA TE

FLOW OR
M ITY
IF S OC
FLOW MIXING CONE MIXING
ZONE UN GA VEL
DIRECTION →→
SLOT
COOLING FRESH AIR INTAKE
PORTS (SLOT COOLING)
BCE PYROCONE SYSTEM
STANDARD
STANDARD BURNER SETUP DRUM MIXER
AIR INTAKE

STANDARD
FEED
SYSTEM

Figure 2-51 . Heat shield inside drum (Boeing).

at the point they come in contact with the RAP is higher
and the chance to burn the asphalt coating on the
reclaimed aggregate is increased. This problem increas-
Figure 2-52. Center rotary drum inlet (Cedarapids).
es in severity as the amount of RAP used in the recycled
mix increases. Methods to reduce the exhaust gas
temperature involve ways to increase the density of the
veil of new aggregate upstream of the RAP entry
location as well as to raise the temperature of the RAP
before it comes into contact with the heated new
aggregate.
Normally, if 20 percent or less RAP is being incorpo-
rated into a recycled mix and a split-feed system is used,
minimal hydrocarbon emissions are produced , depending
on the adequacy of the veil of new aggregate inside the
drum and the discharge temperature of the mix. As the
percentage of RAP becomes greater, and as the mois-
ture content of the RAP increases, the potential for
emission problems increases. When the amount of RAP
used exceeds 50 percent, by weight of mix, the emission
of blue smoke during the recycling process can become
significant. A combination of procedures, outlined
above, is needed to assure adequate heat transfer from
the exhaust gases to the new aggregates before those
gases come in contact with the reclaimed material.
Only under ideal and carefully controlled production
conditions may it be possible to incorporate up to 70
percent reclaimed aggregates in a recycled mix without
major visible emission problems. Because of the reduc-
tion of production rates and the emission-control prob-
lems that occur when high percentages of RAP are used

Page 2-41
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
10/15/91

RAP

BYPASS
CHUTE
SCRAPER
BLADE
INTAKE
BLADES

RETAINING
RING
ASPHALT
VAM INJECTION PIPE

DRYING
FLIGHTS

MIXING
FLIGHTS
FEED
PLATES
HOOD
SHADED AREAS ARE DRYING
OPENINGS TO INNER DRUM FLIGHTS
RUBBER
SEALS

Figure 2-53. RAP material center feed (Cedarapids).

in a recycled asphalt mix, it is normally good practice to
limit the amount of reclaimed material processed
through a split-feed drum mix plant to approximately 50
percent of the total aggregate weight.
PRODUCTION RATES
Hot-mix asphalt drum mix plants are rated by the
number of tons of mix that can be produced per hour.
The production capacity is usually related to the incom-
ing aggregate temperature, the mix discharge tempera-
ture, the specific heat of the aggregate, and an average
aggregate moisture content removal of 5 percent, with
the plant operated at sea level. Plant capacities are also
affected by a number of other variables including drum
diameter, fuel type, exhaust gas velocity, capacity of the
exhaust fan, amount of excess air at the burner, estimat-
ed air leakage into the system, and atmospheric condi-
tions. Aggregate gradation may be a factor with mixes
containing a large percentage of coarse aggregate
because they are more difficult to heat uniformly than
mixes incorporating a balance of coarse and fine aggre-
gate particles.

Drum Diam .
Surface Moisture Removed (%)
& Length
(ft) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

5x22 178 140 116 100 84 79 74 63 58

6x24 278 220 178 158 137 121 116 100 89
7x30 420 336 273 236 205 184 163 147 137
8x32 541 430 352 305 263 236 210 194 173
9x36 719 578 478 410 357 315 284 257 236
10x40 956 761 630 541 473 430 378 341 315

Figures for each size dryer are for asphalt concrete mix capacities.
Examples of the effects of moisture content on plant production rates are for one manufacturer's drum mix plants.

Figure 2-54. Nominal drum mix capacities (tons per hour) (Barber-Greene).

Page 2-42

10/15/91
One of the variables that has the greatest effect on
the actual production rate is the average moisture
content of the coarse and fine aggregate. The moisture
content of the fine aggregate is usually higher than that
of the coarse aggregate. The average moisture content
is thus a function of the amount of moisture in the
coarse aggregate and its percentage in the mix, plus the
amount of moisture in the fine aggregate and its per-
centage in the mix.
If, for example, 60 percent of the mix consists of
coarse aggregate, then 40 percent of the mix is fine
aggregate (assuming no mineral filler is used in the mix) .
MOISTURE
If the moisture content of the coarse material is 3.0
FREE
percent and that of the fine aggregate is 8.0 percent, the
%
average moisture content in the combined aggregate is
calculated to be: (60 percent x 3.0 percent) + (40
= (1.8 percent) + (3.2 percent)
percent x 8.0 percent)
= 5.0 percent . If the amount of moisture in the fine
aggregate was only 6.0 percent, the combined (average)
moisture content of the cold-feed materials would be:
(60 percent x 3.0 percent) + (40 percent x 6.0 percent)
= (1.8 percent) + (2.4 percent) = 4.2 percent .
As the average percentage of moisture in the aggre-
gate increases, the production capacity of a drum mixer
of a given diameter decreases because of the limited
maximum capacity of the exhaust fan. At a constant
average incoming moisture content, the production rate
increases as the drum diameter increases. The theoreti-
cal relationship between average moisture content, drum
diameter, and the calculated drum mix plant production
rate (at a mix discharge temperature of 270°F) is shown
in Figure 2-54 for different models for one particular
make of plant, at a given volume of exhaust gas flow and
set of operating conditions for each size of plant. (Simi-
lar charts are available from manufacturers of other
makes of drum mixers.)
Using this figure, at an average moisture content of
5 percent, a drum mix plant having a diameter of 6 ft
would have a theoretical production capacity of 158 tons
of mix/hr. If a drum 8 ft in diameter were used instead ,
the manufacturing rate would increase to 305 tons of
mix/hr. For a drum mixer 10 ft in diameter, the capacity
would increase to 541 tons of mix/hr at 5 percent mois-
ture removal.
As the moisture content in the aggregate decreases
from 5 percent to 3 percent, the production rate for a
drum mixer that was 8 ft in diameter would increase to
430 tons of mix/hr from 305 tons/hr. If the aggregates
have a higher moisture content (for example, 8 percent) ,
the same 8-ft-diameter plant would only be able to
manufacture 210 tons of asphalt mix/hr. Thus, the
Page 2-43
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
average moisture content of the aggregate directly
affects the capacity of a drum mix plant.
The mix discharge temperature, held constant at
270°F in the example above , also affects the production
rate of the plant; as the mix discharge temperature
decreases for a given aggregate moisture content and
drum size, the volume of mix that can be manufactured
in a given period of time increases. In Figure 2-55, for
a drum mix plant from one manufacturer that is 7.33 ft
in diameter and 28 ft in length, with 5 percent moisture
12
14-
12 MIX TEMP.
200° F
225° F
10
10-
250° F
275° F
8- 300° F
6
4-
2+
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550
TPH OF MIX
Figure 2-55. Moisture content- mix temperatures, as
they affect production rate (Cedarapids).
removal, the production rate will increase from 255
tons/hr at a mix discharge temperature of 300°F to 300
tons/hr at a temperature of 250°F. When the moisture
content on the incoming aggregate is relatively high, the
production rate changes are not as great when the mix
discharge temperature is decreased . At 8 percent
average moisture content, the production capacity of the
same plant increases from 175 to 200 tons/hr as the mix
discharge temperature decreases from 300°F to 250°F.
The production rate of a drum mix plant is also
affected by the volume of the exhaust gases being pulled
through the system by the exhaust fan. As the volume
ofgases being pulled through the drum decreases and as
the velocity of those gases also decreases, the production
capacity of the drum mixer will be reduced .
The production rate of recycled mixtures, for those
plants that operate on a split-feed system, is also a
function of the volume of reclaimed material being fed
into the drum mixer. For these plants, as the amount of
RAP delivered to the drum becomes greater than 50
percent of the total aggregate feed, the capacity of the
plant is decreased, as shown in Figure 2-56, for one
particular make of drum mix plant . This is caused by
the lack of an adequate amount of new aggregate in the
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
10/15/91

upper end of the drum mixer to provide for proper heat
transfer from the burner exhaust gases to the new
aggregate . This, in turn , reduces the heat transferred
from the new aggregate to the RAP material.
Using Figure 2-56, a recycled mix that is made up of
60 percent RAP and 40 percent new aggregate, with the
weighted moisture content in the combined materials at
5 percent, would have an index number of approximately
0.70. The index number means that the plant could
produce only 70 percent as much mix/hr, at a 60/40
blend of reclaimed and new aggregate, as could the
same plant producing mix using all new aggregate.
Thus, if the plant could manufacture 308 tons/hr at 5
percent moisture removal with 100 percent new material,
it would theoretically have a capacity of only 308 x 0.70
= 216 tons/hr when 60 percent reclaimed aggregate is
incorporated into the mix. As the amount of RAP used
in the recycled mix increases above 50 percent, the
amount of mix that can be produced in a drum mix
plant is reduced in proportion to the increasing amount
of reclaimed material used.
The index number above provides a means of
estimating the effect of the introduction of RAP into the
drum mixer on the production rate of the plant. The
actual production rate for a drum mix plant will depend
on a variety of factors including the volume of gases
being pulled through the system and the temperature of
those gases. In addition, several of the newer types of
continuous-mix plants, such as the counter flow drum
mixer, are generally more efficient in the heat-transfer
process and thus can process amounts of RAP above 50
percent with less effect on the production rate of the
plant.
PLANT EFFICIENCY
Mix and Stack Temperatures
If perfect heat transfer could take place inside the
drum, the temperature of the mix upon discharge from
the parallel-flow drum mix plant would be equal to the
temperature of the exhaust gases at the same point .
This equilibrium point would mean that the heat trans-
fer is in balance and that the drum mixer is running at
maximum possible heat-transfer efficiency. Under
normal operating conditions, if the veil of aggregate
inside the drum is complete, the exhaust gas tempera-
ture, measured at the drum exit or before the gases
enter the emission-control system, should be within 20°F
ofthe temperature of the mix (assuming that no leakage
or cooling air is added in the ductwork between the end
of the drum and the point at which the gas temperatures

1.80

1.60

1.40
Index

1.20
T
No.

1.00
888

Mix Design %
.80
U

0-50/50
.60 60/40
70/30
.40

.20

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Weighted Average Moisture, %

Figure 2-56. Effect of amount of reclaimed material on drum mix plant

production (Barber-Greene).

Page 2-44

10/15/91
are measured in the ductwork) . Thus, if the mixture
discharge temperature is 280°F, the measured exhaust
gas temperature should be less than 300°F. This small
temperature differential implies that the drum mixer is
operating efficiently and that minimum fuel/ton is being
burned .
If the exhaust gas temperature is found to be more
than about 20°F above the mix temperature, the heat-
transfer process inside the drum is not as efficient,
primarily because of the lack of an uniformly dense veil
of aggregate across the cross section of the drum .
Temperature differentials of up to 100°F between the
mix and the exhaust gases are sometimes found , indicat-
ing that the plant is not being maintained or operated
properly and that emission control might be a problem.
The degree of operating inefficiency is related to the
difference in the two temperatures (mix discharge and
exhaust gas) before entry into the emission-control
system .
During the production of a recycled asphalt mixture
in a single-feed drum mixer, the heat transfer between
the exhaust gases and the new and reclaimed aggregates
should be similar to that for a mixture using all new
material. Thus, for this process, the exhaust gas temper-
ature should be within the 20°F temperature difference
if the plant is operating correctly. If a split-feed-type
plant is being employed, the difference in the two
temperatures might be greater than 20°F, depending on
the proportion of RAP introduced at the center inlet
point. As a higher percentage of reclaimed aggregate is
incorporated in the recycled mix, the temperature
differential increases. When 50 percent of the recycled
mix consists of RAP, the temperature of the exhaust
gases may be more than 70°F above the mix discharge
temperature .
The efficiency of the heating and drying operation,
therefore, can be judged in part by observing the
temperature differential that exists between the mix
upon leaving the drum and the exhaust gases measured
in the ductwork. Because both temperatures usually are
recorded continuously and are displayed on the plant
control console, this method of monitoring the plant
production process is easy to accomplish.
High exhaust gas temperatures can also lead to
significant, premature corrosion on one side of the
ductwork between the discharge end of the drum mixer.
and the primary collector. This corrosion is another
indication that the efficiency of the plant operation
needs to be monitored and that the temperature of the
exhaust gases at the time they exit the drum mixer must
be controlled .
Page 2-45
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Mix Discharge Monitoring
A second way to judge the efficiency of the drum mix
plant operation is to observe the asphalt mixture as it is
discharged from the drum. The appearance of the mix,
whether it consists of all new aggregate or a blend of
new and reclaimed aggregate, should be uniform across
the width of the discharge chute. The color of the
aggregate particles should be consistent and the finer
aggregate particles should be evenly distributed through-
out the mixture.
If the fuel used by the burner is not being completely
combusted, the coarser aggregate particles in the mix
may appear to be covered with a dark brown stain
instead of with the proper film thickness of asphalt
cement. In addition, the adhesion of the asphalt cement
binder to the aggregate may be reduced and the mix
would have an increased tendency to strip when tested
for potential moisture damage.
If the veil of aggregates inside the drum is not com-
plete, the exhaust gases will travel down one side of the
drum , depending on which direction the drum is turning,
at a higher velocity than on the other side of the drum.
Fine dust-sized particles are picked up in the gas stream
and carried to the rear of the drum. As the exhaust
gases change direction to enter the ductwork, the larger
dust particles drop out of the gas. These uncoated
particles are discharged on one side of the mixture as it
exits the drum. A steady stream of light brown , un-
coated, fine aggregate particles on one side of the
asphalt concrete mix discharge chute thus provides an
indication that the veil of aggregate inside the drum is
incomplete .
If a dry, powdered additive such as hydrated lime is
being added to the incoming cold aggregate at the
burner end of the mixer, it is possible for very fine
material to be picked up in the exhaust gases shortly
after it is charged into the plant. When the aggregate
veil is proper, the fine material will be trapped in the
tumbling mass of aggregate and incorporated into the
mix. If the aggregate veil is incomplete, however, the
powdered material can be carried down one side of the
drum and then dropped into the bottom of the drum at
the mix discharge point, depending on the size of the
particles relative to the exhaust gas velocity. The
powdered material will then be visible on one side of the
asphalt mixture as it is discharged from the drum, as
illustrated in Figure 2-57 . Thus, this method of adding
the mineral filler-type material should not be used unless
that filler is well blended with the incoming aggregate
before the two materials are charged into the drum
mixer.
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Figure 2-57. Unmixed hydrated lime at mix discharge
chute (J. Scherocman) .
Typically a high stack temperature in comparison
with the mix discharge temperature will be accompanied
by a stream of light-colored fines on one side of the mix
discharge chute. Both of these phenomena are indica-
tions that the drum mixer is not operating efficiently.
The plant operator should alter the production process
to achieve a denser veil of aggregate in the drum. The
plant should be operated at the most efficient produc-
tion rate, irrespective of demand ; the plant should be
shut down when the silos are full and restarted when
mix is needed once again.
SUMMARY OF DRUM MIXER OPERATING TECH-
NIQUES
When observing the operation of the drum mixer, a
number of factors should be considered to assure that
the plant is operating properly. Those factors include:
The sound of the burner should be monitored. A
uniform , constant roar is desirable. A coughing, sputter-
ing, or spitting sound may mean that the burner is not
Page 2-46
10/15/91
able to combust the fuel that it is trying to burn com-
pletely. Brown stains or a lesser asphalt cement film
thickness on the coarser aggregate particles at the
discharge end of the drum mixer also indicate unburnt
fuel problems.
• The density of the veil of aggregate inside the
drum near the midpoint of the length is the key to the
efficient operation of the drum mixer and economical
fuel usage. The completeness of the veil can be deter-
mined from a comparison of the discharge temperature
of the mix with the temperature of the exhaust gases at
the stack. The stack temperature should be no more
than 20°F higher than the mix discharge temperature if
the veil of aggregate inside the drum is complete across
the cross-sectional area of the drum (assuming that no
cooling air is added in the emission-control system).
Greater differences in temperature indicate that the
plant is not being operated efficiently.
• The presence of light brown, uncoated fine aggre-
gate on one side of the mix in the discharge chute is also
an indication that the veil of aggregate is incomplete
across the drum circumference.
• The generation of visible hydrocarbon emissions
from the stack further indicates that the temperature of
the exhaust gases inside the drum is too high at the
point where the asphalt cement is injected into the
drum .
The density of the veil of aggregate inside the
drum can be increased through the use of kicker flights,
dams, donuts, or retention rings near the midpoint of
the drum length. It can also be increased by lowering
the slope of the drum to increase the dwell or residence
time of the aggregate in the drum.
• The mineral filler and/or baghouse fines should
be added through the mix discharge end of the drum.
These materials should be coated with asphalt cement or
captured in the mix before they are exposed to the
exhaust gases moving down the drum .
• If RAP is added to the drum through a split-feed
system, the difference in the mix discharge temperature
and the exhaust gas temperature measured at the stack
will typically be greater than 20°F and will usually
increase roughly in proportion to the amount of RAP
added to the mix.
• Plant production rate is determined at a given mix
discharge temperature and at an average moisture
content in the aggregate, usually 5 percent, at a given
elevation (sea level) . An increase in the moisture
content and/or an increase in the mix discharge tempera-
ture decreases the capacity of the drum mixer in terms
of tons of mix produced per hour.
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

• Production rates for recycled asphalt concrete material per ton of mix, the production rate of the
mixes, up to a RAP content of 50 percent, will normally parallel-flow drum mixer will decrease as the amount of
be similar to the production rates for mixes containing reclaimed material increases.
all new aggregate . Above that amount of reclaimed

Page 2-47
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
10/15/91

SECTION FIVE
SURGE AND STORAGE SILOS

INTRODUCTION The type of conveying equipment employed is seldom

The primary purpose of a silo on a batch plant is to
allow the plant to continue to produce material when
trucks are not available to accept mix from the pugmill.
For a drum mix plant operation, the main purpose of
the silo is to convert a continuous mixing operation into
a discontinuous truck-loading process and to hold the
mix temporarily until the next transport vehicle is
available.
This section discusses the conveying devices that are
used to transport the mix from the batch plant pugmill
or from the drum mixer to the silo. It also reviews the
methods used to deliver the mix into the top of the silo
in order to prevent segregation from occurring. Further,
discussion of discharge of the mix from the silo to the
haul trucks emphasizes reducing the segregation that
might occur in the mix during the truck-loading opera-
tion.
a major factor in the uniformity of the mix delivered to
the silo. The important point is the manner in which
the mix exits from the device and enters the top of the
silo.
BIN GEOMETRY
Silos come in a variety of shapes . The majority of
the silos currently in use are circular, but silos that are
oval, elliptical, rectangular, and square have been used .
The shape of the silo can affect the amount of segrega-
tion that occurs both upon loading and unloading the
silo. Less segregation of a given mix is generally found
from a circular silo than from silos of other shapes.
For circular silos, the probability of segregation
problems with mixes containing larger-size coarse aggre-

CONVEYING DEVICES
A variety of conveying devices are used to carry the
hot-mix asphalt from the discharge chute on the drum
mixer or from the hopper under the pugmill of a batch
plant to the surge silo. The most popular equipment is
the drag slat conveyor, as shown in Figures 2-58 and
2-59. In this system, a continuous set of flights connect-
ed together by a drag chain pull the mix up an inclined
metal conveyor. The amount of mix that can be carried
by the drag slats depends on the spacing between the
slats, the depth of the individual flights, the width of the
flights, and the slope of the conveyor, as well as the size
and speed of the drag chain and the power of the drive
motor. On some drag slat conveyors, the speed of the
conveyor can be altered to change the capacity of the
device to match the output of the drum mixer more
evenly.
A belt conveyor can also be used to deliver the mix
to the silo, as seen in Figure 2-60. This belt is essential-
ly the same as those that carry the incoming aggregate
into the drum except that it is able to withstand the
increased temperature of the hot material. As shown in
Figure 2-61 , a bucket elevator is also used on some
plants. This device is similar to the equipment used on
batch plants to carry the hot aggregate from the dis-
charge end of the dryer to the top of the mixing tower. Figure 2-58. Drag slat conveyor (Standard-Havens).

Page 2-48

10/15/91
1000
Figure 2-59. Drag slat conveyor (Cedarapids) .
gate increases as the diameter of the silo increases. In
general, however, the silo geometry is not a major factor
in segregation; the manner in which the silo is operated
(loaded and unloaded) has a greater effect on the
uniformity of the mix and the amount of segregation .
Figure 2-60. Hot mix belt conveyor (J. Scherocman) .
Page 2-49
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
TOP OF THE SILO
Mix Delivery
Segregation most typically occurs in mixes that
contain a significant proportion of large aggregate
and/or are gap graded . The actual separation of the
large and small particles occurs when the asphalt mix is
placed in a conical pile and the bigger particles run
down the side of the pile , collecting at the bottom edge.
Segregation can also occur when all the mix is thrown to
one side of the silo, allowing the coarser pieces to run
across the surge silo to the opposite wall.
Prevention of longitudinal (side-to-side ) segregation
on the roadway begins at the top of the silo. Mix deliv-
ered to the top of the silo by slat conveyor, belt convey-
or, or bucket elevator will be discharged to the far side
of the silo by the natural centrifugal force of the convey-
ing device, as illustrated in Figure 2-62, unless some
means is employed to redirect the flow into the center
of the silo. On some silos, a series of baffles is used to
contain and change the direction of the material. Other
silos are equipped with a splitter system to divide the
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Figure 2-61 . Hot- bucket elevator charging surge bin
(Barber-Greene) .
mix that is delivered, causing a portion of the mix to be
placed in each part of the silo. In general, use of the
baffle and splitter systems can reduce the tendency for
longitudinal (side-to-side) segregation on the roadway
but does not always eliminate it. The use of a batcher
system provides a better means to reduce the segrega-
tion problem .
Longitudinal segregation will occur on one side of
the lane being paved because the coarser aggregate
Figure 2-62. Improper delivery of mix to batcher
(NAPA) .
Page 2-50
10/15/91
particles will roll to one side of the silo. Loading the
haul truck with the vehicle facing in the opposite
direction to its normal loading pattern should cause the
longitudinal segregation to move from one side of the
lane to the other side. If this occurs, the cause of the
side-to-side segregation is in the loading of the mix into
the silo from the conveying device: drag slat conveyor,
conveyor belt, or bucket elevator.
Batcher
The most effective means to reduce segregation is to
employ some form of temporary holding hopper or
batcher at the top of the silo to momentarily store the
mix being transported by the conveying device. This
hopper, shown in Figure 2-63, collects the continuous
flow of mix. When the hopper is nearly full and the
hopper gates are opened, the mix is deposited in a mass
into the silo. The mass of mix will hit the bottom of the
empty silo or the top of mix already in the silo . Upon
contact, the mix will splatter in all directions uniformly,
minimizing segregation.
The system functions well unless the silo is almost
full. In this case, the mix, when released from the
hopper, does not fall very far. When it hits the mix
already in the silo beneath the hopper, the falling mix
lacks the momentum to spread out over the area of the
silo, and a conical pile is formed instead . This pile can
be the beginning of a segregation problem as more mix
is deposited on top of it . Most silos are equipped with
high silo indicator warning systems that alert the plant
operator to cut off the flow of incoming mix when the
silo becomes too full.
The batchers may not prevent a segregation problem
if the mix is delivered to it improperly. In some cases,
the transporting devices place the mix all on one side of
the hopper, as shown in Figure 2-62. This causes rolling
of the coarse aggregate in the batcher itself. It also
causes the mix to be dropped off-center into the silo.
Thus, even though the silo may be equipped with a
batcher, the mix must be deposited uniformly into the
center of the hopper and the mix must be delivered
from the batcher into the center of the silo to prevent
segregation of mixes with a large portion of coarser
aggregate.
Sometimes, the plant operator improperly leaves the
gates on the bottom of the batcher wide open. This
defeats the purpose of the batcher and allows the mix to
dribble in to the silo in a continuous stream. In other
cases, the batcher may be emptied more often than
necessary; when it is only partially full. This continual
dumping of the hopper reduces the mass of material

10/15/91
Figure 2-63 . Silo batcher (NAPA) .
dropped into the silo and increases the opportunity for
a conical pile of mix to form. Further, the timer device
should be set so that the gates of the batcher are closed
before the batcher is empty; some mix should remain in
the batcher. This will allow the mix to fall in a mass and
reduce segregation. A timer can be used to regulate the
opening and closing of the batcher gates and permit the
batcher to be used properly.
Rotating Spreader Chute
Mix can also be introduced into the silo using a
rotating spreader chute, as shown in Figure 2-64. This
Page 2-51
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
device revolves around at the top of the silo and depos-
its the mix in a circle around the circumference of the
silo. The flow of the asphalt mix is continuous , but the
development of conical piles of mix is minimized by
spreading the material out over a wider area. Because
the chute on the rotary spreader is subject to extensive
abrasion from the mix, it must be checked periodically
to assure that no holes have developed in the device.
Depending on the location of the hole, mix could either
be deposited all in the center of the silo or all around
the outside circumference of the silo. Because of
maintenance problems with this equipment, the rotating
chute system is rarely used.
SURGE VERSUS STORAGE
A silo can be used , during the normal daily operation
of the plant, to store asphalt mix between the arrival of
trucks at the plant. In this case, the silo is typically
termed a surge silo . If the silo is to be employed for
holding the mix for longer periods of time (overnight or
for several days) the silo may be termed a storage silo.
A storage silo can easily be used as a surge silo. A
surge silo may not be suitable for use as a storage silo.
Several differences exist between a surge and a
storage silo. First, the capacity of a storage silo is
typically greater than the capacity of a surge silo.
Second, the surge silo is usually insulated but not
heated. The silo used for mix storage is always insulated
and usually heated, either completely or partially. Third,
the gates at the bottom of the storage silo are heated
and sealed when mix is to be held for a long period of
time, in order to reduce the amount of air that can pass
up into the mix through the gates . The gates at the
bottom of the surge silo are not normally heated or
sealed.
The primary operation of both types of silos is
similar. Only the ability to store quantities of mix for
longer time periods without significant changes in the
properties of the mix differentiates the two types of
equipment. Whichever type of silo is used, the mix that
is held in the silo and then delivered to the haul truck
should meet the same mix specifications and require-
ments as the mix discharged directly from the pugmill on
a batch plant or as the mix at the discharge end of the
drum mixer, before passage into and out of the silo.
Insulation and Heat
Most surge silos are insulated . The purpose of the
insulation is to reduce the loss of heat from the mix as
it temporarily resides in the silo . The type of insulating
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
10/15/91

material used and its thickness varies among the various

manufacturers.
The cone at the base of the surge silo is usually
heated. This is done to prevent the mix from sticking to
the wall of the cone and building up. The heat can be
provided by electrical or hot-oil systems. In some cases,
the vertical walls on the silo are also heated. The
heating allows the mix to retain the desired temperature
for an extended period of time. If the silo is to be used
strictly as a surge silo and is emptied of mix at the end
of each production day, heating of the silo walls is
usually unnecessary, but the cone is usually heated .

Storage
Occasionally it is necessary to retain an asphalt
mixture in the silo for a longer time period, such as
overnight or over a weekend . Usually this can be
accomplished quite successfully without undue hardening
or temperature loss in the mix. A well-insulated silo is
required, but heating of the silo vertical walls is general-
ly unnecessary. Mixes stored for several days in silos
equipped with heated cones have shown only minimal
oxidation and temperature loss. The amount of harden-
ing that occurs is related to the amount of mix in the
silo. The large mass of mix in a full silo will age less
than will a small volume of mix in a nearly empty silo.
In addition, the amount of temperature loss in the
stored mix will depend on a number of factors including
the initial mix temperature, the gradation of the materi-
al, and environmental conditions.
Asphalt mix (except open-graded mix) may be stored
for as long as a week when kept in a heated, air-tight
silo. An inert gas system can be employed to purge the
silo of oxygen, but this is rarely done. The gates at the
bottom of the silo as well as any openings at the top of
the silo must be well sealed to prevent the movement of
air into and through the mix. The silo must be com-
pletely heated and well insulated . Further, it is some- Figure 2-64. Batcher spreader chute (NAPA).
times advisable to remove a small amount of mix (at
least 2 or 3 tons of material) from the silo every day or ered directly to the paving site . This testing should
every other day during the storage period to assure that include measurement of the mix temperature upon
the mix at the bottom of the cone does not set up and discharge from the silo and the viscosity and/or penetra-
become impossible to discharge . Although mix can be tion of the asphalt cement recovered from the mix. As
stored for relatively long periods of time, it is rarely long as the mixture meets these specifications, the length
necessary to do so with continuous operation of the of time the material is held in the silo should not be
plant. Most silos, therefore, are used either as surge restricted. If an open-graded mixture is being stored ,
silos or periodically as storage silos for overnight storage however, care must be taken to keep the mix storage
of the asphalt material. temperature low enough so that the asphalt cement does
The mix held for more than two or three days in a not flow off of the aggregate and collect at the bottom
surge or storage silo should be tested to assure that it of the silo .
meets all the same requirements as asphalt mixes deliv-

Page 2-52

10/15/91
THE CONE, LOADOUT, AND SEGREGATION
Silo Cone
As shown in Figure 2-65, the bottom of the surge silo
is shaped like a funnel or cone. The angle of the cone
varies with the different manufacturers, but is usually
between 55° and 70° . This slope assures that the mix is
deposited as a mass into the truck. The angle needs to
NCP
Figure 2-65. Discharge cone at bottom of silo (J.
Scherocman).
be steep enough, and the gate opening large enough, to
assure that the larger aggregate particles do not roll into
the center of the cone (rathole) as the mix is drawn
down, causing segregation.
The vast majority of the surge silos have low silo
indicator systems that warn the plant operator when the
level of mix in the silo is near the top of the cone. By
keeping the volume of mix in the silo above this mini-
mum level, segregation will be minimized . As very
coarse mixes or gap-graded mixes are pulled below the
top of the cone, there can be a tendency for the largest
aggregate particles to roll into the center of the crater.
Page 2-53
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Loading and Segregation
Just as it is important to deliver mix into the silo in
a mass, it is also important to deposit the asphalt mix in
a mass into the haul truck. The gates on the bottom of
the cone should be opened and closed quickly. It is also
necessary for the gates to open completely so that the
flow of mix is unrestricted. There is only one reason to
cut off the flow of mix into the vehicle once that deliv-
ery has started : to divide the delivery of the mix into
different sections of the truck.
If all the mix is placed in the haul vehicle in one
drop from the silo, segregation of the larger aggregate
particles can occur. If the mix is deposited into the
center of the truck bed, the material will build up into
a conical-shaped pile, as illustrated in Figure 2-66 .
Because the growth of the pile will be restricted by the
sides of the truck, the bigger aggregate particles will roll
toward the front and the tailgate of the truck bed.
These pieces accumulate at both ends of the load and
are then delivered into the hopper on the paver from
the truck bed. The pockets of coarse material then
appear in the mat behind the laydown machine at the
end of the truckload of mix. In reality, some of the
large aggregate pieces come from the end of one
truckload and also from the beginning of the next
truckload of mix.
This segregation problem can be minimized by
dividing the delivery of the asphalt mix from the silo into
multiple drops, each delivered to a different section of
the bed of the hauling vehicle. If a tandem axle or
triaxle dump truck is being used, about 40 percent of the
total weight of the mix to be hauled should be loaded
into the center of the front half of the truck. The truck
should then be pulled forward so that the next 40
percent or so of the total load can be deposited into the
center of the back half of the bed, near the tailgate.
0.000
OO
Figure 2-66. Incorrect truck-loading sequence
(NAPA) .
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
2 needed to place the proper amount of material in each
8 by watching the height of the growing pile of mix in the
000
0.
OO
Figure 2-67. Correct truck loading sequence (NAPA).
The vehicle should then be moved backwards again so
that the remaining 20 percent of the mix can be dropped
into the center of the bed, between the first two piles.
This loading sequence is shown in Figure 2-67.
If a larger truck is used to deliver the mix, the
number of drops of material from the silo should be
increased to distribute the mix along the length of the
truck bed. The first drop of mix should be into the
front portion of the bed and the second drop should be
near the tailgate. The remaining mix should be deliv-
ered in evenly divided drops into the rest of the length
of the truck bed. In no case should the truck be loaded
continuously by the truck driver moving forward under
the silo as the mix is being discharged . This operation
will cause the coarse aggregate particles to collect at the
tailgate of the truck and increase the amount of segrega-
tion that will occur.
The objective is to minimize the distance that the
coarser aggregate pieces can roll . This significantly
reduces the chance for segregation in the mix. This
procedure, however, requires that the truck driver
reposition the truck under the silo after each drop so
that the asphalt mix is spread more evenly on the truck
bed. In any case, the truck should not be loaded in one
drop of mix from the silo, even if the mix does not have
a tendency to segregate. Multiple discharges are very
beneficial in keeping the mix uniform. Some plants are
equipped with controls to deposit the mix automatically
into the haul truck at predetermined amounts and
intervals.
The silo discharge operator should be able to deter-
mine the time it takes to deliver the proper amount of
mix, per drop, into each haul vehicle. This can be done
by timing the discharge of the mix and comparing the
time with the weight of mix delivered . Because trucks
are a variety of sizes, the time per drop of mix may be
different from truck to truck, but after a little practice,
the operator should be able to judge accurately the time
Page 2-54
10/15/91
truck bed. This amount can also be confirmed visually
truck as the loading continues .
The operator should not be allowed to "top off" or
dribble mix into the haul vehicle. The gates on the silo
should not be opened and closed continually to deliver
only small amounts of mix to the truck. This occurs
most frequently in plants where the surge silos are
placed directly over the truck scales. Because the
operator can quickly determine the amount of mix
actually in the truck bed by observing the scale readout
on the control console, the tendency is to load the
vehicle right up to the legal limit. This is done by using
multiple drops of small quantities of mix at the end of
the main delivery. If the discharge of mix from the silo
is timed, however, this procedure is unnecessary and the
potential for mix segregation is reduced .
Loading Hopper
Some silos have a loading hopper or batcher under
the cone. If the capacity of the batcher is significantly
smaller than the capacity of the haul vehicle and if the
truck position is changed between batches of mix, the
amount of truckload- to-truckload segregation may be
decreased somewhat through the use of the batcher.
SUMMARY OF SILO OPERATING TECHNIQUES
Segregation usually begins at the surge silo, in the
loading and unloading process . The items that should
be monitored include the following:
• The conveying device from the discharge chute of
a drum mix plant or from the hopper under the pugmill
of a batch plant must deposit the mix into the center of
the silo if a batcher is not used, or into the center ofthe
batcher at the top of the silo.
• Longitudinal (side-to-side) segregation is caused
by loading the silo to one side and by the coarser
aggregate particles rolling to the opposite side inside the
silo .
• If longitudinal segregation is present behind the
paver, several haul trucks should be loaded under the
silo facing in the opposite direction from their normal
loading pattern. When these truckloads of mix are
unloaded at the paver, the location of the segregation
should change sides in the lane being paved . If this
happens, the cause of the side-to-side segregation is
probably in the procedure used to place the mix into the
silo from the conveying device .
A batcher should be used at the top of the silo.
The batcher should not be operated with its gates wide

10/15/91
open, allowing the mix to pass right through it. The
batcher should be filled up with mix and then should
drop the mix in a mass into the center of the silo.
Further, the gate on the bottom of the batcher should
be closed before all of the mix is discharged from the
batcher.
• If the silo is to be used for overnight storage of
asphalt mix, the cone should be heated and the silo walls
insulated. If mix is stored for more than two days, a
small quantity of mix should be withdrawn from the silo
at least every other day to prevent plugging of the cone.
• If the mix is stored for more than two or three
days, the mix should be checked upon discharge for
temperature and for the penetration and/or viscosity of
the recovered asphalt cement from the mix. The mix
should meet the same specification requirements as a
mix placed immediately after manufacture .
Page 2-55
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
• Truckload-to-truckload segregation is usually
caused by the procedure used to load the trucks under
the silo. The truck should never be loaded in only one
drop of mix into the center of the truck bed. Multiple
drops of mix are necessary, with the first drop located
near the front of the bed and the second drop of mix
near the tailgate. Additional drops of mix should be
made at intermediate points between the first two drops.
• The truck should never be loaded by slowly
driving the truck forward as mix is being delivered from
the silo. This will cause the coarser aggregate particles
to collect at the tailgate of the truck and significantly
increase the amount of segregation that occurs.
• The plant operator should not "top off" or dribble
mix into the truck bed in small drops to fill the truck to
legal capacity.
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
SECTION SIX
EMISSION CONTROL
INTRODUCTION
This section discusses the three types of emission-
control equipment found on batch and drum mix plants:
dry collectors, wet collectors, and baghouses. The dry
collector is usually placed in front of one of the other
two types of collectors and is termed a primary collector.
The wet collector (wet scrubber) and the baghouse
(fabric filter) are secondary collectors through which the
exhaust gases flow after passing through the primary
collector. The primary collector is used to remove the
larger fine particles from the exhaust gases and reduce
the loading on the secondary collector, which is used to
capture the very fine particles. The operation of each of
the three emission-control devices is reviewed .
FINES CARRYOUT
All batch and drum mix plants have a small amount
of fines aggregate carryout from the dryer or the drum
mixer. In order to meet federal and state air quality
codes, emission-control equipment is necessary to
capture particulate emissions that might otherwise be
released to the atmosphere. In addition, some emission-
control devices permit the plant operator to control the
amount of fines returned to the asphalt mixture.
The velocity of the exhaust gases inside a dryer or
drum mixer is primarily a function of the diameter of
the drum, the capacity of the exhaust fan, and the speed
of the exhaust fan. A minimum volume of air is needed
for proper operation of the burner. This air, combined
with the products of combustion from the burner and
the moisture vapor from the aggregate, moves through
the dryer or drum mixer at a velocity that varies with the
operating conditions of the plant. The amount of fines
carryout increases as the exhaust gas velocity increases.
In a drum mixer, the amount of fines carryout can be
reduced significantly by encapsulating or coating the
aggregate with the asphalt cement early in the drying
process. The farther up the drum the asphalt cement is
injected, the more fines are captured in the asphalt
cement before they can become airborne. Typically the
amount of fines carryout increases as the asphalt cement
pipe is positioned farther down toward the discharge end
of the drum .
The amount of fines carryout is a function of the
amount of very fine material in the new aggregate; the
Page 2-56
10/15/91
size, weight, and moisture content of the fines; and the
amount ofvery fine particles in the reclaimed aggregate
(if used in a drum mix plant) . It is also related to the
operation of the drum--the production rate (density of
the aggregate veil) , the location of the asphalt cement
injection pipe (for a drum mixer), and the velocity ofthe
exhaust gases. The amount of carryout can vary widely
with a change in the properties of the incoming aggre-
gate and the production process.
The efficiency of the emission-control equipment is
the amount of particulates that are captured by the
equipment versus the amount of particulate matter that
enters the emission-control equipment. If 1000 parti-
cles/min enter a baghouse, for example, and 990 of those
particles are caught in the baghouse, the collection
system is 99 percent efficient. The efficiency can be
determined, in part, by observing the amount of particu-
lates being emitted from the stack. This is done by
checking the opacity of the exhaust gas beyond the end
of the steam plume (if one is present) . If a dust trail is
seen, the operation of the emission-control equipment
must be checked.
PRIMARY DRY COLLECTOR
Dry collectors are not used or needed on all asphalt
plants. If employed, the dry collector can be one of
several types, which may be used in combination with
each other. When used in combination, the first collec-
tor is referred to as the primary and the second collector
is known as the secondary collector. The original dry
collector was a cyclone device that forced the exhaust
gases to swirl inside the collector. The dust in the gases
was removed by centrifugal force; it was thrown to the
side of the cyclone as the gases moved in a circular
motion. The operation of a cyclone-type dry collector is
shown in Figure 2-68.
Most dry-collector systems in use today have an
expansion chamber combined with a baghouse. The
expansion chamber or knockout box has a greater cross-
sectional area than the ductwork through which the
exhaust gases pass between the dryer or the drum mixer
and the secondary collector. A typical knockout box
(dry cyclone) used in combination with a baghouse is
shown in Figure 2-69. The exhaust gas velocity decreas-
es significantly when it reaches the increased area of the
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

dry collector. The largest and heaviest of the fine

particles fall out of the gas stream, in proportion to the
reduction in the speed of the exhaust gases and as the
velocity is decreased . These particles drop to the
bottom of the expansion chamber. The collected
particles can either be returned uniformly to the batch
plant or to the drum mixer, either alone or in combina-
tion with the fines collected by the baghouse, or they
can be wasted.
The efficiency of the primary collector depends in
part on the size of the fine particles in the exhaust gases
and on the type of collector used . Primary collectors
can have an efficiency (the percentage of the amount of
fines removed from the exhaust gases compared with the
total amount of fines in the gases) as low as 50 percent
for a knockout box to as high as 70 to 90 percent when
a dry cyclone is used . Thus, only a portion of the fines
in the exhaust gases are removed by this equipment.
The main purpose of the primary collector is to improve
the operation of the secondary collector by reducing the
fines loading on the wet scrubber or the baghouse.

Figure 2-68. Cyclone operation (Cedarapids).

Figure 2-69. Dry collector and baghouse (H&B) .

Page 2-57
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
10/15/91
GAS WATER SPRAY
IN NOZZLES
WET COLLECTOR
After moving through a primary dry collector , the
exhaust gases on most newer plants equipped with a wet
collector system are forced through a narrowed opening,
or venturi, as shown in Figure 2-70 . When the gas flow
is concentrated in a small area, it is sprayed with water
from multiple nozzles and the fines are wetted . The
exhaust gases and wet fines then travel into the separa-
tor section of the collector.
The exhaust gases are sent into a circular motion
around the circumference of the unit, as seen in Figure THROAT ADJUSTING
2-71 , and the wetted fines, which are relatively heavy, SCREWS
GAS
are removed from the gas stream by centrifugal force OUT
and fall to the bottom of the collector. The clean gas
continues to swirl around the collector until it reaches
Figure 2-70. Venturi collector (Cedarapids).
the end, when it passes out the stack to the atmosphere.
Depending of the size of the fines particles in the
exhaust gases, a wet-scrubber system is usually 90 to 99 shallow, dirty water will be sent back to the scrubber. In
percent efficient in removing particulates from those order to maintain a supply of clean water for use in the
gases. In addition to being related to the size and fines collection equipment, the sediment on the bottom
amount of the fines present, the efficiency is a function of the pond must be removed periodically. In addition,
of both the cleanliness and the volume of water used to water lost from the pond through evaporation and leaks
spray the exhaust gases. If the water sprayed is clean in the piping system should be replaced as necessary.
and free from sediment and if all of the
nozzles in the scrubber are open and work-
ing, the amount of fines removed by the wet-
collector system will increase.
The cleanliness of the water and the
condition of the nozzles is related to the size
of the settling pond used to collect the water
discharged from the scrubber. The water
and fines, in the form of a sludge, are sent
from the bottom of the collector through a
pipe to the first section of the pond, where
the heaviest fines settle out of the water.
The cleaner water at the top of the pond in
this first section is drawn off through an
outlet on the opposite side of the pond.
Additional settling of the fines occurs in
each succeeding section of the pond. The
efficiency of the settlement process is directly
related to the size of the settling pond; the
bigger and deeper the pond, the more water
available, and the more time for the fines to
separate and settle before the water is
pumped from the pond back to the wet-
scrubber unit .
As the settling pond fills up with fines,
the time that the water remains in the pond
and the amount of settlement that can occur
will decrease. When a pond becomes too Figure 2-71 . Venturi separator (Cedarapids).

Page 2-58

10/15/91
Figure 2-72. Baghouse fabric dust collector (Barber-Greene).
Any fines that are removed from the exhaust gases
by the wet scrubber are no longer available for use in
the mix. The gradation of the mix produced in the
batch or drum mix plant is thus not the same as the
gradation of the incoming new and/or reclaimed aggre-
gate. In most cases in which the amount of fines
carryout is not great, the change in gradation will be
small, but if a large volume of fines is captured in the
exhaust gases, a significant change can occur in the
aggregate gradation , particularly in the very fine particle
sizes.
BAGHOUSE
The exhaust gases that pass through the primary
collector can be pulled by the exhaust fan on the plant
through another type of secondary collector called a
baghouse or fabric filter, as shown in Figures 2-72 and
2-73. (Although baghouses can be operated without a
primary collector, this generally reduces the efficiency of
the system and is not normally done. ) The material
Page 2-59
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
used as the filter cloth is usually a special type
of synthetic fiber that is resistant to high fines
loadings, high humidity, and high temperature
while undergoing multiple cycles of bending
and flexing. The fabric is dense enough to
catch the particulates while still permitting the
air to pass through. This synthetic fiber materi-
al will char and disintegrate if subjected to
exhaust gas temperatures above 450°F for
extended periods of time.
The fabric is fabricated into a cylindrically
shaped bag and is placed on a circular metal
framework or cage that is closed on the bottom
but open on the top, as shown in Figure 2-74.
The filter bags on the cages are arranged in
rows inside the baghouse, as illustrated in
Figure 2-75. The number of bags needed
depends on the size of the dryer or drum
mixer, the diameter and the length of each
individual bag, and the air-to- cloth ratio re-
quired to meet emission-control specifications.
In general, 1 ft² of filter cloth area is needed to
clean 5 to 7 ft³/min of exhaust gas . The most
common air-to-cloth ratio in use is 6: 1.
Each baghouse has a clean air side and a
dirty air side, as shown in Figures 2-76 and
2-77. The exhaust fan pulls the dirty air from
outside the filter fabric through the material to
the inside. The fines are caught on the outside
surface of the bag and the cleaned exhaust
gases, relieved of the dust, are carried out the
top of the bag and to the stack. The fines build up on
the outside of the bag with time and form a dust cake or
coating on each bag. The degree of coating determines
the efficiency of the filter; if the bags are too clean, only
the coarser fines will be caught and the finer particles
will pass through the fabric; if the bags are too dirty or
blinded, the exhaust gases will be unable to pass through
the dust cake and the baghouse will stop operating. The
thickness of the dust cake is generally determined by the
frequency of the filter bag cleaning cycle .
To remove a portion of the built up dust on the filter
bags, the bags must be cleaned periodically. Bags are
cleaned in rows or in groups so that most of the bag-
house is in the collecting mode while a few bags are
being cleaned . The cleaning occurs by flexing or shaking
the bags, backflushing them with a pulse of clean air, or
by a combination of both procedures, as shown in Figure
2-78. The most common procedure is the pulse jet
system, with a cleaning cycle occurring for only 1/10 sec
approximately once every 3 min. The particulates
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1 10/15/91

Figure 2-73. Baghouse fabric dust collector (J. Scherocman).

removed from the bags fall to the bottom of the house
and are collected for return to the plant or are wasted .
A baghouse can remove up to 99.9 percent of the
fines in the exhaust gas stream. This efficiency is mea-
sured in part by the amount of pressure drop--generally
in the range of 2 to 6 in. of water column--between the
dirty side and the clean side of the bags. Ifthe pressure
drop is too low (1 to 2 in.), the bags are too clean and
some of the very fine dust particles will pass through the
filter and up the stack. If the pressure drop is too high
(greater than 6 in .), the fines buildup on the bags is
excessive, the exhaust gases will be restricted from
passing through the fabric, and the capacity of the dryer
or drum mixer will be reduced.
The efficiency of the baghouse will be affected if the
temperature of the exhaust gases entering the baghouse
is below the dew point--the temperature of the exhaust
gas at which point the moisture begins to condense, as
shown in Figure 2-79. The moisture, combined with the
fines in the exhaust gases, forms a mudlike coating on
The synthetic fiber bags, when subjected to tempera-
tures above 450°F for extended periods of time, can
char, disintegrate, and then burn . To prevent this,
temperature sensors and automatic shutdown devices are
installed in the ductwork upstream of the baghouse.
The sensor is typically set at a temperature of 400°F. If
the temperature of the exhaust gases exceeds this value,
the sensor sends a visual and/or audible signal to the
plant operator or may automatically shut off the fuel
flow to the burner. Some baghouses are fitted with
automatic fire extinguisher devices if a fire does occur in
the emission-control equipment.
The gradation of the asphalt mix produced in a batch
or drum mix plant may change depending on whether
any or all of the baghouse fines are returned to the
CLEAN EXHAUST
FILTER
BAG

the outside of the bags that cannot easily be removed

during the bag- cleaning cycle. If this happens, the
pressure drop across the bags increases significantly,
reducing the efficiency of the baghouse and even
choking off the burner flame in extreme cases. Το DIRTY EXHAUST
prevent this from occurring, the baghouse must be
preheated by running the burner on " low fire" without
aggregate in the drum before mix production is com- Figure 2-74. Baghouse fabric collector (Barber-
menced each day.
Greene).

Page 2-60
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

plant. If the collected dust is returned, the mix

gradation will be approximately the same as the
gradation of the incoming new and reclaimed
aggregate (assuming minimal degradation of the
aggregate during processing through the dryer or
drum mixer). If the baghouse fines are wasted ,
there may be a considerable change in the mix
gradation. If the fines are returned , it is very
important that they be introduced into the batch
or drum mix plant continuously and uniformly.

FUGITIVE DUST
The primary source of emissions from a batch
or drum mix plant is the fines carryout present in
the exhaust gases during the aggregate heating
and drying process. Additional emissions are
possible, however, in the form of fugitive dust.
This is fine material that leaks from the plant
through holes in the equipment or ductwork
while the plant is operating.
For a batch plant, the three most likely
sources of fugitive dust are the hot elevator, the
plant screens, and the pugmill. As the aggregate
is delivered from the hot elevator to the screen
deck, it passes over the vibrating screens. This
movement creates dust, as does the mixing ofthe
aggregate in the plant pugmill during the dry mix
cycle. Fugitive dust can be eliminated by com-
pletely and tightly enclosing the screen deck area
and by keeping the dry mix time in the pugmill
to a minimum. In addition, a scavenger air
system (fugitive dust-evacuation system) creates
a negative air pressure inside the plant housing
Figure 2-75. Rows of filter bags in baghouse (ICA) . and reduces the amount of dust carryout during
plant operations. This system usually consists of
ductwork with adjustable dampers extending from the
FABRIC FILTER
screen deck, hot bins, weigh hopper, and pugmill
sections to the inlet of a fugitive dust fan, which then
DUST LADEN AIR blows the dust into the secondary collector. On some
plants, a fugitive dust fan is not used . In this instance,
the ductwork extends directly to the inlet of the second-
ary collector.
For both a batch plant and a drum mix plant, holes
in the emission-control equipment, primarily in the
ductwork between the end of the dryer or drum mixer
CLEAN AIR and the dry or wet collector, may allow the escape of
fine aggregate particles. These holes should be patched
to permit all of the dust in the exhaust gases to be
drawn into the emission-control collectors. Further, the

Figure 2-76. Clean air-dirty air sides of a filter (Bar- holes should be eliminated in order to prevent the
ber-Greene). exhaust fan from drawing in excess (leakage) air and

Page 2-61
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1 10/15/91

reducing the amount of air available for combustion at

the burner.

SUMMARY OF EMISSION-CONTROL OPERATING CLEAN SIDE

TECHNIQUES
The following items should be monitored when
observing the operation of the emission-control equip-
ment:
• The discharge of the exhaust gases from the stack
should be observed for a dust trail at the end of the DIRTY RIDE

steam plume. If one exists, the operation of the emis-

sion-control equipment should be checked.
• If a wet scrubber is used, the spray nozzles in the Figure 2-77. Clean air-dirty air sides in baghouse
venturi should be checked to assure that all are open (Barber-Greene).
and spraying water.
• The cleanliness of the water being returned to the
spray nozzles from the pond should be checked at the PNEUMATIC
FLEXING
point at which the water is drawn from the pond by the PREFERRED
water pump .
• If a baghouse is used, the pressure drop across
the bags should be in the range of 2 to 6 in. of water
column.
• The temperature of the exhaust gases entering the
baghouse should be less than 400°F. An automatic
shutoff device should be used to stop the operation of
the plant if the exhaust gas temperature exceeds this
value . The temperature should be considerably less if
the veil of aggregate inside the dryer or drum mixer is
correct.
Figure 2-78. Cleaning by flexing or shaking bags
• The relationship between the gradation ofthe mix (Barber-Greene).
produced in the batch or drum mix plant should be
compared with the gradation used in the mix design
process. The amount of change in gradation will depend
on whether a wet-scrubber system is used or whether the
baghouse fines are returned to the plant or wasted .

350
250
450
0 500
15

Figure 2-79. Bag blinding dew point (Barber-Greene).

Page 2-62

10/15/91
SECTION SEVEN
BATCH PLANT
INTRODUCTION
Discussed in this section are the major components
of a batch plant: the cold-feed system, asphalt cement
supply system, aggregate dryer, and mixing tower, as
shown in Figure 2-80. In most cases, the cold-feed
system for a batch plant is similar to the equipment used
for a drum mix plant. The asphalt cement feed system
operates, for the vast majority of the batch plants, on a
weight basis instead of a volume basis. The aggregate
dryer operates on a counter flow basis in contrast to
most drum mixers, which use a parallel -flow type of
system . The heating and drying of the aggregate
through the dryer is reviewed .
The batch plant tower is made up of several key
components: hot elevator, screen deck, hot bins, weigh
hopper, and pugmill . These components are shown in
Figure 2-80. Batch plant layout (Cedarapids).
Page 2-63
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Figures 2-80 and 2-81 and are discussed in depth. The
screening of the aggregate is discussed , as is the delivery
of the aggregate to the pugmill . The required dry mix
and wet mix times for the blending of the aggregate and
the asphalt cement are given. The introduction of RAP
into the process is also presented .
AGGREGATE HANDLING
Aggregate Stockpiles
The stockpiling techniques used for handling aggre-
gate in a batch plant mixing operation are no different
from the procedures used for handling aggregate when
producing a mix in a drum mix plant. Care needs to be
taken to keep the various aggregate sizes separate and
to prevent segregation of each size of aggregate in the
stockpile.
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1 10/15/91

Hot
Asphalt Heating asphalt Measuring
cement
storage

Stockpiled Cold Drying

bins Screening aggregate Measuring Mixing Hot Mix
aggregates (Heating) storage
*0 =-=--

Mineral
filler Measuring
storage

Drying
(Heating)
Asphalt
cement
Screening

Mineral
3 2 1 filler
A
Measuring Measuring
Cold bins
Mixing

Stockpiled
aggregates

Figure 2-81 . Batch plant flow chart (Asphalt Institute) .

It is sometimes assumed that the screens in the batch
plant tower will overcome any problems with variations
in the gradation of the incoming new aggregate. If the
proper proportion of each size of aggregate is not
delivered from the cold-feed bins, however, the amount
of aggregate in the hot bins will be out of balance. One
or more of the hot bins may be starved for material or
one of the hot bins may be overflowing if the aggregate
feed at the cold-feed bins is not correct because of lack
of separation between the aggregate stockpiles or segre-
gation of the aggregate in one or more stockpiles.
Proper stockpiling techniques are as important for batch
plant operations as they are for drum mix plant opera-
tions.
Cold-Feed Systems for New Aggregates
Some batch plant cold-feed bins are equipped with a
constant-speed feeder belt under each bin. The amount
of aggregate withdrawn from each bin is controlled by
the size of the gate opening at the bottom of the bin.
Most plants, however, have cold-feed bins that are
equipped with a variable-speed feeder belt beneath each
bin. The amount of aggregate withdrawn from each bin
is regulated by the size of the gate opening and the
speed of the conveyor belt. The aggregate is discharged
from each feeder belt onto the gathering conveyor,
which runs underneath all of the bins and delivers the
aggregate to a scalping screen, if one is used. After the
aggregate passes through the scalping screen, it is
deposited onto the charging conveyor for delivery to the
dryer. If no scalping screen is included in the system
(which is normally the case, because the screens at the
top of the plant tower are used to remove oversize
material) the aggregate is transferred directly from the
gathering conveyor to the charging conveyor.
Cold-Feed Systems for RAP
Reclaimed asphalt pavement is usually held in a
separate, steep-sided cold -feed bin that is equipped with
either a variable-speed or constant-speed feeder belt.
The material from the bin is deposited on the feeder
conveyor and/or onto a gathering conveyor for transport
to a scalping screen. After passing through the scalping
screen, the RAP is deposited on a charging conveyor for
delivery to the plant. An alternative to the use of the
scalping screen at the transfer point between the gather-
ing conveyor and the charging conveyor is to place the
scalping screen or grizzly on top of the cold-feed bin so
that the RAP passes through the screen as it is being
placed in the bin.
The RAP cannot be heated in the dryer because it
will generate visible hydrocarbon emissions when
exposed to the high-temperature exhaust gases from the
burner. Thus, the feed of the RAP must be separated

Page 2-64

10/15/91
from the feed of the new aggregate. The RAP can
enter into the plant at one of three primary locations
downstream of the dryer: the bottom of the hot elevator,
one of the hot bins at the top of the tower, or the weigh
hopper. The last location is the preferred one.
ADDITION OF HYDRATED LIME
Hydrated lime can be added to the aggregate in a
batch plant mixing operation in one of two places. The
additive can be placed on the aggregate, either in dry or
slurry form, similar to the method of addition for a
drum mix plant. It can also be added in dry form to the
aggregate similar to a mineral filler.
ASPHALT CEMENT SUPPLY SYSTEM
Storage Tanks
The storage tank used for the asphalt cement for a
batch plant operation is the same as that used for a
drum mix plant. The material is stored at temperatures
generally between 300°F and 350°F, depending on the
grade and viscosity of the asphalt cement needed to mix
properly with the aggregate in the pugmill.
Pump System
The asphalt content of the mix is determined by
weight, not volume. Thus, no meter is used to propor-
tion the amount of asphalt cement needed in the mix.
The pump, which runs continuously, pulls the asphalt
cement from the storage tank and either delivers it to
the weigh bucket or recirculates it to the tank, depend-
ing on the opening of the control valve at the weigh
bucket.
ADDITION OF LIQUID ANTISTRIP ADDITIVES
Liquid antistrip additives are added to the asphalt
cement in the batch plant in a manner similar to that for
a drum mixer. The additive can be in-line blended with
the asphalt cement as that material is pumped out of the
delivery vehicle or as it is pumped from the storage tank
to the weigh bucket. In addition, it can be blended with
the asphalt cement in the storage tank by circulating the
two materials together for a period of time before the
treated material is pumped to the asphalt cement weigh
bucket.
AGGREGATE HEATING AND DRYING
In contrast to the parallel-flow operation of a drum
mixer, the dryer on the batch plant operates on a
Page 2-65
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
counter flow principle. The aggregate is charged into
the dryer at the upper end of the drum and flows
through the dryer by the action of the rotating flights
and gravity. The burner is located at the lower or
discharge end of the dryer. The exhaust gases move
toward the upper end of the dryer, in the opposite
direction to the flow of the aggregate--the counter flow
system. This process is shown in Figure 2-82.
Figure 2-82. Counter flow dryer (Barber-Greene) .
The dryer is a rotating drum that is generally 5 to 10
ft in diameter and 20 to 40 ft long. The length of the
drum is normally proportional to the diameter at a ratio
of 4: 1 . Thus, a dryer with a diameter of 8 ft would
typically be 32 ft in length. The function of the dryer is
to remove the moisture from the aggregate and to heat
that material to the desired discharge temperature,
generally in the range of 290°F to 325°F. The moisture
content of the aggregate should be less than 0.5 percent
upon exiting the dryer and ideally less than 0.2 percent.
The aggregate is fed into the dryer from the charging
conveyor either by means of a charging chute at the top
of the dryer or, occasionally, by a slinger conveyor at the
bottom of the dryer. The flights inside the dryer, shown
in Figure 2-83, are used to lift and tumble the material
in a veil across the cross-sectional area of the dryer. As
the aggregate flows down the dryer, it is heated by the
exhaust gases and the moisture is driven off. The
burner flame, which generally has a much longer,
thinner shape than the short, bushy flame used with the
burner on a drum mix plant, extends into the dryer to
penetrate the aggregate veil. The exhaust gases from the
burner heat and dry the aggregate by conduction,
convection, and radiation. Because of the higher
efficiency of the counter flow system, a batch plant dryer
typically uses less fuel to heat and dry a given amount of
aggregate than does the parallel-flow system used in a
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Figure 2-83. Flights inside dryer (Cedarapids).
drum mixer.
The dwell or residence time of the aggregate inside
the dryer is a function of the length of the drum , the
design of the flights, the number of flights, the speed of
rotation, and the slope of the dryer (typically between 2
1/2 degrees and 6 degrees or 5/16 in./ft and 3/4 in./ft,
respectively) . If moisture greater than 0.5 percent
remains in the aggregate upon discharge from the dryer,
the density of the veil of aggregate inside the drum must
be increased , typically by lowering the slope of the dryer,
or by changing the number and/or type of flights used in
the dryer. Either of these will increase the dwell time of
the aggregate inside the dryer.
Because the aggregate typically makes up between 92
and 96 percent of the weight of the mix, it governs the
temperature of the asphalt mix produced in the pugmill.
Excessive heating of the aggregate may cause excessive
hardening of the asphalt cement in the mixing process.
If a recycled mix is to be produced, however, the new
aggregate must be superheated in the dryer in order to
accomplish the necessary heat exchange in the pugmill.
In this case, the temperature of the new aggregate is
dependent on the amount and the moisture content of
the RAP, as discussed later in this section.
Page 2-66
10/15/91
y l
or
Co c
xx
SCREENING AND STORAGE OF HOT AGGREGATE
Hot Elevator
New Aggregate
The heated and dried aggregate is discharged from
the dryer through a chute into the bottom of the hot-
bucket elevator. The material is transported by the
continuously moving buckets up to the top of the batch
plant tower as illustrated in Figure 2-84.
Reclaimed Material
It is not recommended to add the RAP into the plant
at the bottom of the hot elevator, particularly when the
amount of RAP exceeds approximately 10 percent in the
mix; however, small amounts of reclaimed asphalt
material can be introduced there . The RAP should be
fed, if possible, into the new aggregate discharge chute
from the dryer so that it is on top of the new aggregate
and directed into the center of the buckets. If that is
not feasible, the reclaimed material should be deposited
into a separate steep-sided chute located above the new
aggregate entry at the bottom of the hot elevator. The
RAP must be placed in the buckets after the new aggre-
gate to prevent the asphalt-coated material from sticking
to the buckets as it is heated by contact with the super-
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

Figure 2-84. Hot- bucket elevator and batch plant tower (Portec) .

heated new aggregate.
There is a limit to the amount of RAP that can be
fed into the bottom of the hot elevator and it is related
to the heating process as the material travels to the top
of the tower. Depending on the percentage of RAP
used in the mix, the moisture content of the RAP, and
environmental conditions, the reclaimed material can be
heated enough while in the hot-bucket elevator to stick
to the screen instead of passing through the screens .
This may clog (blind) the screens and eventually cause
shutdown of the plant. Thus, the screens may be
removed or bypassed when the RAP is added at the
bottom of the hot-bucket elevator if this becomes a
problem .

Page 2-67
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Screen Deck
The aggregate is discharged from the hot-elevator
buckets onto a set of vibrating screens that are used to
separate the material into different sizes. Four screen
decks typically are used, arranged as shown in Figures
2-84 and 2-85. The top screen is generally a scalping
screen to remove any oversized material from the aggre-
gate flow and reject it to a bypass/overflow chute. The
remaining three screen decks divide the aggregate into
four different fractions. The amount of material in each
fraction is dependent on the size and shape of the
openings in the screens. Each screen deck may have
several different screen sizes in order to improve screen-
ing efficiency and to protect the smaller screens from
oversize aggregate .
The screens can have square, rectangular, or slotted
openings, with square openings being most common.
For example, for a typical batch plant that would
manufacture base, binder, and surface course mixes, the
size of the openings in a square screen might be 1 1/4 in.
for the top deck, 9/16 in . for the second deck, 5/16 in.
for the third deck, and 5/32 in. for the bottom deck.
The sand-sized aggregate, smaller than 5/32 in. in
diameter, would pass directly through all of the screens
and be deposited into the No. 1 hot bin. Aggregate that
was larger than 5/32 in., but no greater than 5/16 in.,
would be carried over the first screen and then dropped
into the No. 2 hot bin. For any particular mix, the
Hot aggregates
from hot elevator
20.00
Fine aggregates
Intermediate fine
aggregates
Figure 2-85. Screen deck (Asphalt Institute) .
Page 2-68
10/15/91
proper screens need to be used in the screen deck in
order to produce the required gradation in the asphalt
mix. If mix gradations change significantly, it may be
necessary to change the screen sizes used at the top of
the mixing tower. Different-size screens than those in
the example above may be used for different combina-
tions of aggregate for different agency specifications.
In addition, many screen decks will use a split-screen
setup in which screens with two different-size openings
are placed at the same level (in the same deck) . For
example, the top screen deck might employ a screen
with an opening of 5/16 in . for the half of the deck
nearest to the hot elevator and a screen with an opening
of 1 1/4 in. for the half of the deck over the No. 3 and
No. 4 hot bins. This arrangement is done to improve
the efficiency of the screening operation .
Not all of the material that should be in a particular
bin always ends up in that bin. The amount of aggre-
gate that is sand-sized and that should pass through all
of the screens and end up in the No. 1 bin but instead
is deposited into the No. 2 hot bin is called carryover.
A small amount of carryover, generally less than 10
percent, from one bin to the adjacent bin is often found.
The carryover is caused by the flow of aggregate moving
across and through the screens. It is increased as the
openings in the screens become clogged or blinded with
aggregate and as the amount of aggregate being deliv-
ered by the hot elevator is increased . The primary
༣
Rejected
༠
oversize
༦
aggregates
༠
༠
༧
༧
༽
Medium coarse
aggregates
Coarse aggregates

10/15/91
problem is when the amount of carryover is variable
from one time to another, causing the gradation of the
aggregate found in each of the hot bins to change . This
is often caused by continued variation in the rate of feed
of the aggregate from the cold-feed bins.
If the screen develops tears or holes, some of the
aggregate that should be deposited in another bin will
pass through the screen and end up in a bin with
smaller-sized material. The screens at the top of the
tower should be checked regularly to ensure that there
are no holes and that the screens are not clogged with
aggregate and blinded .
In some locations, batch plants are routinely operat-
ed without screens; the screen deck is removed or a
screen bypass chute is used . All of the aggregate that is
transported up the hot elevator is deposited directly into
the No. 1 bin. Without screens, the batch plant will be
operated in essentially the same manner as a drum mix
plant and will depend on the consistency of the grada-
tion of the aggregate in the cold-feed bins to determine
the final gradation of the mix. Because no screening is
done to separate the aggregate into sizes, the various
gradations that were proportioned out of the cold-feed
bins (unless only one aggregate blend is used to make
the mix) will be deposited directly into the No. 1 hot bin
upon discharge from the hot elevator . All of the aggre-
gate used in the mix will then be drawn from this one
hot bin into the weigh hopper and then into the pugmill.
Hot Bins
New Aggregate
The total capacity of the hot bins is usually propor-
tional to the size of the pugmill. The capacity of each
of the hot bins, however, is not the same. The greatest
capacity is in the No. 1 (sand) bin, as seen in Figure
2-84. Generally about 40 percent by weight of the
aggregate delivered by the hot elevator passes through
the screens and into this bin. The typical capacity (the
percent of the total hot-bin capacity) of each of the
remaining three bins is 30 percent for bin No. 2, 20
percent for bin No. 3, and 10 percent for bin No. 4.
Some segregation of the aggregate occurs in each hot
bin, and particularly in the No. 1 sand bin, as shown in
Figure 2-86. This is caused by the finer material in each
size fraction passing through the screens more directly
than the coarser material of the same aggregate size.
Thus, the aggregate on the side of each hot bin that is
the closest to the hot elevator will generally be finer in
Page 2-69
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
gradation than will be the aggregate on the opposite side
of the same hot bin.
The partitions between each hot bin should be
checked regularly to ensure that no holes have devel-
oped and that aggregate in one bin is not flowing into
the adjacent bin. The overflow pipes at the top of each
bin should be open. Fines sometimes build up in the
corners of the No. 1 bin. When the level of aggregate
in the bin is low, the collected fines can break loose and
a slug of the material can enter the weigh hopper. If
this is a continuing problem with a particular plant,
fillets can be welded in the corners of the No. 1 bin to
reduce the buildup of the fine material, or a plate can
be used at the top of the No. 1 bin to deflect the fines
into the center of the bin.
Even though the screens on the batch plant are used
to regrade the aggregate that is fed into the plant from
the cold-feed bins, the proportion of material delivered
from each cold -feed bin must be correct or one of the
hot bins will either run out of material or overflow.
Because all the aggregate that is discharged from the
cold-feed bins will end up in the mix, it is very important
that the aggregate placed in the cold-feed bins is graded
consistently. The screens should not be used to attempt
to overcome a problem with a variable incoming aggre-
gate gradation .
RAP
Although not a recommended practice, RAP has
been deposited directly into one of the hot bins on the
plant. A separate charging conveyor or bucket elevator
is used to carry the reclaimed material to the top of the
plant. The RAP is deposited through a screen bypass
Figure 2-86. Hot-bin segregation (Asphalt Institute).
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
directly into the No. 1 hot bin with the sand or into the
No. 4 hot bin if no other aggregate is in that bin--when
a surface course mix is being produced and no large
aggregate is needed . Further, if the RAP is placed in
the No. 1 hot bin, the heat-transfer process can begin
between the superheated sand and the ambient-tempera-
ture RAP while both are together in the hot bin. If the
asphalt-coated material is placed in the No. 4 bin, no
such heat advantage is realized because of a lack of
heated new aggregate in that bin.
The disadvantage of placing the RAP in either the
No. 1 or the No. 4 bin is that some of the asphalt- coated
particles will stick to the walls of the bin. This can be a
major problem, particularly if the amount of reclaimed
material used in the mix and the moisture content of
that material are both high. If superheated new aggre-
gate is in the bin adjacent to the RAP, a significant
amount of the RAP will stick to the partition between
the two bins .
WEIGH HOPPER
New Aggregate
If a base course mix is being produced, all four of
the hot bins may be filled with aggregate. If a binder or
surface course mix is manufactured, only two or three of
the hot bins will normally be needed . The aggregate in
the hot bins can be discharged into the weigh hopper in
any order, and typically the coarse aggregate is dis-
charged into the weigh hopper before the fine aggregate
is deposited. Normally the gate at the bottom of the
No. 3 hot bin is opened and the aggregate is discharged
into the weigh hopper until the correct weight is
reached . The gate on the No. 3 bin is then shut and the
gate on the No. 2 hot bin opened and the weigh hopper
filled with that material until the correct cumulative
weight (combined weight of the No. 3 bin and the No. 2
bin material) is reached . The aggregate in each of the
last two hot bins (the No. 1 and No. 4 bins) is added to
the weigh hopper in the same manner. The weighing of
each aggregate is accomplished in about 5 sec. It is
important that the aggregate delivered from each hot
bin be deposited as near the center of the weigh hopper
as possible so that the hopper is not unbalanced on the
scale and spillage of the aggregate does not occur.
If mineral filler is needed in the mix, it is normally
added to the aggregate already in the weigh hopper.
The filler is delivered pneumatically or mechanically
from a storage silo to a small holding hopper typically
Page 2-70
10/15/91
located on the plant tower just above the weigh hopper.
It is then added to the weigh hopper by means of a
horizontal screw conveyor . On some batch plants, the
filler is weighed separately from the other aggregate and
then augered into the main aggregate weigh hopper
after the aggregate from the hot bins has been weighed.
On other plants, the filler is weighed as a fifth aggregate
as it is added to the material already in the hopper.
Reclaimed Material
The best location to add RAP to a batch plant is into
the weigh hopper. Once the aggregate from the hot
bins has been deposited in the hopper and weighed, the
reclaimed material is usually fed into the hopper as a
fifth aggregate (or as the sixth aggregate, if mineral filler
is used in the mix), although it can actually be added to
the weigh hopper in any order except first. The charg-
ing conveyor used to deliver the RAP to the weigh
hopper, shown in Figure 2-87, must be oversized in this
case because it does not run continuously. The RAP
should be deposited into the weigh hopper in approxi-
mately 5 sec.
The RAP must be discharged from the charging
conveyor into a steeply angled chute (in order to prevent
it from "hanging up" in the chute) and then into the
center of the weigh hopper, as shown in Figure 2-88 . If
this material is deposited on one side of the weigh
hopper to the point that the hopper is unbalanced, an
accurate weight will not be determined . The charging
chute should be equipped with a flop gate to prevent the
escape of fugitive dust from the weigh hopper area when
the aggregate is emptied into the pugmill.
PUGMILL
Capacity
The aggregate and the asphalt cement are blended
together in a twin-shaft pugmill. Mixing paddles, shown
in Figure 2-89, are attached to two horizontal shafts that
rotate in opposite directions . The aggregate is first
discharged from the weigh hopper into the pugmill and
is mixed for a very brief time (dry mix time) before the
asphalt cement is introduced into the pugmill and the
wet mix time begins. When the mixing is completed, the
asphalt mix is discharged from the pugmill directly into
a haul truck or into the conveying device for transport
to the silo.
The size of the batch produced depends on the size
of the pugmill. Some batch plants have a pugmill

10/15/91
Figure 2-87. RAP conveyor to batch plant weigh
hopper (J. Scherocman).
capacity as little as 1 ton. Most batch plants, however,
are equipped with pugmills that have capacities between
2 and 5 tons. One of the largest batch plant pugmills
made has the capability to mix 11.5 tons (23,000 lb) of
mix in a single batch . The total mixing time for all of
the different batch sizes is the same--typically as short 35
sec/batch. The only difference is the size of each batch,
not the time needed to produce it.
Nominal pugmill capacity is determined by the
dimensions of the live zone, as shown in Figure 2-90 . If
Page 2-71
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
too much aggregate is placed in the pugmill, the materi-
al above the paddle tips will tend to stay on top and not
be mixed with the other aggregate. If too little aggre-
gate is deposited into the pugmill, the material will be
thrown around by the paddles instead of mixed . These
two conditions are illustrated in Figures 2-91 and 2-92.
Batch size should not be varied from batch to batch.
Consistent mix is obtained by selecting a batch size at or
slightly less than the nominal capacity of the pugmill and
producing all batches at that tonnage. If the plant is
equipped with a 3-ton pugmill and the average haul
truck being used can hold 14 tons of mix, the batch size
selected should be 2.8 tons ( 14 tons per truck divided by
five batches). The plant operator should not attempt to
produce four batches of 3 tons each and a fifth batch of
only 2 tons. Consistent batch size is one of the keys to
a consistent mix.
Mixing Time
Dry Mix Time
Dry mix time is defined as the time between when
the aggregate starts to be charged and when asphalt
injection starts. Dry mix time should be minimal;
normally no more than 1 or 2 sec. Although the aggre-
gate in the weigh hopper is layered, the different-size
aggregates can be blended adequately during the wet
mix cycle and do not need to be premixed during the dry
mix cycle. The main purpose of the dry mix time is to
allow some aggregate to enter the pugmill before the
asphalt cement is discharged so that it does not run out
of the gates at the bottom of the pugmill.
There is no evidence that a longer dry mix time
improves the quality of the asphalt concrete mix. Dry
mix times of various lengths, from 1 to 20 sec, have been
used and gradation tests conducted on the mix produced
from the batch plant. No difference was found in the
uniformity of the aggregate gradation regardless of the
length of the dry mix time. Thus, increasing dry mix
time decreases the plant production rate without benefit-
ing the mix, and causes additional wear on pugmill
paddles and liners.
Wet Mix Time
While the aggregate is still being discharged from the
weigh hopper into the pugmill, the addition of the
asphalt cement commences. This material is fed into the
pugmill by gravity flow or pressure spray and is added
through one pipe in the center of the pugmill or through
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
10/15/91

Figure 2-88. Reclaimed material chute to weigh hopper (J. Scherocman).

two pipes, one over each of the two mixing shafts, as 10 sec for all the asphalt cement to be discharged from
seen in Figure 2-93. The wet mix time starts when the the weigh bucket. Pressure injection systems can be
asphalt enters the pugmill. Typically it takes from 5 to used to reduce the time to introduce the asphalt cement

Figure 2-89. Twin-shaft pugmill (Cedarapids).

Page 2-72
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

into the pugmill.

Wet mix time should be no longer than it takes to
coat the aggregate with asphalt cement. If the paddle
tips and pugmill liners are in good condition and the
LIVE

Х
pugmill is full, the wet mix time can be as short as 27 ZONE
sec. If the paddle tips are worn, the wet mix time will
be extended slightly but typically should not be more
than 33 sec. Because they affect the amount of wet mix
time, the condition of the paddle tips should be checked
regularly and the tips should be changed when neces- Figure 2-90. Pugmill live zone (Asphalt Institute).
sary. As a general rule, a 30-sec wet mix time is very
adequate to distribute the asphalt cement and coat the
aggregate.
The mixing time should be as short as possible to
avoid excessive hardening of the asphalt cement when it
is exposed to high temperatures in a thin film around
the aggregate particles. The required wet mix time can
be established using the Ross Count procedure to
determine the degree of particle coating of the coarse
aggregate in the mix as given in ASTM D 2489. Once
the asphalt cement is properly distributed, additional wet
mix time does not improve the coating but only oxidizes
Figure 2-91 . Too much aggregate (Asphalt Institute).
(hardens) the asphalt cement.
Coating of the aggregate in a pugmill occurs first
with the smallest-size aggregate particles. If wet mixing
was only done for 10 sec and the material discharged
from the pugmill at the end of that time, only the
smaller fine aggregate (the material finer than the
No. 30 or No. 40 (600 μm or 425 μm) sieve) would
typically be coated with the asphalt cement; the coarser
aggregate particles, however, would only be partially
coated with asphalt. If wet mixing time was extended to
20 sec and the material discharged from the pugmill at
the end of that time, only the aggregate of No. 4 (4.75
mm) sieve size and smaller would typically be coated Figure 2-92. Too little aggregate (Asphalt Institute).
with asphalt cement; the coarser aggregate particle
would still remain uncoated . Complete coating of all the tion capacity of a plant. If a 1 -sec dry mix time and a
coarse aggregate in the mix usually takes about 26 to 28 27-sec wet mix time are used, proper mixing of the two
sec of wet mixing time in a pugmill with paddle tips and materials can be accomplished in 28 sec. Given approxi-
lining in good condition. Thus the Ross Count proce- mately 7 sec more to open the gates at the bottom of
dure, which looks only at the degree of asphalt coating the pugmill, discharge the mix, and close the gates, the
on the coarse aggregate particles (larger than the No. 4 total cycle time to produce a batch of asphalt concrete
sieve) , is an effective way to determine the minimum mix is 35 sec. This time is the same whether the batch
amount of wet mix time needed to properly distribute size is 2 tons or 5 tons. Theoretically, if a plant having
the asphalt cement throughout the aggregate. a pugmill capacity of 5 tons is run continuously for 1 hr,
514 tons of asphalt mix can be manufactured .
Total Mix Time If a 5-sec dry mix time and a 35-sec wet mix time
Mixing time also has a direct effect on the produc- were required by specification, the total cycle time to

Page 2-73
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Pugmill
spray bars
PUGMILL
Asphalt cement is weighed separately
in a scale-mounted weigh bucket .
Figure 2-93. AC flow to pug mill (Asphalt Institute) .
produce the mix would be 47 sec ( assuming a 7-sec gate
opening/closing and mix discharge time) . This increased
cycle time (47 sec compared with 35 sec) would decrease
the amount of mix produced in a 5 -ton-capacity pugmill
from 514 tons to 383 tons/hr. If a 60 -sec total cycle time
were used , the production rate for the same plant would
be reduced to only 300 tons/hr. As expected, the dry
and wet mix times have a significant effect on the
amount of mix produced by a given plant.
If the plant is not equipped with a silo, there will be
times when the plant production may have to be inter-
rupted because of a lack of available haul trucks . This
problem must be monitored by the plant operator. In
no case should the plant mixing time be extended during
the wet mix cycle. If the asphalt cement has been added
to the aggregate and the wet mixing time is extended to
40 or 50 sec or longer, excessive hardening of the
asphalt cement will occur. This extended wet mix time
can be very detrimental to the long-term performance of
the mix on the roadway.
If trucks are not available, the plant should be idled
with no material in the pugmill; the paddles should be
"mixing air." The second choice, but not nearly as good
as the first choice, is to let the plant wait during the dry
mix time; the aggregate is in the pugmill but the asphalt
cement has not been added . Depending on the length
of the extended dry mix time, some degradation of the
aggregate may occur, but the effect on the long-term
Page 2-74
10/15/91
SCALE
DIAL
Fill pipe
Scale-mounted
weigh bucket
Surge tank
Spray pump for
pressure system
performance of the mix will be less than when the wet
mix time is lengthened . Again, the plant should not be
idled during the wet mix time.
When the incoming aggregate has a high moisture
content, the dryer may not have enough capacity to
remove all of the moisture efficiently. In some cases,
the capacity of the screens is not great enough to handle
all of the aggregate being delivered, particularly if the
screens are clogged or blinded . The production rate of
the plant will be reduced (total cycle time increased)
while waiting for dry material in the hot bins. If this
problem occurs, the plant operator must not increase the
total cycle time by arbitrarily increasing the wet mix
time. The total cycle time should be increased by
delaying the discharge of the aggregate from the weigh
hopper into the pugmill and thus "mixing air" instead of
aggregate (increased dry mix time) or instead of asphalt
mix (increased wet mix time).
PRODUCING RECYCLED MIX
Recycling Variables
The temperature of the new aggregate governs the
amount of reclaimed material that can be introduced
into a recycled mix produced in a batch plant. For the
heat transfer to take place from the heated new aggre-
gate to the ambient-temperature RAP, the new aggre-
gate must be superheated --heated to a temperature
above that needed to produce a conventional asphalt

10/15/91
concrete mixture. This heat transfer can take place in
the hot elevator, in the hot bins, in the weigh hopper, or
in the pugmill, depending on where the RAP is intro-
duced into the plant. For most dryers, in order not to
reduce the life of the dryer and to keep from driving off
internal (hygroscopic) moisture in the aggregate, the
maximum new aggregate temperature upon discharge
from the dryer should be about 500°F.
The three primary variables that determine the
temperature to which the new aggregate has to be
heated to accomplish the necessary heat transfer are the
moisture content of the reclaimed material, the dis-
charge temperature of the final recycled mix, and the
amount of reclaimed material used . Depending on the
values for these variables, up to 50 percent RAP can be
blended with new aggregate to manufacture a recycled
asphalt concrete mix.
Moisture Content
As the moisture content of the reclaimed material
increases, the required new aggregate temperature
increases significantly. This is illustrated in Figure 2-94.
If 20 percent RAP is used in the mix, the moisture
content of that material is 1 percent, and the required
mix discharge temperature is 260°F, the temperature to
which the new aggregate would need to be heated would
be 350°F, as seen in Section B of this table. If the same
RAP had a moisture content of 4 percent, however, the
new aggregate temperature would need to be increased
to 390°F for the same amount of reclaimed material and
the same mix discharge temperature .
Mix Discharge Temperature
Using Section C of Figure 2-94 as an illustration, the
amount of RAP incorporated into the mix is 30 percent.
If the moisture content of this material is 3 percent as it
is delivered to the plant, the new aggregate temperature
would need to be at least 385°F when the mix discharge
temperature is only 220°F. If the discharge temperature
was 280°F, the temperature of the new aggregate would
need to be increased to 475°F, however. Thus, a higher
mix discharge temperature for the recycled mix from the
pugmill requires an increase in the new aggregate tem-
perature from the dryer.
Amount of Reclaimed Material
As the amount of RAP in the recycled mix increases,
the new aggregate temperature also must increase . If
Page 2-75
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
only 20 percent reclaimed material is used and if the
moisture content of that material is 4 percent for a mix
discharge temperature of 280° F, the new aggregate
discharge temperature would need to be 415°F, as
determined from Section B of Figure 2-94 . Increasing
the amount of RAP to 50 percent, using Section E of
the same table and for the same value of moisture
content (4 percent) and mix discharge temperature
(280°F), the new aggregate temperature must be raised
to 760°F to accomplish the heat-transfer process. This
latter temperature significantly exceeds the recommend-
ed maximum new aggregate temperature of 500°F .
Dryer Operation
If the temperature of the new aggregate exiting the
dryer exceeds approximately 500 °F, the cost of operating
and maintaining the dryer can increase significantly.
Because of extremely high aggregate temperatures and
the reduced volume of aggregate in the dryer when a
large percentage of RAP is used in the recycled mix
compared with a normal mix, the veil of aggregate inside
the dryer will typically not be adequate. This lack of veil
will increase the temperature of the dryer shell and may
require increased maintenance on the inside of the
dryer, especially on the discharge flights.
If the mix production is stopped for a long period of
time because of a lack of haul trucks or because of
mechanical problems, the superheated new aggregate
will lie in the bottom portion of the dryer. If the
temperature of this material is greater than about 500°F,
warping of the drum shell can occur and the dryer will
be out of round. Further, at the end of each production
cycle, the dryer should be allowed to run empty with the
exhaust fan operating for a reasonable cooling down
period after aggregate feed shutdown. This cooling
procedure will protect against possible warping of the
dryer shell and the flights.
Visible Emissions
When the RAP is deposited on top of the super-
heated new aggregate in the weigh hopper and when the
two materials are mixed together in the pugmill, emis-
sions of both moisture and dust can occur. These
emissions are caused by the escape of the moisture, in
the form of steam, from the RAP. The amount of
moisture vapor, as well as blue smoke, released can be
quite large. For a mix containing 50 percent reclaimed
material in a 3-ton batch of recycled mix, with a mois-
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
10/15/91

Required Aggregate Temperatures

A. Ratio: 10% RAP/90% Aggregate

Reclaimed Material Recycled Mix Discharge Temperature, " F

Moisture Content 220 F 240 F 260 F 280 F
% 104 " C 116 C 127 C 138° C
012345

250 280 305 325

260 290 310 335
270 295 315 340
280 300 325 345
285 305 330 350
290 315 335 360

B. Ratio: 20% RAP/80% Aggregate

DON

0 280 310 335 360

O
-

1 295 320 350 375

2 310 335 360 385
3 325 350 375 400
4 340 365 390 415
5 355 380 405 430

C. Ratio: 30% RAP/70% Aggregate

CION

315 345 375 405

335 365 395 425
360 390 420 450
-
0

3 385 415 445 475

410 440 470 $ 500
5 435 465 495 525

D. Ratio: 40 % RAP/60% Aggregate.

0 355 390 425 460
1 390 425 460 495
2 425 460 495 530
3 470 600 535 370
4 500 535 970 010
5 545 575 310 645

E. Ratio: 50 % RAP/50% Aggregate

CSON

410 455 495 540

1 465 515 550 590
520 560. 605 650
0
-

575 620 660 705

540 680 715 760
5 600 735 775 820

NOTE: 20 ° F. loss between dryer and pugmill assumed in these calculations

Figure 2-94. Moisture RAP temperature capacity chart (NAPA) .

ture content of 3 percent, approximately 14,900 ft³ of the weigh hopper and the pugmill.
water vapor will be released in about 5 sec. This release One way to control the particulate emissions is to
of vapor usually causes carryout of dust particles from reduce the amount of moisture and/or reduce the

Page 2-76

10/15/91
amount of RAP used in the recycled mix. The moisture
content of the reclaimed material can be kept low by not
crushing this material until just before it is needed and
by preventing rain from falling on the RAP by keeping
it under a roof. Another approach, required in some
areas, is to adequately vent the weigh hopper and
pugmill into the emission -control system on the plant.
LOADING THE TRUCK OR SILO
If the mix discharged from the pugmill is loaded
directly into the haul truck, each batch should be
deposited into a different location on the truck. The
first batch should be placed in the front of the bed. The
driver should move the truck forward so that the second
batch is placed into the rear of the truck bed, adjacent
to the tailgate. The remaining batches should be
discharged into the center of the bed, with the position
of the truck under the pugmill changing for each batch .
This procedure will minimize the distance the coarse
aggregate particles can roll in the bed and, thus, reduce
the possibility for segregation of the mix.
If the mix is to be stored in a silo temporarily, it
should be discharged into the center of a hopper and
then into a conveying device, which can be a drag slat
conveyor, a belt conveyor, or a bucket elevator. The silo
should be operated in a manner similar to the silo used
with a drum mix plant.
EMISSION -CONTROL EQUIPMENT
Because the asphalt cement is not added to the
aggregate inside the dryer, the amount of dust carryout
from a batch plant dryer is generally greater than from
a drum mixer. The operation of the emission-control
equipment--wet-scrubber system or baghouse (fabric
filter)--is the same, however, regardless of the type of
plant used.
If the baghouse fines are fed back into the mix, the
fines should be fed into a filler-metering system before
being introduced into the weigh hopper on the tower.
This procedure will assure that the baghouse fines are
delivered uniformly, into the mix. On some plants, the
fines are transported to the bottom of the hot elevator
and deposited on top of the new aggregate that is dis-
charged from the dryer. As long as the fines are deliv-
ered consistently, this method of fines return is accept-
able, particularly if the aggregate will pass through the
screen deck. If screens are not used, however, small
lumps of fines can be deposited into the No. 1 hot bin
Page 2-77
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
and possibly end up in the mix. Thus, returning the
baghouse fines to the hot elevator is probably not as
good as placing the fines directly in the weigh hopper.
If the plant is equipped with a baghouse and a
recycled asphalt mix is , being produced with a high
percentage of reclaimed material, the temperature of the
exhaust gases from the dryer to the baghouse should be
monitored continuously to assure that the bags in the
emission-control device are not damaged by excessive
heat. The higher the temperature to which the new
aggregates must be heated, the greater the chance for
problems with the baghouse operation.
CALIBRATION
The calibration procedure for a batch plant involves
checking the accuracy of the scales, both for the aggre-
gate weigh hopper and for the asphalt cement weigh
bucket. This is usually accomplished by adding a known
amount of weight to each scale and reading the weight
shown on the scale dial. For this purpose, a set of 10
50-lb weights is normally used .
The aggregate scale is unloaded and set to a zero
reading. The 10 50-lb weights are hung from the scale
and the reading on the dial recorded . The weights are
removed and 500 lb of aggregate are then added to the
weigh hopper. The 10 weights are again hung from the
scale and the next reading on the dial ( 1000 lb) is
recorded. The weights are removed once again and an
additional 500 lb of material is added . The weights are
placed on the scale and the next dial reading recorded
( 1500 lb) . This process continues (adding the weights,
recording the dial reading, removing the weights, adding
500 lb of aggregate to the weigh hopper, and then
repeating the sequence) until the capacity of the aggre-
gate scale is reached.
For the asphalt cement weigh bucket, the same
process is employed , except that only one 50 -lb weight
typically is used. First the weigh bucket is unloaded and
the scale set to a zero reading. Next one 50 -lb weight is
hung from the scale and the dial reading recorded . Fifty
lb of asphalt cement is then introduced into the weigh
bucket. The 50 -lb weight is placed back on the scale
again and the dial reading recorded . Fifty lb of asphalt
cement is added to the weigh bucket (for a total of 100
lb) . The procedure continues (adding the weight,
recording the dial reading, removing the weight, adding
50 lb of asphalt cement, and then repeating the
sequence) until the capacity of the asphalt cement weigh
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
bucket scale is reached .
For both scales, a comparison is made of the actual
dial reading after each set of weights is added to the
scale and the " theoretical" scale reading. If the two
readings are the same (within 0.5 percent) , the scale is
in calibration. If the two readings differ by more than
that amount, the scale must be adjusted . Adjustments
must be accomplished using the procedures provided by
the scale manufacturer.
SUMMARY OF PLANT OPERATING TECHNIQUES
The following factors should be considered when
monitoring the operation of a batch plant:
• The moisture content of the aggregate when dis-
charged from the dryer should be less than 0.5 percent.
• The amount of carryover of the aggregate from
one hot bin to the next bin should be relatively constant
and generally less than 10 percent.
• The screens should be checked regularly for holes
and blinding.
• The pugmill should be operated at nominal
capacity. Both overloading and underloading of the
pugmill with aggregate will decrease the efficiency of the
mixing process significantly. Batch size should be
consistent from batch to batch. The paddle tips and the
pugmill lining should be checked periodically to assure
that they are in good condition.
• The dry mix time for the aggregate in the pugmill
should be minimal--usually no more than 1 or 2 sec.
Page 2-78
10/15/91
• The wet mix time for blending the asphalt cement
and the aggregate should be no longer than needed to
properly coat the aggregate and can be as short as 27
sec.
• The plant operator must not idle the plant during
the wet mix cycle and should not do so during the dry
mix time. When the plant is waiting for trucks, there
should be no material in the pugmill.
• The total mix cycle time to produce a batch of
mix, regardless of the size of the pugmill, could be as
short as 35 sec.
• If reclaimed material is introduced into the plant
at the bottom of the hot elevator, it should be placed on
top of the superheated new material in the buckets .
• If reclaimed material is charged into the weigh
hopper, it should be placed into the center of the
hopper so that the weigh hopper is not unbalanced and
an accurate weight can be determined .
• The temperature to which the new aggregate must
be heated to obtain adequate heat transfer to the re-
claimed material is a function of the amount of RAP
used in the recycled mix, the amount of moisture in the
RAP, and the mix discharge temperature . The new
aggregate generally should not be heated to a tempera-
ture greater than 500° F to prevent potential damage to
the dryer. If the temperature of the new aggregate, as
found in Figure 2-94, is greater than this value for the
amount of RAP and the moisture content of the RAP,
it will be necessary to reduce the percentage of RAP
added to the recycled mix.

10/15/91
BIBLIOGRAPHY
50 Series Continuous Asphalt Plants, Manual Page 7500,
Release: 101 , Barber-Greene Co. (1971) 7 pp.
Aggregate Dryers, Bulletin ADR-3, Cedarapids, Inc. (June
1977) 13 pp.
Alternate Fuels for Hot Mix Asphalt Facilities, Quality
Improvement Series 107, National Asphalt Pavement
Association (May 1985) 27 pp.
The Asphalt Handbook, Maual Series No. 4 (MS-4)
Asphalt Institute ( 1989) 640 pp.
Asphalt Hot-Mix Recycling, Manual Series No. 20 (MS-
20) Asphalt Institute ( 1986) 52 pp .
Asphalt Plant Feed Equipment, Bulletin AF-2, Cedar-
apids, Inc. (April 1976) 7 pp.
Asphalt Plant Manual. Manual Series No. 3 (MS-3)
Asphalt Institute ( 1988) 192 pp.
"Asphalt Heaters Lower Costs, Improve Efficiency,"
Roads & Streets (February 1975) p . 70+ .
Barber-Greene Continuous Type Asphalt Plants, Manual
Page 7150, Barber- Greene Co. (March 1963) 19 pp.
"Basic Energy/Environmental Analysis," Information
Series 67, National Asphalt Pavement Association
(August 1978) 21 pp.
Batch Type Asphalt Mixing Plants, Bulletin APB-2,
Cedarapids, Inc. (July 1973) 7 pp.
BCE Drum Mixing, Boeing Construction Equipment Co.
(undated) 6 pp.
BE Batchpac Pugmills, Manual Page 7954.3, Release
101 , Barber-Greene Co. (undated) 4 pp.
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re
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presente at the First Annual Paving Seminar,
d
Page 2-79
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Colorado State University (December 1973) 14+ pp.
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 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
gists, Vol. 39 (1970) pp. 623-627 .
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10/15/91
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Page 2-80

10/15/91
ings, Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists,
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Fugitive Dust Control andthe Hot-Mix Plant, Information
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The Genco Solid Fuel Combustion Systems, General
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Gilmore F.S., Mixing Time Investigations, QIP 52, Na-
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Good Housekeeping--Your Responsibility," Information
Series 43, National Asphalt Pavement Association
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Goodsall, G.D. and B.W. Ferne, "Bituminous Drum-
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Granley, E.C. , "An FHWA Look at Hot-Mix Production
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Granley, E.C. , "The Dryer Drum Process for Producing
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American Association of State Highway Officials
Annual Meeting (November 1972) 12 pp.
Haas, S., "Drum Dryer Mixing in North Dakota," Pro-
ceedings, Association of Asphalt Paving Technolo-
gists, Vol. 43 (1974) pp. 417-435.
Heating and Drying ofAggregate, Capture of Waste Heat,
QIP 96, National Asphalt Pavement Association
(November 1975) 21 pp.
Here's How You Wanted It. The Drum-Mixer Plant That's
Contractor-Built and Contractor-Proven... Bituma.,
Bituma Construction Equipment Co. (undated) 12
pp.
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Roads & Bridges (January 1986) pp. 48-50.
Hopman, P.C. , A.C. Maagdenberg, M.H.M. Coppens,
Page 2-81
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
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Plant, Form No. 398, Standard Havens, Inc. (Septem-
ber 1982) 23 pp.
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Operation and Maintenance Instructions: CR- 130 Hot Mix
System, Cedarapids, Inc. (August 1986) .
Operation and Maintenance Instructions: Model HC
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Recent Advances in the Evolution ofDrum-Mixer Design
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Six Pack Plants, Astec Industries, Inc. (January 1987) 12
PP.
Page 2-82
10/15/91
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"Stockpiling and Cold Feed for Quality," Information
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pp. 79-88.
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91 Appendix 1

Part Three

LAYDOWN AND COMPACTION

 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91 Appendix 1

PART THREE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

33
SECTION ONE MIX DELIVERY ... 3-1

!
TYPES OF TRUCKS ... 3-1
End Dump Trucks 3-1
Bottom Dump Trucks 3-1
Live Bottom Trucks 3-3
Material Transfer Vehicle 3-3
HAULING PROCEDURES 3-4
Cleaning and Oiling the Bed 3-4
Insulation 3-6
Loading 3-6
From the Pugmill 3-6
From the Silo 3-7
Tarpaulins 3-7
Crusting of the Mix 3-8
Rain 3-8
Bumping the Paver 3-8
Unloading 3-8
SUMMARY OF MIX DELIVERY TECHNIQUES 3-9

SECTION TWO SURFACE PREPARATION ... 3-10

INTRODUCTION 3-10
PREPARATION OF EXISTING SURFACE 3-10
HMA over HMA 3-10
Pavement Replacement and Patching 3-10
Crack Filling 3-10
Leveling Courses 3-10
Milling 3-11
Hot-Mix Asphalt over Portland Cement Concrete 3-11
Base Preparation 3-11
Subgrade Soil 3-11
Granular Base Course 3-13
TACK COAT .... 3-13
SURFACE PREPARATION TECHNIQUES 3-15

SECTION THREE MIX PLACEMENT ... 3-17

INTRODUCTION 3-17
THE TRACTOR UNIT 3-17
Propulsion Systems 3-17
Push Rollers 3-17
Paver Hopper 3-18
Slat Conveyors 3-21
Flow Gates 3-21
Augers 3-21
Material Feed System 3-22
Manual Control- Constant Speed 3-22
Manual Control-Variable Speed 3-22
Automatic Control 3-22
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
10/15/91
Part Three Contents (continued)

THE SCREED UNIT 3-25

Tow (Pull) Point 3-26
Forces Acting on the Screed 3-27
Paver Speed 3-27
Head of Material 3-28
Thickness Control Cranks for Manual Operation 3-29
Reaction of the Screed 3-29
Changing Screed Pivot Point 3-30
Changing Tow Point Elevation 3-30
Screed Strike-offs 3-31
Screed Heaters 3-32
Screed Crown Control 3-32
Screed Vibrators 3-33
Screed Extensions and End Plates 3-33
Hydraulically Extendable Screeds 3-35
MIX PLACEMENT TECHNIQUES . 3-37

SECTION FOUR AUTOMATIC SCREED CONTROLS 3-40

INTRODUCTION 3-40
AUTOMATIC SCREED CONTROLS • 3-41
GRADE CONTROL 3-43
Types of Grade References 3-43
Erected Stringline 3-43
Mobile References 3-44
Joint Matching Shoe 3-47
Location of the Grade Reference 3-48
SLOPE CONTROL 3-48
YIELD, MINIMUM THICKNESS , AND SCREED CONTROLS • 3-48
AUTOMATIC SCREED-CONTROL OPERATING TECHNIQUES 3-52

SECTION FIVE JOINT CONSTRUCTION 3-53

INTRODUCTION 3-53
TRANSVERSE JOINTS 3-53
End of Paving 3-53
Butt Joints 3-53
Tapered Joints 3-54
Handmade Joints 3-59
Start of Paving 3-59
Removal of the Taper 3-59
Use of Starting Blocks 3-59
Nulling the Screed and Setting the Angle of Attack 3-60
Raking the Joint 3-61
Compacting the Joint 3-63
LONGITUDINAL JOINTS 3-64
Cutting Back the Joint 3-64
Overlapping the Joint 3-64
Raking the Joint 3-65
Compacting the Longitudinal Joint 3-65
Rolling from the Hot Side 3-66
Rolling from the Cold Side 3-67
Echelon Paving 3-68
JOINT CONSTRUCTION OPERATING TECHNIQUES 3-69
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

Part Three Contents (continued )

SECTION SIX COMPACTION ... 3-70

INTRODUCTION 3-70
DEFINITIONS ... 3-70
FACTORS AFFECTING COMPACTION 3-70
Properties of the Materials 3-70
Aggregates 3-70
Asphalt Cement 3-71
Mix Properties 3-71
Environmental Variables 3-72
Layer Thickness 3-72
Air and Base Temperature 3-72
Mix Laydown Temperature 3-74
Wind Velocity 3-74
Solar Flux 3-74
Obtaining Proper Density under Varying Environmental Conditions
3-74
Laydown Site Conditions 3-75
Compaction Equipment 3-76
Static Steel Wheel Rollers 3-77
Pneumatic Tire Rollers 3-77
Vibratory Rollers 3-78
COMPACTION VARIABLES 3-81
Roller Speed 3-81
Number of Roller Passes 3-82
Rolling Zone 3-83
Roller Patterns 3-83
Direction of Travel and Mode of Operation for Vibratory Rollers 3-85
DETERMINATION OF THE ROLLING PATTERN 3-86
Choice of Compaction Equipment 3-86
Rolling Patterns 3-86
ROLLER OPERATING TECHNIQUES 3-87

SECTION SEVEN EQUIPMENT AND MAT PROBLEMS 3-89

INTRODUCTION 3-89
SURFACE WAVES 3-89
Description 3-89
Cause 3-89
Solution 3-91
Performance 3-91
TEARING 3-91
Description 3-91
Cause 3-92
Solution 3-92
Performance 3-92
NONUNIFORM TEXTURE .... 3-92
Description 3-92
Cause 3-92
Solution 3-93
Performance 3-93
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1 10/15/91

Part Three Contents (continued)

SCREED MARKS .... 3-93

Description 3-93
Cause 3-93
Solution 3-94
Performance 3-94
SCREED RESPONSIVENESS 3-95
Description 3-95
Cause 3-95
Solution 3-95
Performance 3-95
SURFACE SHADOWS .. 3-95
Description 3-95
Cause 3-96
Solution 3-96
Performance 3-96
PRECOMPACTION LEVELS 3-96
Description 3-96
Cause 3-97
Solution 3-97
Performance 3-97
JOINT PROBLEMS ... 3-97
Description 3-97
Cause and Solution 3-97
Performance 3-98
CHECKING ... 3-98
Description 3-98
Cause 3-98
Solution 3-99
Performance 3-100
SHOVING ... 3-100
Description 3-100
Cause 3-100
Solution 3-101
Performance 3-101
BLEEDING AND FAT SPOTS 3-101
Description 3-101
Cause 3-101
Solution 3-102
Performance 3-103
ROLLER MARKS .... .... 3-103
Description 3-103
Cause 3-103
Solution 3-104
Performance 3-104
SEGREGATION .. 3-104
……
Description 3-104
Cause 3-104
Solution 3-106
Performance 3-106
OTHER PAVEMENT PROBLEMS ...... 3-107

BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 3-108


10/15/91
SECTION ONE
MIX DELIVERY
TYPES OF TRUCKS
The purpose of the haul vehicle is to transport the
asphalt mixture from the asphalt plant to the laydown
machine. This must be done without delay and without
any change in the characteristics of the mix during the
delivery process . Three primary types of trucks are
usually employed to transport the mix: end dump,
bottom or belly dump, and live bottom (conveyor)
trucks. All of these trucks are loaded in the same
manner, either directly from the pugmill at a batch plant
or from the surge silo at a batch or drum mix plant.
The three types of vehicles differ in how each unloads
the mix at the paver.
End Dump Trucks
An end dump truck delivers the mix directly into the
hopper of the paver. The mix is unloaded by raising the
truck bed and allowing the mix to slide down the bed
into the hopper. When the bed is raised , it should not
be in contact with the hopper and should not press
down on or ride on the paver. For the smaller-capacity
dump trucks, contact with the paver is not normally a
K8-952
Figure 3-1 . End dump truck (J. Scherocman).
Page 3-1
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
problem. Contact between the truck bed and the paver
can be a problem, however, when large semitractor
trailer units are used as haul vehicles, particularly when
the truck bed is extended to its highest point. When the
weight of the truck is being carried by the paver, the
laydown machine may lose its ability to operate properly.
Typical end dump trucks are shown in Figures 3-1 and
3-2.
Bottom Dump Trucks
A bottom or belly dump truck delivers its load to the
roadway in front of the paver. The mix is deposited
from underneath the truck bed into a windrow, as seen
in Figure 3-3. For this method of mix delivery, it is
important that the correct amount of mix be placed in
the windrow to assure that the paver hopper does not
run out of mix or become overloaded with too much
mix. Continuous operation of the paver, which must be
equipped with a pickup machine (windrow elevator) , can
only be accomplished if a continuous and consistent
supply of mix is available to it.
The windrow can be formed in one of two ways. A
JACOR
0
0
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Mack
RAVENS
Figure 3-2. End dump truck (J. Scherocman).
spreader box (windrow sizer) can be employed. In this
case, the mix is deposited into the box and is uniformly
metered out onto the roadway as the truck moves
forward. The amount of mix placed in the windrow is
determined by the setting of the discharge opening in
the box. This procedure provides the most accurate
means of keeping a constant supply of mix in front of
the paver.
The second, and more common, method is to control
the amount of mix discharged by the width of the gate
opening under the truck and the speed of the truck.
Although this procedure is quicker than the use of a
windrow sizer, the amount of mix deposited at any time
000
Figure 3-3. Bottom dump truck (J. Scherocman) .
Page 3-2
10/15/91
is highly dependent on the skill of the person controlling
the discharge gates and on the attention of the truck
driver in operating the truck at the required speed .
Manual control of the discharge requires constant
attention of the "dump person" to assure that neither too
little mix nor too much is being fed in to the paver
hopper. For both of these methods, the amount of mix
delivered is dependent on the width and the thickness of
the layer being placed . Thus, a different gate opening
in the windrow sizer or the truck bed is needed for each
set of project conditions and truck speed.
Once the amount of mix being delivered to the paver
gets out of balance with the quantity of mix needed by

10/15/91
FLOWBOYS
MODEL TS-800
Figure 3-4. Live bottom (flow boy) unit (J. Scherocman).
the paver, an adjustment must be made in the discharge
operation of the bottom dump trucks. If the problem is
noticed before the paver is underloaded or overloaded,
the amount of mix deposited on the roadway can easily
be altered by changing the width of the gate opening on
the truck and/or by the speed of the truck during dis-
charge. When there is no mix in the hopper of the
paver, however, mix must be deposited in the hopper
without the paver moving forward. Depending on the
equipment available to the contractor, this can be very
difficult. When the hopper is overloaded with mix, some
of the material in the windrow in front of the paver
must be removed so that the paver can move forward
without additional mix being picked up. When the mix
in the hopper reaches its desired level (the hopper
should be half full), the paver again needs to start
picking up additional mix from the windrow.
Because of the difficulty in adjusting the quantity of
mix needed by the paver when the hopper is either
underloaded or overloaded, it is very important that the
windrow of mix produced by the bottom or belly dump
truck be as consistent as possible. The ability of the
paver to place a smooth layer of mix will be affected by
the uniformity of the windrow available for use by the
paver. Keeping the size of the windrow constant is
easier than correcting the problem of too little or too
Page 3-3
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
much mix in the paver hopper.
Live Bottom Trucks
A live bottom truck is one that employs a conveyor
belt or slat conveyor in the bottom of the truck bed to
discharge the mix without the need to raise the bed.
This type of truck, often generically called a flow boy
truck, deposits the mix directly into the hopper of the
paver as does an end dump truck. Because the bed of
this type of truck is not raised, there is no potential
problem with the bed pressing on the paver hopper. A
live bottom truck is illustrated in Figure 3-4.
Material Transfer Vehicle
As shown in Figure 3-5, an additional method used
to deliver mix to the paver is a material transfer vehicle.
This piece of equipment is basically a surge bin on
wheels. Asphalt mix is deposited into the hopper on the
front of the vehicle. The device is equipped with twin
remixing augers . The mix is transported from the
hopper through the augers and to a conveyor, which
delivers the mix to the extended hopper on the paver.
The purpose of the auger system is to reblend the coarse
and fine particles of the mix and reduce the amount of
segregation that might occur in the mix because of the
operation of the surge/storage silo or the truck-loading
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1 10/15/91

Figure 3-5. Material transfer vehicle (J. Scherocman) .

procedures. in front of the paver or off to one side, as shown in

The material transfer vehicle also allows the paver to
be operated almost continuously (without stopping
between truckloads of mix) if a continuous supply of mix
is available from the asphalt plant. This provides for a
smoother mat behind the paver screed by permitting the
paver operator to keep the head of material in front of
the screed constant by supplying a continuous flow of
mix back to the screed . The equipment also eliminates
the problem of the haul trucks bumping the paver and
truck drivers holding the brakes on the truck when being
pushed by the paver.
The material transfer vehicle can be operated directly
Figures 3-6 and 3-7. Because of the weight of this piece
of equipment when it is full of mix, it must be deter-
mined ahead of time that the pavement over which this
machinery will be running can support the weight of the
device without being overstressed and damaged .
HAULING PROCEDURES
Cleaning and Oiling the Bed
The bed of the haul truck, whether an end dump,
bottom dump , or live bottom truck, should be free of all
deleterious materials before mix is placed in it. Any
debris in the bed from previous use of the truck should

0
7

Figure 3-6. Material transfer vehicle directly in front of paver (J. Scherocman).

Page 3-4
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1
1

Figure 3-7. Material transfer vehicle on lane adjacent to paver (Barber-Greene).

be removed. The bed should be reasonably smooth and
free from any major indentations or depressions where
the truck bed release agent and the HMA can accumu-
late.
Once the bed is clean, it should be coated with a
release agent, as shown in Figure 3-8, to prevent the
HMA from sticking to the bed . Nonpetroleum-based
materials, such as lime water or one of a variety of
commercial products, should be used for release agents.
The lubricant or release agent should be sprayed uni-

Figure 3-8. Spraying lime water solution as a truck bed release agent (J. Scherocman).

Page 3-5
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
formly over the sides and bottom of the truck bed and
should be used in the minimum quantity necessary to
cover the surface area of the bed without runoff. Any
excess lubricant that is used should be drained from the
truck bed before the truck is loaded with mix.
Diesel fuel should not be used as a lubricant for the
truck bed . If an excessive amount of diesel fuel is used
and if it accumulates in depressions in the bed of the
truck, the material can cause changes in the properties
of the binder material with which it comes in contact.
In addition, use of diesel fuel can contribute to environ-
mental problems as it evaporates or if it soaks into the
ground. Thus, although often convenient and economi-
cal to use, diesel fuel should not be used as a release
agent in the bed of a haul truck.
Insulation
If environmental conditions warrant it, the sides and
bottoms of the truck bed should be insulated . The
insulation should be tight against the body of the bed;
there should not be any gaps between the side of the
truck and the insulation through which wind could enter.
The insulation material should be protected on its
O fourth batch should be placed between the front and
Figure 3-9. Plywood cover over insulation on haul
truck (J. Scherocman).
Page 3-6
10/15/91
outside face with plywood or similar cover, as shown in
Figure 3-9. Missing or torn insulation should be re-
placed.
Loading
One objective of the truck-loading operation is to get
the vehicle filled with mix and on its way to the paver as
quickly as possible. This objective must be balanced,
however, with the need to minimize segregation of the
mix that occurs during the loading process. Proper
loading procedure, discussed in Section 5 of Part 2,
requires that multiple drops of mix be made into the
truck instead of a single discharge of mix into the bed.
This is necessary to minimize the distance that the
coarse aggregate particles in the mix can roll and to
keep the mix consistent in gradation throughout the load
of material.
From the Pugmill
The haul truck, regardless of its type and length,
should be loaded in multiple drops of mix in several
different locations in the bed. If loaded directly from
the pugmill of a batch plant, the criteria for multiple
drops of mix into the bed will necessarily be accom-
plished . The truck should be moved, however, between
each delivery of mix from the pugmill. If it takes three
batches of mix to reach the capacity of the haul truck,
one pugmill batch should be loaded into the front of the
truck bed. The truck should then be moved forward and
the second batch of mix should be discharged into the
rear of the truck, just in front of the tailgate. The third
batch of material should be delivered into the center of
the bed, between the first and second batches of mix.
This procedure is illustrated in Figure 2-67 from the
section on surge and storage silos in Part 2.
If the capacity of the pugmill and the truck are such
that five batches of mix are needed to fill the truck bed,
the first batch of mix should be emptied into the front
of the truck and the second batch into the rear of the
truck at the tailgate. The next batch of material should
then be deposited into the center of the truck bed. The
middle batches, whereas the fifth and last batch should
be delivered into the bed between the back (second) and
the middle (third) batches.
For other numbers of batches, multiple drops of mix
should also be used, with the first batch delivered to the
front of the truck bed, the second batch deposited at the
tailgate end of the bed, and the remaining drops of mix
placed evenly in between the first two. Such a loading
sequence will minimize the distance the coarse aggregate

10/15/91
particles can roll and thus minimize the amount of
segregation that is produced in the mix.
From the Silo
Segregation of the mix can occur when mix dis-
charged from the surge silo is deposited into the haul
truck in a single drop. If the mix is loaded in only one
drop from the silo, the material will form a cone-shaped
pile in the truck bed . The coarser aggregate particles
will tend to separate from the mass of mix and roll to
the front and rear of the bed, collecting at both ends.
Some rolling of the coarser material may also occur
along the sides of the bed. This segregation problem
can be minimized by loading the truck in multiple drops
of mix from the silo, similar to the procedure used for
loading from the batch plant pugmill.
The number of drops used depends on the length
and capacity of the truck. Even on the smallest trucks,
at least three drops should be used: the first at the front
of the bed, the second at the rear of the bed, and the
last in the middle of the first two. When a semitractor
trailer truck is to be loaded, at least five and probably
seven different discharges of mix should be made before
the truck capacity is reached. In every case, the mix
should first be deposited at the front of the bed and
then at the tailgate of the truck. The space in between
the first two drops should be filled in with small, sepa-
rate piles of mix placed between the initial "batches" of
mix. The use of multiple drops of mix is slower than
loading the truck in a single discharge of material from
the silo. It is necessary, however, in order to reduce the
amount of segregation that occurs during the loading
process for mixes that have a tendency to segregate.
One procedure that should never be used when a
truck is loaded from the silo is to move the truck slowly
forward while the mix is being discharged from the surge
bin. If this is done, all the coarse aggregate particles in
the mix will continually run down the cone that is
formed and will be pushed toward the tailgate of the
truck, where they will accumulate. This will significantly
increase the amount of truckload-to-truckload segrega-
tion that is seen behind the paver. Thus, proper loading
procedures require that the truck driver move the
vehicle backward and forward several times in between
delivery of loads of mix. Although this increases the
time needed to load the truck and send it to the paver,
it is necessary that it be done to minimize segregation.
There is a tendency for the plant operator to fill the
truck to its legal capacity to reduce haul costs, particu-
larly if the truck is sitting on a scale under the silo.
Although this is good economic practice, it should not
Page 3-7
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Appendix 1
be accomplished by dribbling mix in to the truck from
the silo after the majority of the mix is already in the
truck. Only a limited number of trucks typically are
used by a contractor during a paving project. The plant
operator should be able to judge the time needed to
place each drop of mix into each individual truck bed
and be able to come close to the legal capacity of each
truck without resorting to the use of a number of addi-
tional small dribbles of mix at the end to finish the
loading process. The discharge of small amounts of mix
from the silo greatly increases the chance for segregation
of the mix as the coarse aggregate particles roll down
the sides of the piles of mix already in the bed .
Tarpaulins
Every haul truck should be equipped with a tarpau-
lin, which can be employed as needed to protect the mix
in case of inclement weather. The tarp should be made
of a water repellent material, should be of sufficient
weight and strength to resist tearing, should be in good
condition, and should not have any holes or tears in it.
Most important, the tarp should be large enough to
cover the top of the load and to extend down over the
sides and the tailgate of the truck. The requirement for
the overlap of the tarp over the sides of the truck is to
assure that the mix is protected adequately from wind
and water. The tarps should have enough tie-down
points to secure the tarp properly and prevent it from
flapping in the wind during delivery of the mix to the
paver.
Some trucks are equipped with tarps that run from
the front of the truck to the back in a rail on the top of
the side boards of the truck. The rail keeps the tarp
stretched across the top of the load of mix and covers
the mix without the tarp extending over the sides of the
truck bed . As long as the tarp is tight, this type of tarp
can provide adequate cover for the mix. For safety
reasons, it is desirable to use tarps that can be extended
by mechanical means over the bed of the truck without
the driver having to climb up on the sides of the vehicle
to unroll the tarp.
A tarp that does not cover the load during transport
is worse than not having a tarp on the load at all.
Unless the tarp extends over the sides of the truck, air
will flow under the tarp during movement of the truck
and increase the rate of cooling of the mix. In addition,
during rainy weather, any water that falls on the tarp
will run into the truck bed instead of off the side of the
vehicle. Further, even if the tarp covers the bed, if there
is any water on the tarp when the truck is ready to
discharge mix into the paver hopper, the water should
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
first be removed from the tarp by raising the bed of the
truck and letting the water run off before the truck
backs into the hopper.
Tarps are not normally necessary in warm weather
and with relatively short haul distances between the
plant and the paver. If a tarp is used , however, it should
be removed from the top of the bed before the truck is
unloaded into the laydown machine . This allows the mix
to be inspected visually for defective material before it
is discharged into the paver.
Crusting of the Mix
There is no set limit as to how far a load of HMA
can be transported. There are many variables that affect
the maximum haul distance, but the key factors are the
workability of the mix while it is passing through the
paver and the ability to get the mix compacted once it
has been placed by the paver. Both of these factors are
highly dependent on the temperature of the mix.
Hot-mix asphalt in a mass, such as when the mix is
confined in a truck bed, will maintain a reasonable
temperature for as long as 2 or 3 hr. The rate of cool-
ing of the mix depends on such variables as the temper-
ature of the mix at the time of production, the ambient
air temperature, the velocity and the temperature of the
wind that passes over the mix, and the efficiency of the
insulation on the sides of the truck. When it is hauled
long distances without being covered by a tarp, the mix
will develop a crust on the top and cool and begin to
harden. The formation of the crust provides an insulat-
ing layer for the rest of the mix in the truck bed and
reduces the rate of cooling for the remainder of the
mass of material. Thus, within limits, the formation of
the crust on the outside of the mass of mix is beneficial
to maintaining the internal temperature of the rest of
the mix in the truck bed.
If the load of mix is properly tarped, the amount of
crust buildup will be minimized because the wind will
have significantly less effect on the rate of cooling of the
mix. The slight crust thickness that does form during
transport should be able to be broken up completely as
the mix is discharged from the haul vehicle into the
paver, is carried by the slat conveyors back to the
augers, and is passed under the paver screed . As long
as chunks of asphalt mix do not affect the quality of the
mat behind the paver, the crust that forms on top of the
mix during delivery will not be detrimental to the long-
term performance of the mix. If chunks of mix can be
seen behind the screed, however, changes need to be
made in the mix production temperature, the amount of
insulation, the covering of the load with the tarp , or with
Page 3-8
10/15/91
the paving schedule (waiting for warmer ambient
temperatures).
Rain
These same variables are also present when rain
occurs at the paving site and mix is still in the trucks
waiting to be unloaded . Judgment is needed . One
alternative is to stop paving and return any mix in the
trucks to the plant to be recycled at a later date. If the
rain is relatively light and appears to be going to con-
tinue for some time, and if the pavement surface has
been tacked and does not contain puddled water, the
trucks can be unloaded as quickly as possible and the
rollers brought up directly behind the paver to compact
the mix before it cools completely. If the rain appears
to be of short duration--a passing shower--the mix
should be held in the haul truck instead of being
dumped into the paver hopper and laid after the surface
has dried. Again, because of the mass of mix in the
truck bed, the mix will lose temperature slowly if the
load is properly tarped and the sides of the truck are
insulated. Once the rain has stopped and any puddles
of water have been swept from the roadway surface, the
mix can be unloaded from the waiting trucks into the
paver and laid down . As long as chunks of mix do not
appear behind the screed and the rollers can densify the
mix adequately, little harm is done in holding the mix in
the haul trucks for even 2 or 3 hr, depending on envi-
ronmental conditions.
Bumping the Paver
When an end dump or a live bottom truck is used to
deliver mix to the paver, the truck driver should back
the truck up to the laydown machine but stop just short
of the push rollers on the front of the paver. Once the
truck has come to a halt and the driver has released the
brakes on the vehicle, the paver operator should start
the machine moving forward, picking up the stopped
truck. The key to this process is that the paver picks up
the truck instead of the truck backing into and bumping
the paver. Use of the proper procedure will reduce the
incidence of screed marks and roughness in the mat.
Unloading
If an end dump truck is used and if the mix being
delivered to the paver has a tendency to segregate, the
bed of the truck should be raised a short distance in
order to allow the mix in the bed to slide against the
tailgate before the tailgate is opened . Once the tailgate
is opened, this procedure will allow the mix to be dis-
charged from the truck in a mass and to flood the

10/15/91
hopper of the paver, reducing the possibility of segrega-
tion behind the paver screed.
The same procedure should be employed, if possible,
when a live bottom truck is used to transport the mix.
The belt or slat conveyor should be started for a few
seconds before the end gate on the truck is opened .
This action will create a mass of material that can be
delivered to the hopper instead of allowing any coarse
aggregate particles that have rolled to the end gate to
exit into the hopper first.
For bottom dump trucks, a windrow-sizing box
should be used to control the dimensions of the wind-
row. If this is done, the gates on the bottom of the
truck bed can be opened wide to allow a mass of mix to
be discharged instead of only some of the mix dribbled
out. If manual methods are used to control the truck
discharge, the gates should still be opened widely so that
a mass of mix is deposited on the roadway. The size of
the windrow should then be controlled by the forward
speed of the haul truck.
SUMMARY OF MIX DELIVERY TECHNIQUES
Several primary factors should be observed when the
truck loading, hauling, and unloading operation is moni-
tored . They are:
• The truck bed should be free of all contaminants.
The bed should be lightly and uniformly coated with a
nonpetroleum release agent. Diesel fuel should not be
used.
• If required, the insulation around the truck bed
should be tight to the sides and bottom of the truck.
• The truck should be loaded in multiple drops of
mix from either the pugmill or surge silo. The first
delivery of mix should be at the front of the truck bed.
After the truck moves forward, the second drop of mix
should be at the rear of the truck near the tailgate.
Page 3-9
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Additional drops of mix should be placed in the middle
portion of the truck as necessary to minimize the dis-
tance that any coarse aggregate particles can roll in
order to prevent segregation. (This procedure is dis-
cussed in detail in the section on surge and storage
silos. )
• The plant operator should not continually open
the silo gates and dribble in small amounts of mix in
order to "top off" the load of mix in the haul truck.
• The truck should be equipped with a tarpaulin
that is in good condition: without tears and holes. The
tarp should be large enough to cover the bed and to
wrap over the sides and end of the truck bed. The tarp
should have enough fasteners to allow it to be tied down
completely and to prevent it from flapping in the wind.
If side rails are used to hold the tarp in place, the tarp
should be stretched tightly over the load of mix.
• End dump and live bottom trucks should stop
short of the paver and allow that machine to pick up the
truck instead of the truck bumping into the stopped
paver.
• The bed on an end dump truck should be raised
a short distance and the mix in the truck allowed to slide
against the tailgate before the tailgate is opened to
discharge mix into the paver hopper. The belt or slat
conveyor on a live bottom truck should be started a few
seconds before the end gate is opened in order to
discharge a mass of asphalt mix into the hopper instead
of just a dribble of coarse aggregate particles.
• The load carried in a bottom dump truck should
be deposited uniformly on the roadway in front of the
paver so that the amount of mix picked up by the wind-
row elevator allows the paver operator to maintain a
uniform head of material in front of the paver screed.
• End dump trucks should not be allowed to
contact or transfer any weight to the paver hopper.
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
SECTION TWO
SURFACE PREPARATION
INTRODUCTION
The performance of a hot-mix asphalt pavement
under traffic is directly related to the condition of the
surface on which the pavement layers are placed. For a
full-depth asphalt pavement, if the condition of the
subgrade soil is poor (particularly if it is wet and rutted
under the haul trucks) the ultimate durability of the
roadway may be reduced. For HMA layers placed on
top of a new, untreated granular base course, that base
material should be stable and the surface should be dry
and should not be distorted by the trucks carrying mix to
the paver. For mix laid on top of existing asphalt layers,
the present surface should be free of potholes and major
distress, reasonably smooth, and clean.
PREPARATION OF EXISTING SURFACE
HMA over HMA
If an HMA overlay is to be placed on top of an
existing asphalt pavement, the existing surface must be
prepared properly before any mix is laid. The degree of
preparation needed depends on the condition of that
surface. At a minimum, the failed areas should be
removed and replaced, the potholes properly patched,
the cracks cleaned out and sealed, and the ruts filled in
or, preferably, removed by cold milling.
Pavement Replacement and Patching
To attempt to bridge failed areas with the new
overlay material is usually foolish unless a very thick
overlay is to be constructed . Removal and replacement
should be carried out on all pavement areas on which
severe load-related distress has occurred . All of the
asphalt concrete mix and granular base materials that
have failed should be excavated or cold milled and
either recycled or wasted . Subgrade distortion should be
repaired by undercutting and replacement with suitable
backfill material. Proper subsurface drainage should be
installed as necessary. New granular base course
material, stabilized base course layers, and/or asphalt
mix should be placed in order to bring the strength of
the pavement structure in the failed area to the same
level as the surrounding good pavement layers. If
asphalt concrete mix is used to patch a large area, the
mix should be placed with a paver.
Localized failed areas should be patched properly.
Each failed area should be cut back to sound pavement
Page 3-10
10/15/91
and squared up with the sides as vertical as possible, the
loose material and water in the hole removed, a tack
coat applied to the sides and bottom of the pothole, and
the mix placed in the hole. If the pothole is deeper than
4 in., the mix should be placed in layers and each layer
compacted properly.
Crack Filling
Badly cracked pavement sections, especially those
with pattern cracking (e.g., map or alligator) , are nor-
mally patched or replaced . The benefits of filling other
cracks in the existing surface depend, in part, on the
width of the cracks. If the cracks are narrow (less than
3/8 in. in width) , it is doubtful that the crack sealing
material will actually enter the crack instead of pooling
on the pavement surface . These cracks can be widened,
if desired, with a mechanical router before sealing is
attempted. If wider cracks are present, they should be
cleaned of debris. The crack sealing material should be
inserted when the cracks are clean and dry. The level of
the crack filling material should be slightly lower than
that of the surrounding pavement surface.
The amount of reflective cracking that occurs in an
overlay sometimes may be reduced by the use of a
surface treatment on the existing pavement, depending
on the cause of the cracking. If that pavement structure
contains a great number of cracks, consideration should
be given to the application of a surface treatment
instead of an individual crack filling operation . The
cracks should be cleaned, if feasible, by being blown out
with air. The surface treatment should be applied when
the pavement surface is clean and dry and should consist
of a single application of asphalt binder material (as-
phalt cement, cutback asphalt, or asphalt emulsion) and
cover aggregate. Alternatively, a slurry seal consisting of
a slow-setting emulsion, fine aggregate, and water may
be used. Such a crack filler operation may be more eco-
nomical than a standard crack sealing process, depend-
ing on the extent of the cracking.
Leveling Courses
Common practice in the past has been to place a
leveling course on the existing pavement surface in order
to improve the rideability of the pavement structure.
This leveling course, sometimes also called a wedge and
level course or a scratch course, was designed to fill in

10/15/91
the low spots on the pavement surface. This leveling
action was accomplished through the principle of the
floating screed on the paver. The thicker mix, however,
typically compacts more than the mix in thinner loca-
tions. This problem, called differential compaction,
requires that multiple courses be constructed over a
pavement surface that is badly out of shape before a
smooth surface can be obtained. The mix, as it passes
from under the paver screed, is in loose condition.
After compaction by the rollers, the thickness of the
layer will be reduced . The rule of thumb is that conven-
tional mixes will compact approximately 1/4 in. per 1 in.
of compacted thickness. Thus, for a 1 -in.-thick (com-
pacted) course, about 1 1/4 in. of mix would have to be
placed by the paver. Similarly, 3 3/4 in. of mix would
need to pass from under the paver screed in order to
construct a layer with a compacted thickness of 3 in.
When a leveling course is placed, the mix laid in the
low areas (in the wheelpaths if the pavement is rutted)
will be thicker than the mix placed over the high points
in the surface (between the wheelpaths). The thicker
mix will compact more under the rollers, particularly if
a pneumatic tire roller is used, than will the mix that is
thinner. Thus, although some smoothing is
accomplished with a single leveling course of mix, low
spots will still exist in the wheelpaths where the mix has
been compacted to a different degree than the mix
between the wheelpaths. Multiple layers of mix are
usually needed to eliminate the roughness in the existing
pavement surface completely. This potential problem
can sometimes be addressed by using a motor grader to
place mix in the low spots ahead of the normal paving
operation, if traffic conditions permit.
Milling
Milling, also called cold planing, can be used in lieu
of placing a leveling course (filling in the low spots) to
remove the high points in the existing surface. Milling
can be accomplished in any width necessary, from 6 in.
to more than 13 ft. Figures 3-10 and 3-11 illustrate two
different types of milling machines. Equipped with
automatic grade and slope controls similar to those used
on an asphalt paver, the milling machine is capable of
producing a level surface in one pass over the present
roadway. The RAP produced by the milling process can
be hauled back to the asphalt plant for future recycling.
In addition, the texture of the milled surface enhances
tack and bond and may reduce the possibility of slippage
of an overlay over the existing surface.
A pavement surface that has been milled typically is
very dusty and dirty. Once the pavement has dried,
Page 3-11
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
multiple sweepings with a mechanical broom are usually
needed to remove all of the residual grit from the milled
surface. In some cases, it may be necessary to dampen
the milled surface before sweeping or to air blow and/or
flush the milled surface with water in order to remove
dust and very fine material completely. Any dust and
dirt left on the milled surface will greatly affect the bond
between that course and the new asphalt overlay.
Because of the increased surface area of the milled
pavement (from the grooves left by the cutting teeth on
the milling machine) , an additional quantity of tack coat
material may be required in order to assure adequate
bond between those layers. That increased quantity is a
function of the type, number, condition, and spacing of
the teeth used on the cutting mandrel of the milling
machine .
Hot-Mix Asphalt over Portland Cement Concrete
When HMA is placed over a PCC pavement, the
PCC surface should be prepared properly. The follow-
ing is a general overview of PCC surface preparation.
Any severely distressed areas in the PCC slabs should be
cut out, removed, and replaced using full-depth slab-
repair techniques with PCC or HMA. Corrective work
should also be completed on the underlying subbase or
subgrade material, if necessary. Any severely spalled
areas at joints should be repaired using partial-depth
slab-replacement methods. Portland cement concrete
should be used for partial-depth repairs. Rocking slabs
must be stabilized . Depending on the condition of the
PCC pavement, procedures such as crack and seat, break
and seat, or rubblizing can be used before the overlay is
placed. Further, consideration can be given to the use
of a crack-relief layer between the existing PCC pave-
ment and the new overlay.
Joints that are poorly sealed should have the old seal
material removed and then the joints should be cleaned.
The joints, when dry, should be resealed with appropri-
ate joint seal material. Care should be taken not to
overfill the joints, particularly in cool weather when the
joints are open wide. Once the patching and resealing
has been accomplished, the surface of the PCC pave-
ment should be cleaned completely using mechanical
brooms and air blowing and/or water flushing where
needed.
Base Preparation
Subgrade Soil
If the asphalt pavement is to be placed directly on
the subgrade soil, that subgrade material should meet all
applicable requirements for moisture content, density,
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1 10/15/91

LAR
CATERPIL

Figure 3-10. Rear-loading milling machine (Caterpillar).

and smoothness . After the subgrade soil has been
determined to be ready for paving, and before paving is
allowed to commence, the subgrade should be checked
to be certain that it will be able to support the weight of
the haul traffic. The subgrade must provide a firm
foundation before the asphalt paving commences. If
distortion of the subgrade soil occurs during the paving
operation, the placement of the mix should be stopped
until the condition of the soil can be corrected .
There is generally no need for a prime coat of

MILLTEC RX-50

Figure 3-11. Front-loading milling machine (Barber-Greene).

Page 3-12

10/15/91
asphalt emulsion or cutback asphalt to be placed on the
subgrade soil. This is especially true when that soil is a
silty clay or clay material because the prime coat mate-
rial cannot be absorbed into the subgrade material. The
use of a prime coat on sandy subgrade soils is also
questionable. If the sandy material displaces excessively
under the wheels of the haul trucks, that material should
probably be stabilized with some type of binder material
before paving. The application of a prime coat in that
case will generally not be enough to hold the sandy soil
in place during the paving operations. A prime coat
should not be used as a substitute for proper prepara-
tion of the subgrade soil.
Granular Base Course
If the asphalt layer is to be constructed directly on a
new or existing untreated granular base layer, that
material should meet all the requirements for moisture
content, density, and smoothness. Proof rolling should
be done, however, on top of the granular base material
and the amount of deflection of the base and the
amount of indentation of the truck wheels into the
granular base course material noted . If the base mate-
rial is stable and dry and does not deflect and indent
significantly under the wheels of a loaded tandem axle
truck, placement of the prime coat and/or the new
asphalt mix should be permitted to start. If the condi-
tion of the granular material is not satisfactory, the base
course should be reworked or stabilized to put it into
the proper condition for overlay.
There is a considerable difference of opinion as to
the benefits of a prime coat of asphalt material on a
granular base course layer. Advocates of the use of a
prime coat feel that the material acts as a temporary
waterproofing layer that protects the base course and
prevents it from absorbing excess moisture during rain
before paving, allows the base course to be used for light
traffic, binds together any dust on the surface of the
granular base layer, promotes the bond between the
base course material and the new asphalt overlay, and
prevents slipping of thin pavement layers. In many
cases, however, a prime coat is not needed on a granular
base course layer. A prime coat does not add anything
to the structural capacity of the pavement layers, and, if
the granular base course yields under the wheels of a
loaded truck, the application of the prime coat material
generally will not improve the condition of that base
course material enough to allow paving to be done on
top of the base layer. As pointed out under "Subgrade
Soil," the use of a prime coat is not a substitute for
proper preparation of the granular base course material.
Page 3-13
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
If the specifications require the application of a
prime coat to a new or existing granular base course
layer, the prime coat material should be applied with a
pressure distributor to the base course at least 48 hr
before paving is to begin. Typically a cutback asphalt
(MC- 30 or MC-70) is used as the prime coat material,
if available. An asphalt emulsion is not normally used
because it will not penetrate very far into the granular
material, although some inverted emulsions (emulsion
containing limited amounts of cutter material) have been
applied successfully. The application rate should be
varied with the openness (porosity) of the base course
material. Typical application rates range from 0.15
gal/yd² for a tight surface to 0.40 gal/yd² for an open
surface. No more prime should be applied than can be
absorbed completely by the granular base course in 24
hr. If not absorbed, the excess should be blotted with
sand and removed.
TACK COAT
The purpose of a tack coat is to ensure a bond
between the existing pavement surface and the new
asphalt overlay. The tack coat should not be used in
lieu of cleaning the present pavement surface : removing
accumulated dust and dirt by mechanical brooming or by
flushing with air and/or water. If a good bond is not
formed between the existing surface and the new
overlay, a slippage or sliding-type failure can easily
occur. The new overlay can be shoved in a longitudinal
direction by traffic, particularly at locations where the
traffic accelerates or where the vehicle brakes are ap-
plied. Thus, the pavement surface must be completely
clean before the tack coat is applied .
The tack coat material should be applied by a pres-
sure distributor, as shown in Figure 3-12. All nozzles on
the distributor should be open and functioning. All
nozzles should be turned at the same angle to the spray
bar; approximately 30°, depending on the manufacturer
of the distributor. In addition , the spray bar should be
at the proper height above the pavement surface to
provide for a double or triple lap of the liquid asphalt
material. This will provide the proper amount of over-
lap between the nozzles and a uniform application ofthe
tack coat material to the road surface. The tack coat
material, which is normally asphalt emulsion but can also
be asphalt cement or cut back asphalt, should be heated
to the proper temperature so that it is fluid enough to
be sprayed from the nozzles instead of coming out in
strings.
Uniformity of application and use of the proper
application rate is the key to the success of the tack coat
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
NYME
ว
BITUMETER
WHEEL SPRAY BAR
Figure 3-12. Asphalt distributor (Asphalt Institute) .
process. Figure 3-13 illustrates a tack coat application
that is too light--not enough tack coat has been sprayed
on the road surface . Figure 3-14 shows the opposite
problem--too much tack coat material on the existing
pavement. Ifthe correct amount of tack coat is sprayed
on the surface, some of the existing surface will still be
visible through the tack coat--not all of the existing
pavement surface will be covered with the tack coat .
Use of a diluted asphalt emulsion tack coat (slow-setting
asphalt emulsion diluted 1 : 1 with water) will result in
complete coverage of an extremely thin residual asphalt
film .
The proper tack coat application will leave a residual
asphalt cement content of approximately 0.04 to 0.06
gal/yd² on the roadway. The amount of tack coat used
will depend on the condition of the pavement surface;
Figure 3-13. Too little tack coat (J. Scherocman).
Page 3-14
10/15/91
an open-textured surface requires more tack
coat than a surface that is tight or one that
is "fat" or flushed . In addition, more tack
coat material may be needed on a milled
surface because of the increased surface
area. In the last case, the application rate
could be as great as 0.08 gal/yd² of residual
asphalt cement .
The amount of water in an asphalt emul-
sion and the amount of diluent material in a
cutback asphalt must be taken into account
when determining the proper application
rate to be sprayed from the distributor. Too
little tack coat will not provide sufficient
bond between the old and the new pavement
layers. Too much tack coat may contribute
to the sliding of the overlay on the existing pavement
surface and bleeding of the tack coat material through
a thin overlay.
If an asphalt cement is used as the tack coat materi-
al, it will cool to ambient temperatures very quickly.
Further, because there is no carrier material to evapo-
rate, paving may follow the asphalt cement tack coat
application immediately. If a cutback asphalt is em-
ployed as a tack coat, sufficient time must be allotted
between the application of the tack coat and the start of
paving to permit the diluent in the cutback material to
evaporate. The rate of evaporation will depend on the
type and grade of the cutback asphalt used and on
environmental conditions. If an asphalt emulsion is used
for the tack coat, a delay must also occur between the
emulsion application and the placement of the overlay.

10/15/91
Figure 3-14. Excessive tack coat (J. Scherocman) .
The emulsion must break (change color from brown to
black) and the water must evaporate from the emulsion
before the new mix can be placed over the tack coat
material.
If the overlay is to be constructed under traffic, the
tack coat is normally placed only a short distance in
front of the paver; within the lane closure and far
enough ahead for the tack to cure properly before the
mix is laid on top of it. Traffic is kept off of the tack
coat at all times. If the roadway being paved is closed
to traffic, the tack coat can be placed as early as 24 hr
ahead of the laydown operation . This will assure that
the tack coat will be well cured before the mix is placed
on top of it. Under unusual circumstances, if traffic
must travel over the tack coat before the overlay is
placed, a light layer of sand can be spread on top of the
tack coat to prevent the pickup of the tack coat material
by traffic. The application rate of the sand should be in
the range of 4 to 8 lb/yd², depending on the application
rate of the tack coat material and the gradation of the
sand . Excess sand should be broomed from the pave-
ment surface before the overlay is placed to assure the
proper bond between the overlay and the existing
surface .
The application of the tack coat material is essential
when an overlay is being constructed on an existing
pavement surface; either portland cement concrete, hot-
mix asphalt, or surface treatment. A tack coat often is
Page 3-15
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
not needed, however, when a layer of new mix is being
placed over another layer of asphalt pavement that has
been laid within a few days. As long as the underlying
new layer has not become dirty under traffic or from
windblown dust, a tack coat may be deleted between lifts
of mix placed within a period of several days.
SURFACE PREPARATION TECHNIQUES
Before an asphalt pavement course is placed over an
existing surface (subgrade soil, aggregate base, asphalt
stabilized material, or portland cement concrete) that
surface must be prepared properly for the new layer.
Some of the recommended preparation procedures
include:
• Any failures in the existing surface must be re-
moved and replaced or repaired by patching unless a
very thick overlay is constructed.
· Cracks in an existing asphalt pavement surface
generally should be sealed individually or some type of
surface treatment should be applied to the whole road-
way area. Joints in a PCC pavement that are poorly
sealed should be routed out and resealed . Rocking PCC
slabs should be stabilized .
• Arough, uneven asphalt surface should be leveled
with asphalt mix (using a paver to place mix in large
areas) to fill in the low spots in that surface or should
be cold planed with a milling machine to remove the
high spots.
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
• After the needed repairs are completed , the pave-
ment surface should be cleaned of all dust, dirt, and
other debris. This should be accomplished using multi-
ple passes of a mechanical broom. If brooming does not
remove all of the accumulated dirt, flushing with air
and/or water may be required.
• A prime coat is generally not needed on subgrade
soil. A difference of opinion exists on the benefits of
the use of a prime coat on a granular base course, but
in many cases a prime coat can be eliminated without
detrimental effect on the performance of the pavement
structure .
• The application of a tack coat must be accom-
plished before an overlay is constructed on an existing
Page 3-16
10/15/91
asphalt or PCC pavement surface. The distributor that
is used should be checked to assure that all the nozzles
are open and set at the correct angle and that the spray
bar is at the proper height above the pavement surface.
• The application rate for the tack coat must be
based on the residual amount of asphalt cement on the
road surface, which should be between 0.04 and 0.06
gal/yd² for normal surfaces. Milled pavements may need
a greater amount of residual tack coat. Too little tack
coat will not provide the needed bond between the old
and new layers. Too much tack coat may promote
slippage of the new overlay on the old pavement or
bleeding of the tack material through a thin overlay.

10/15/91
SECTION THREE
MIX PLACEMENT
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of the paver is to place the hot-mix
asphalt to the desired width and thickness and to pro-
duce a satisfactory mat texture . The paver consists of
two primary parts: the tractor unit and the screed unit.
The tractor unit provides the motive power to the paver
and transfers the asphalt mixture from the receiving
hopper on the front of the machine to the spreading
screws at the back of the paver. The second unit con-
sists of the paver screed. This leveling device is attached
to the tractor unit at only one point on each side of the
paver and is able to " float" on the asphalt mix and
provide initial texture and compaction to that material
as it passes out from under the screed . The parts of the
tractor unit and the screed unit are shown in Figure
3-15.
THE TRACTOR UNIT
The tractor unit fulfills all of the functions necessary
to receive the asphalt mix from the haul trucks, carry
that material back to the spreading screws, and distrib-
ute the mix across the width of the screed. The tractor
unit is powered by its own engine and provides the
required propulsion energy to move the machine for-
ward, either on rubber tires or crawler tracks. It is
composed of several major components including the
truck push rollers , mix-receiving hopper, material flow
gates, twin slat conveyors, and a pair of screw conveyors
or augers.
TRACTOR
HOPPER
PUSH ROLLERS
TOW POINT
Figure 3-15. Components of an asphalt paver (Blaw-Knox).
Page 3-17
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Propulsion Systems
The paver is mounted on either crawler tracks or
rubber tires. The crawler tracks could be all steel, steel
equipped with rubber pads, or flexible bands with steel
shoes and rubber pads. If the paver is used on top of a
yielding surface, the crawler track system will provide an
increased area over which to spread and support the
weight of the paver. If the paver is moved regularly
under its own power between paving locations, the
rubber tire machine is normally used, because its travel
speed is much greater than that of the crawler track
paver. The type of propulsion system does not affect
the basic functions of the paver.
Push Rollers
The push rollers, located on the front of the paver
hopper, are used to maintain contact with the tires of
the haul truck and to push that truck ahead of the
paver. The rollers must be clean and free to rotate to
allow smooth forward travel of the paver. If the push
rollers are not cleaned periodically and do not rotate
freely, the truck tires will slide on the rollers and in-
crease the load on the paver. Moreover, if one roller
rotates freely and the other does not, the paver may
tend to change direction.
Many pavers are equipped with a truck hitch that is
located underneath the push rollers on the front of the
paver hopper. The purpose of the hitch is to keep the
truck in contact with the paver and prevent the truck
DEPTH CRANK
SCREED
SIDE ARM AUGERS PIVOT POINT
CONVEYORS
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1 10/15/91

Figure 3-16. Paver hopper (Barber-Greene).

driver from pulling away from the paver and inadver-
tently dumping mix on the pavement in front of the
paver. The hitch, controlled by the paver operator,
comes in contact with the rear wheels of the truck on
each side of the truck. Once the truck bed has been
emptied of mix, the truck hitch is withdrawn and the
truck is able to pull away from the paver.
Paver Hopper
The paver hopper, shown in Figure 3-16, is used to
receive and temporarily hold the asphalt mix from the
haul vehicle or the pickup machine. The hopper must
be wide enough to allow the body of the haul truck to fit
inside of it. In addition, particularly for smaller pavers,
the hopper must be low enough to permit the truck bed
to be raised without the bed placing excessive weight on
the front of the hopper. The front of the hopper must
be designed in a way to minimize the spillage of mix out
of the hopper during the dumping of the hopper wings.
This is normally accomplished by using rubber belts or
flaps attached to the wings.
If a windrow elevator (illustrated in Figure 3-17) is

Figure 3-17. Windrow elevator attached to front of paver (Ko-Cal; Koehring Co.) .

Page 3-18
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

Figure 3-18. Thin layer of asphalt concrete left on pavement surface under windrow
elevator (J. Scherocman) .

used to feed mix to the paver, the hopper must be able

to hold the proper volume of mix without unbalancing
the paver. The blades on the slat conveyor of the wind-
row elevator must be set at the right level to pick up all
of the mix that has been placed on the existing pave-
ment. No mix should be left in the windrow; this thin
layer of material (Figure 3-18) will cool quickly and may
result in difficulties in compacting the mix. In addition,
longitudinal streaks may occur in the mat behind the
paver at the edges of the windrow, as shown in Figure
3-19.
As shown in Figure 3-20, the sides, or wings, of the
hopper are movable. Mix, if left to stand for a long
period of time in the corners of the hopper, will cool
and may appear as chunks of mix back of the screed
when it passes through the paver. Thus, the mix is
periodically moved from the sides of the hopper into the
middle of the hopper by folding the wings (sides) and
allowing the mix to be deposited into the area of the slat
conveyors.
Many paver operators dump (fold) the wings of the
paver after each truckload of mix has been emptied into
the hopper. Further, to prevent spillage of the mix out
the front of the hopper, the operator often pulls the
amount of mix left in the hopper down during discharge
and after the truck has left the hopper by continuing to
run the slat conveyors to feed mix back to the augers.
This may result in the slat conveyor running completely Figure 3-19. Parallel streaks same width as windrow
empty. This practice can lead to increased mat prob- behind paver screed (J. Scherocman).

Page 3-19
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1 10/15/91

Figure 3-20. Folded wings on paver hopper (Blaw-Knox).

lems if segregated mix is deposited on the conveyor slats,
either from the paver wings or from the haul truck, and
carried back to the augers and screed . It is not good
practice to dump the paver wings after each truckload of
mix has been delivered or to deposit the mix held in the
wings into the empty paver hopper, because either pro-
cedure can decrease the quality of the finished mat.
To minimize segregation, the paver operator should
fold the wings as seldom as possible. The frequency at
which the wings are dumped depends on the rate of
delivery of the mix to the paver, the temperature of the
mix, and the environmental conditions. The wings
should be emptied before the mix that collects in the
corners of the hopper cools so much that chunks are
formed that cannot be broken up as that mix moves
through the paver to the augers and under the screed.
On colder days, the hopper wings will need to be
dumped more frequently than on warmer days.
In all cases, the paver hopper should be at least
partially full at the time that the wings are dumped into
the center of the hopper; the amount of mix in the
hopper should be approximately at the level of the
bottom of the flow gates at the back of the hopper.
This will provide enough mix to heat the cooler material
in the wings before it goes through the screed . The slat
conveyors should not be visible at the time that the
wings are raised. As discussed later, keeping the hopper
relatively full between truckloads of mix keeps the head

PUSH ROLLERS CONVEYORS AUGERS CROWN

ADJUSTMENT

MATERIAL
FLOW

MATERIAL
FLOW

FRESHLY PLACED MAT

DIRECTION of TRAVEL

Figure 3-21 . Slat conveyor at bottom of paver hopper (Blaw-Knox) .

Page 3-20

10/15/91
of asphalt mix in front of the paver screed constant and
also reduces any segregation that might be present in
the mix. In addition, the wings should not be "banged"
repeatedly as they are emptied.
Slat Conveyors
At the bottom of the paver hopper is a set of slat
conveyors. As shown in Figure 3-21 , these devices are
used to carry the asphalt mix from the hopper through
the tunnel on the paver and back to the spreading
screws. The slat conveyor on one side of the paver
operates independently from the movement of the slat
conveyor on the other side of the machine. Thus, the
amount of mix that can be carried back through the
paver on one side can be different from the volume of
material that is being delivered on the other side. This
procedure allows the paver operator to feed more or
less material to one side of the paver or the other in
order to pave ramps, mail box turnouts, and tapers. The
slat conveyors are a continuous system, with the slats
being rotated back to the bottom of the hopper under-
neath the paver itself.
Flow Gates
At the back of the paver hopper is a set of flow
gates . These gates, one over each of the two slat con-
veyors, are used to regulate the amount of mix that can
be delivered by the conveyors to the augers. The gates
move vertically, either by manual manipulation or me-
chanically. Depending on the vertical setting of the
gates, more or less mix is permitted to enter the paver
tunnel. The location of the flow gates is shown in
Figure 3-22. The flow gates should be adjusted to
provide a uniform head of material (at a level at or just
above the center of the auger shaft) in front of the
screed. Figure 3-23 shows three possible positions of the
Figure 3-22. Flow gates at back of paver hopper
(Cedarapids).
Page 3-21
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
flow gates (too high, too low, and correct) in relation to
the head of material in front of the paver screed.
Augers
The mix that is carried to the back of the tractor unit
by the slat conveyors is deposited in front of the screw
conveyors or augers (Figures 3-24 and 3-25). Just as the
two slat conveyors operate independently of each other,
the augers on each side of the paver are run separately
from one another. The auger on one side of the paver,
however, is run in conjunction with the slat conveyor on
that same side of the paver. The mix placed in the
auger chamber from the slat conveyors is distributed
across the width of the paver screed by the movement of
the augers. At the junction of the two augers in the
center of the paver, adjacent to the auger gear box,
there typically is a different-shaped auger (reverse auger
or paddle) to tuck mix under the gear box and assure
that the mix placement at this location is the same as
that across the rest of the width of the mix being laid .
This reverse auger (paddle) is shown at the upper left
side of the main screw auger in Figure 3-26. It is
important that the augers carry a consistent amount of
mix across the front of the screed so that the pressure
(head of material) on the screed is kept as constant as
possible.
FLOW GATE FLOW GATE
Gates too HIGH -- augers overloaded
FLOW GATE FLOW GATE
Gates too LOW -- insufficient material supply
FLOW GATE FLOW GATE
Correct adjustment -- Uniform material volume / flow
Figure 3-23. Position of flow gates (Blaw-Knox).
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
O
Figure 3-24. Paver auger (J. Scherocman).
Material Feed System
Manual Control-Constant Speed
As shown in Figure 3-25, the slat conveyor and auger
on one side of the paver act independently from the slat
conveyor and auger on the other side of the paver. On
older pavers , in the manual mode, the slat conveyor and
the auger speed are constant. The paver operator can
only control the amount of mix being carried back to the
screed by adjusting the height of the flow gates. If the
gates are set too high, the material feed system will
provide a "slug" of asphalt mix to the augers whenever
the slat conveyors and the augers are operated . This
will significantly increase the head of material in front of
the paver screed and cause increased pressure on the
screed. This greater force will lift the screed and
increase the thickness of the mat being placed . Because
of this action, the angle of attack of the screed is
Page 3-22
10/15/91
reduced slightly as the screed pivots
about the tow point.
If the gates are set too low, the
material feed system will not be able to
deliver enough material to the augers,
thus reducing the head of mix in front
of the screed and the force pushing on
the screed. This action reduces the
thickness of the mat being placed as
the screed settles and increases the
angle of attack of the screed as it
pivots about the tow point. With the
older paver system, in which the mate-
rial feed system operates at a single
speed on an off-on basis, the only way
the operator can control the head of
material in front of the screed is by
proper setting of the flow gates at the
back of the paver hopper. The flow
gates and feeder on-off switches must
be set at a position that requires the
slat conveyors and augers on each side
of the machine to run as close to 100
percent of the time as possible.
Manual Control-Variable Speed
Some pavers are designed so that in
the manual mode the paver operator
can select one of several speeds for the
slat conveyor, each essentially a per-
centage of the maximum speed of the
conveyor. Once the conveyor speed is
selected, the speed of the spreading
screw conveyor (auger) is proportioned
to the speed of the slat conveyor. The operator is
responsible for controlling the slat conveyor and augers
in order to keep a constant level of asphalt mix in front
of the paver screed . The flow of material to the screed
essentially is regulated by the height of the hopper flow
gates and by the starting and stopping of the slat
conveyor and auger on each side of the paver. With this
manual system , no changes occur in the head of material
in front of the screed as the speed of the laydown ma-
chine changes unless the speed of the whole material
delivery system is changed by the paver operator.
Automatic Control
Most pavers are equipped with an automatic feed
system that supplies mix to the paver screed in propor-
tion to the need for the material . For this system, a
feed control sensor (a type of limit switch) is used to
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91 Appendix 1

LEFT SIDE RIGHT SIDE

FEED SYSTEM FEED SYSTEM

LEFT SIDE
FLOW GATE RIGHT SIDE
FLOW GATE

LEFT SIDE
CONVEYOR
RIGHT SIDE
CONVEYOR
LEFT SIDE
AUGER

RIGHT SIDE
AUGER

HEAD OF MATERIAL

Figure 3-25. Dual-feed system (slat conveyor and auger) (Blaw-Knox).

determine the amount of mix in the auger chamber, as
shown in Figure 3-27 . If the volume of mix available in
front of the screed falls below the desired amount, the
feed control sensor will move enough to engage the slat
conveyor and auger system, pulling more mix back to the
screed area. As the material is distributed in front of
the screed, the feed control sensor will rise and disen-
gage the feed system. This action will maintain the
preselected head of material in front of the screed. This
sequence repeats itself, continuously maintaining a
consistent head of mix as long as material is available in
the hopper. On some pavers, a variable-speed (po-
tentiometer-type) feed system is used to control the
amount of material in front of the screed . Instead of an
on-off system, the speed of the delivery system is
increased when more mix is needed and the speed of the
slat conveyor and auger system (on each side of the
paver) is decreased when the head of material in front
of the screed is too great. This type of equipment is
illustrated in Figure 3-28.
In addition to these limit switch-type and variable-
speed systems, both ultrasound and infrared sensing
devices can be used to determine the amount of mix in
the auger chamber. These two types of systems operate
on the same basis as the limit switch system; measuring
the amount of mix in front of the screed and controlling

Figure 3-26. Reverse paddle on auger at gear box (Cedarapids).

Page 3-23
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
10/15/91

as close to the outside end of the augers as possible. If

rigid paver screed extensions are used, as discussed later,
the control arm should be mounted beyond the end of
the augers, just inside the end gate on the paver screed.
The amount of mix carried in the auger chamber

0
should be as constant as possible . The proper depth of
material on the augers should be at the center of the
auger shaft (Figure 3-29) . The level of material carried
in front of the screed should not be so little as to expose
the lower half of the screw conveyor flights. Further,
the level of mix delivered to the screed should never be
so great as to cover the upper portion of the auger, as
shown in this same figure.
If the feed system is set and operating properly, the
slat conveyor and augers on each side of the paver will
rarely shut off. This continuous action of the conveyors
and augers is accomplished by setting the proper posi-
tion for the hopper flow gates and determining the
correct speed setting for the slat and screw conveyors.

Figure 3-27. On and off automatic feed control
system (Barber-Greene).
the slat conveyor and auger feed system to maintain a
constant head of mix at the screed.
For the automatic feed control system to function
properly, the feed sensor control arm should be located
The primary key to the placement of a smooth pavement
layer is the use of the material feed system to keep the
head (level) of material in front of the screed constant,
primarily by keeping the slat conveyor and augers running
as close to 100 percent ofthe time as possible. Intermit-
tent operation of the slat conveyor and auger system
could cause both auger shadows and ripples in the mat
behind the screed, as discussed in the section on mat

FEED CONTROL
.Approx

SENSOR
31/2

OFF
SLOW
MEDIUM FAST VARIABLE DISTANCE
4 1/2 Approx.

Figure 3-28. Variable auger speed automatic feed control systems (Blaw-Knox).

Page 3-24
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

NOT THIS

THIS

Figure 3-29. Correct and incorrect mix levels in the paver auger chamber (Bar-
ber-Greene).

problems. and model of paver is shown in Figure 3-30.

THE SCREED UNIT
The screed unit, which is towed by the tractor unit,
establishes the thickness of the asphalt layer and pro-
vides the initial texture to the new surface. In addition,
the screed imparts some level of density to the material
being placed through the vibratory or combination
tamping and vibratory action of the screed. A diagram
showing the parts of the screed for one particular make
The principle of the free-floating paver screed was
developed in the early 1930s . That concept allows the
paver screed, which is attached to the tractor unit at
only one point on each side of the machine (the tow or
pull point), to average out changes in grade that are
experienced by the wheelbase (rubber tires or crawler
tracks) of the tractor unit . The floating-screed principle
is employed on all of the modern asphalt pavers in use
today.

SCREED PULL POINT

FREE FLOATING
SCREED

Figure 3-30. Screed unit (Barber-Greene).

Page 3-25
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1 10/15/91

SCREED DEPTH CRANK

F3

-TOW POINT

PIVOT POINT

F2

F1

Figure 3-31 . Screed tow point and tow arm forces acting on paver screed (Blaw-Knox) .

Tow (Pull) Point being spanned by the tractor wheelbase. For the float-
The screed unit is attached to the tractor unit at only ing-screed principle to work properly, under manual
one point on each side of the paver. This point, shown control, it is important that the pull points on both sides
in Figure 3-31 , is called the tow point or the pull point of the tractor be at the same level above the ground .
by the different paver manufacturers. The tow point is The position of the screed pull points can be altered by
really a pin-type connection that allows the leveling arms raising or lowering the rods on which the pull points are
(also called side arms or pull arms) of the screed to mounted. For most asphalt mixtures, the pull or tow
rotate or pivot around that point . This pin connection point is positioned near the center of the rod . For some
reduces the transmission of movement between the asphalt mixtures being placed, however, it may be
tractor unit and the screed unit. advantageous to change the elevation of the pull points:
The concept of the pull point and the free-floating raise or lower that elevation to improve the texture of
screed allows the tractor unit to provide the wheelbase the mat being placed . (If the paver is being operated
for the screed unit . The screed then pivots around the under automatic grade and slope control, as discussed in
pull or tow point and responds to the average grade the following section, the elevation of the pull point
typically is centered when paving is started . The loca-
Pull Point tion then changes as necessary as paving proceeds in
Too High order to maintain the proper angle of attack of the
screed .)
Abnormal On some pavers, under manual control, when the
wear
pull points are too high, the front of the screed is tilted
down in order to maintain the proper angle of attack for
proper mat thickness. Premature wear on the strike-off
and the leading edge of the screed can be experienced
Pull Point
Too Low (as shown in Figure 3-32), the smoothness of the mat
can be reduced, and the degree of compaction imparted
Abnormal
wear to the mix will be lessened . When the pull points are
too low, on the other hand, the front of the screed is
tilted up in order to maintain the correct thickness of
Pull Point the asphalt mix being placed . Additional wear can occur
Correct on the trailing edge of the screed .
Normal For a paver not equipped with automatic screed
Uniform Wear
controls, the relationship between a change in the ele-
vation of the tow point on one end of the leveling arm
and the movement of the screed on the opposite end of
the leveling arm is shown in Figure 3-33. Typically an
Figure 3-32. Effects of pull point height on screed 8:1 ratio exists between the movement of the tow point
wear (Cedarapids).

Page 3-26

10/15/91
1 (25mm) Movement at Tow Point--
produces
0 41/8" (3mm) Movement
at
Leading Edge of Screed
Figure 3-33. Ratio of tow point movement to mat thickness (Blaw-Knox).
and the change in the angle of attack of the front edge
of the paver screed . This means that if the tow point is
moved vertically upward 1 in., the angle of attack of the
screed will be increased by 1/8 in. As discussed in detail
below, the paver must move forward approximately five
lengths of the leveling arm before the screed will move
up to the new level of the tow point and the forces on
the screed will again be in equilibrium.
The combination of the screed pivot point at the end
of the leveling arm attached to the tractor and the
thickness-control device at the screed provides for
adjustments to be made to the angle of attack of the
screed unit. The angle of attack is shown in Figure 3-34.
Because of the method by which the screed is attached
to the tractor, the screed acts in a manner similar to that
of a water skier being pulled by a speed boat.
Forces Acting on the Screed
The screed assembly, including the tow point, the
leveling or towing arm, the screw conveyor or auger, the
thickness-control crank, and the screed with its pivot
point, is shown in Figure 3-31 . There are two primary
forces that constantly act on the paver screed as the
paver places the mix. The first force acting on the
screed is the towing force of the tractor, F3 as shown in
ANGLE -LINE- of SHEAR
of
ATTACK
Figure 3-34. Screed angle attack position (Blaw-Knox).
Page 3-27
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
this figure. This force varies as the speed of the tractor
unit increases and decreases.
The second force on the screed is the head of mate-
rial pushing against the screed, F2. As the amount of
asphalt material in the auger chamber that pushes
against the screed changes, the net force acting on the
screed also changes. As the forces acting on the screed
change, the screed must come to a new angle of attack
in order to compensate for the change in force acting on
it.
The forces on the screed must be in equilibrium (all
forces equal) for the screed to remain at a constant
angle of attack as it is towed by the tractor unit . When
a change in one force occurs, the screed will rise or fall
and will change the thickness of the mat being placed .
This will also result in a change in the angle of attack of
the screed. The screed will react to the change in the
force against it until it reaches a new equilibrium
elevation in which the forces are in balance.
Paver Speed
Because the speed of the paver has a major effect on
the angle of attack of the paver screed, it is good paving
practice to keep the speed of the paver as consistent as
possible during laydown operations. Under manual
TRAVEL
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
material flow control and screed control, if the forces on
the screed remain constant except for the change in
paver speed, an increase in the speed of the paver will
cause the thickness of the asphalt layer being placed to
decrease. Similarly, a decrease in the speed of the
tractor unit will cause an increase of the thickness ofthe
mat being laid. This will only occur, however, as long as
no other changes are made in the system; the location of
the pull points (tow points) of the screed remain at a
constant level and the rate of feed of mix to the augers
remains constant. As paver speed increases, if no
additional mix is delivered by the slat conveyors to the
augers, less mix is available to pass under the screed and
the thickness of the layer would be reduced.
Under manual material flow control, the paver
operator would have to increase the amount of mix
transferred to the augers in order to maintain a constant
head of material in front of the screed and a constant
layer thickness. Under automatic material flow control,
however, the volume of mix delivered to the augers
would increase as the paver speed increased, maintaining
a constant head of mix in front of the screed. In this
latter case, the forces against the screed would remain
balanced at the new speed and the thickness of the layer
would be unchanged even as the paver speed was
increased. Thus, through the use of automatic material-
control devices on the paver, the head of material can
be maintained at a constant level regardless of paver
speed, and the layer thickness placed will remain con-
stant. Under manual flow control, however, the paver
operator must alter the amount of mix delivered to the
augers and screed as the speed of the paver is changed .
In addition, the paving speed should be selected to
match the amount of mix being delivered from the plant .
When changing trucks, it would be best if the trans-
fer could be done without slowing down or stopping the
paver. At relatively slow paving speeds, it might be
possible to make the truck exchange while keeping the
head of material in front of the screed constant. This
would require, however, that the level of mix in the
hopper be kept at a level at least even with the bottom
of the flow gates at all times. Use of a windrow elevator
or a material transfer device eliminates this problem .
If the normal paving speed is fast enough or the
truck exchange is slow enough that the proper amount
of mix cannot be maintained in the hopper (on the slat
conveyors and on the augers) between loads, it would be
better to stop the paver when the transfer of trucks
occurs . As soon as one truck is emptied, it should pull
away from the paver. The paver should be brought from
paving speed to a stop as quickly and smoothly as
Page 3-28
10/15/91
possible without jerking the machine . The next truck
should then be backed toward the paver, stopping short
of the paver; 1 or 2 ft away. For a dump truck, the bed
should be raised in the air, without releasing the tailgate,
so that some mix can slide against the tailgate. The
paver should be started and brought back to the prese-
lected paving speed as quickly and smoothly as possible.
The tailgate on the truck should be released as soon as
the push rollers on the paver make contact with the
vehicle tires, and the mix should be delivered to the
paver hopper before the level of mix in the hopper
drops below the level of the bottom of the flow gates.
This procedure of stopping and restarting the paver
quickly will minimize the change in the forces acting on
the screed and will allow a near-constant mat thickness
to be placed .
Maintaining a constant paver speed is one of the
primary advantages associated with the use of a pickup
machine or material transfer device to deliver mix to the
paver. By keeping the speed of the paver constant, a
consistent head of material can be maintained by the slat
conveyors and the augers and a constant layer thickness
will be the result. If dump-type haul trucks are used,
however, a smoother-riding pavement can be constructed
by quickly reducing the speed of the paver and then
stopping the paver when a truckload of mix is depleted
instead of by keeping the paver creeping along until the
next truck arrives at the hopper. Once the next truck-
load of mix is in the hopper, the paver operator should
quickly increase the speed of the paver back to normal
operating speed.
Head of Material
If the volume of mix in the auger chamber is in-
creased, the force on the screed will also increase,
causing the screed to rise . This action will then cause
the angle of attack of the screed to decrease until a new
equilibrium position is reached . If the amount of
material being carried on the augers is decreased, the
thickness of the mat will be reduced, all other factors
being equal, as the screed falls. This results in an
increase in the angle of attack of the screed until the
forces on the screed are once again in equilibrium.
One of the primary factors that affects the head of
material in the auger chamber is the action of the slat
conveyor and auger on each side of the paver. When
the slat conveyors and augers are operating, the mix is
pulled from the paver hopper, through the tunnel, and
is distributed across the front of the screed . As long as
this flow of material is relatively constant, the head of
material pushing against the screed will be relatively

10/15/91
0%
ANGLE of ATTACK
Figure 3-35. Angle of attack (Blaw-Knox).
constant and the mat being placed will be smooth and
have a consistent texture.
If the head of material is allowed to vary, however,
the screed will move up and down in relation and reac-
tion to the forces acting on it . As the amount of mix
being carried by the augers is decreased because the slat
conveyor and auger system is shut off, the screed will
move downward, reducing the thickness of the mat
behind the screed. As the slat conveyor and auger
system comes on, more mix is carried back to the augers
and across the front of the screed. This increases the
force on the screed and causes it to rise to a new
elevation, resulting in a thicker mat. Thus, the elevation
of the flow gates becomes very important in regulating
the amount of mix in front of the screed .
There is a potential for the head of material to be
affected each time the slat conveyors and augers are
turned off and on. This is true particularly if the head
of material is not properly set initially. For this reason,
the use of a proportional automatic feed-control system
is very important, because this device keeps the slat
conveyors and augers running as much of the time as
possible, provided the flow gates are properly set . This,
in turn, keeps the head of material relatively constant
and allows the screed to place a mat of consistent
thickness. A constant head of material against the paver
screed reduces the occurrence of ripples and auger
shadows.
Another factor that affects the uniformity of the
head of material in front of the screed is the tempera-
ture of the mix. If a cold load of material is deposited
in the paver hopper and carried back to the screed by
the slat conveyors and the augers, the colder, stiffer mix
will increase the force acting on the screed and cause
the screed to rise, increasing the thickness of the layer
placed. If a hot load of mix, on the other hand, is
delivered to the paver, the decrease in viscosity of the
binder material will reduce the stiffness of the mix and
reduce the force of the mix on the screed when the mix
is deposited in front of it. This action may cause the
Page 3-29
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
screed to fall and reduce the layer thickness.
Thickness Control Cranks for Manual Operation
The screed is attached to the leveling or tow arms on
each side of the paver through a hinge or pivot point, as
illustrated in Figure 3-31 . The thickness-control mecha-
nism, usually either a crank or a handle, allows the
screed to be moved or rotated around the pivot point.
The key to the leveling action of the screed is its ability,
by rotating around the pivot point and being attached to
the tractor unit at only the tow point, to establish an
equilibrium attitude based on the forces applied to the
screed, as illustrated in Figure 3-35. As the mix passes
under the screed plate, the screed floats on the mix,
determining the mat thickness and the texture of the
material as well as providing the initial compaction of
the asphalt mix.
For a constant position of the tow point (the tractor
unit running on a level surface and without automatic
screed controls), altering the setting of the thickness-
control devices changes the attitude (angle of attack) of
the screed and changes the forces acting on the screed .
This, in turn, causes the screed to move up to, or down
to, a new elevation as the paver moves forward, and thus
alters the thickness of the mat being placed. The reac-
tion of the screed to changes in the position of the
thickness-control settings, however, is not instantaneous.
Rather, there is a lag in the reaction of the screed that
allows the screed to average out variations in the input
forces acting on it.
Reaction of the Screed
Figure 3-36 provides information on the reaction
time of the screed when a change is made in the angle
of attack of the screed either at the screed or at the
location of the tow point. After the tow or pull point
has been raised, as shown in this figure, it takes ap-
proximately five times the length of the leveling or tow
arms on the paver screed for the screed to complete 99
percent of the change, up or down, to the desired new
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
ORIGINAL
SCREED LEVEL
VERTICAL
DISPLACEMENT
FWD. TRAVEL FIVE TOWLENGTHS
in TOWLENGTHS Start 1
DISPLACEMENT
REMAINING 100% 36.8% 13.5%
Figure 3-36. Screed reaction time (Blaw-Knox).
elevation. This means that if the length of the leveling
arm is 9 ft, the paver would have to move forward for a
distance of at least 45 ft before the required input to the
thickness-control device was completely carried out by
the paver screed .
Changing Screed Pivot Point
As an example, assume that it is desired to increase
the thickness of the mat being placed from 1 in. to 1 1/2
in. A change is made in the thickness-control crank, by
turning it clockwise or counterclockwise depending on
the make of the machine, to change the angle of attack
of the screed. The movement of the thickness-control
mechanism causes the screed to move around the hinge
or pivot point and increase the angle compared with the
road surface. The change in mat depth, however, is not
immediate. The paver must move forward for some
distance before the modification in mat thickness can be
completed.
As shown in this figure, approximately 63 percent of
the thickness change is accomplished after the paver has
moved forward a distance equal to one leveling arm
length, or 9 ft in this example. As the paver moves
forward another 9 ft, about 87 percent of the desired
thickness change has been completed . Approximately 95
ANGLE of ATTACK
Manual or Automatic Control of Tow Points
Figure 3-37. Angle of attack (Blaw-Knox).
Page 3-30
10/15/91
NEW SCREED LEVEL
5.0% 1.8% 0.7%
percent of the elevation change is done by the time a
distance of 27 ft has been traveled (three leveling arm
lengths of 9 ft each). It is not until the paver has moved
down the roadway a distance equal to at least five
leveling arm lengths, however, that some 99+ percent of
the thickness change has been completed.
The same exercise holds for a reduction in the
thickness-control settings at the screed . A screed oper-
ator desiring to reduce the depth of the asphalt layer
turns the thickness-control crank in the opposite direc-
tion and causes the screed to rotate around the hinge
point. As the paver moves forward , the decreased angle
of attack of the screed causes it to move downward,
thereby reducing the amount of mix being fed under the
screed. The screed will continue its downward move-
ment until the forces acting on it are again in equilibri-
um. If the pavement layer depth were being changed
from 1 1/2 in. to 1 in., it would still require the paver to
move a distance of more than five lengths of the leveling
arm before 99+ percent of the thickness change would
be completed .
Changing Tow Point Elevation
The same principle applies to a change in the loca-
tion of the tow point or pull point of the screed leveling

10/15/91
arm where it is attached to the tractor unit. If the tow
point is displaced, as shown in Figure 3-37, the change
in elevation of the tow point is translated to a change in
the angle of attack of the paver screed. The paver must
still move forward for a distance of approximately five
times the length of the leveling arm on the machine for
the screed to react to the change in the location of the
tow point and move up to or down to the new elevation.
As a roadway is being paved without the use of
automatic grade and slope controls, the tractor unit
moves upward and downward in response to the grade
of the underlying material. The vertical movement of
the tractor translates into vertical movement of the tow
point on the side of the paver. Each time the tractor
goes over a hump or into a dip in the existing pavement
surface, the elevation of the pull point changes. This, in
turn, alters the angle of attack of the paver screed,
causing the amount of material flowing under the screed
to be decreased or increased. The fact that it takes five
times the length of the leveling arm before the screed
completely reacts to a change in the location of the tow
point allows the screed to reduce the thickness of the
asphalt mix being placed over the high places in the
existing surface and to place more mix in the low spots
on the present roadway. It is this averaging or leveling
action that forms the basis for the floating screed
principle of the asphalt paver.
When a paver is being operated manually, as in the
above examples, it is very important for the screed
operator to realize that the reaction to a change in the
setting of the thickness-control crank is not immediate.
The paver must move forward at least one leveling arm
length before 63 percent of the thickness change is
completed. If a second change is made in the setting of
the thickness-control crank before the first change is
accomplished, the first change will never be completed.
It will still take an additional five times the length of the
leveling arm for the second thickness change to be
carried out. For this reason, continual changes in the
setting of the thickness-control devices are usually
detrimental to the development of a smooth mat.
The use of automatic paver controls, discussed in the
next section, allows the paver to construct a smoother
pavement by keeping the location of the screed pull or
tow point constant relative to a predetermined reference
as the tractor unit moves up and down vertically in
response to small changes in the grade of the underlying
pavement surface. By maintaining the tow point at a
constant relationship to the predetermined reference
while the tractor moves vertically, the force on the
screed remains constant and the angle of attack of the
Page 3-31
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
screed is consistent in comparison to the reference. This
allows the screed to carry out the leveling action needed
over a longer reference length in order to reduce the
roughness of the existing surface through the application
of the new asphalt layer.
Screed Strike-offs
Depending on the make of the paver, the screed may
be equipped with a device on its front edge that is called
a strike-off by some manufacturers and a prestrike-off by
others. The purpose of this device
of this device is to control the feed
of the asphalt mix under the paver screed, thereby
regulating the amount of mix that reaches the nose of
the screed plate. Further, the strike-off or prestrike-off
is used to reduce the wear on the leading edge of the
screed . The location of the strike -off assembly is shown
in Figure 3-38.
When the strike-off is attached to the front of the
screed, its position becomes important relative to the
ability of the screed to handle the asphalt mix properly.
If the strike-off is set too high, as shown in this same
figure, extra material will be fed under the screed . This
action will cause the screed to rise. The resulting in-
crease in the mat thickness will be overcome by man-
ually reducing the angle of attack of the screed, using
the thickness-control cranks. This, in turn, will cause the
screed to pivot around its hinge point and ride on its
nose. Rapid wear of the nose plate will result . In addi-
tion, the screed will settle when the paver is stopped
between truckloads of mix because the weight of the
screed is carried only on the front part of the screed .
When the strike-off is set too low, as shown in Figure
3-38, the thickness of the lift will be reduced because of
the lack of mix being fed under the screed . In order to
maintain the proper thickness, the angle of attack of the
screed must be altered, causing the screed to ride on its
tail. This increases the wear on the back of the screed
and also causes the screed to settle whenever the paver
is stopped because of the concentration of weight of the
screed on a smaller surface area.
The exact location of the strike-off depends on the
type of paver being used and on the depth of the layer
being placed by the paver. For relatively thin layers of
pavement (1 in. thick or less) , the strike-off is usually
placed lower than when thicker lifts of mix are being
placed. Similarly, for thick lifts of asphalt pavement
(greater than 2 in.), the strike-off assembly is usually
raised slightly above the normal position. In general,
the strike-off is located in the range of 3/16 in . to 1/2 in.
above the bottom plane of the main screed plate . No
compaction of the mix occurs under the strike-off.
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Strike -off
Strike-off Positioned Properly
Rocks are Dragged
Fines Accumulate
Strike -off
Wear
Strike-off Positioned Too Low
Strike-off
Wear
Figure 3-38. Strike-off position (Cedarapids).
Screed Heaters
The screed is equipped with heaters or burners, the
primary purpose of which is to increase the temperature
of a cold bottom screed plate to approximately 300°F.
It is necessary for the screed to be at the same tempera-
ture as the asphalt material passing under it in order to
assure that the mix does not stick to the screed plate
and tear, providing a rough texture to the mat. A
properly heated screed, particularly at the start of the
day's paving operations or after any extended shutdown
of the laydown process, provides for a more uniform mat
surface texture.
To preheat the screed, the burners are normally
operated for a period of 10 to 20 min before the com-
mencement of the laydown operation. Care should be
Page 3-32
10/15/91
taken to avoid overheating , which can cause permanent
warping of the screed . Usually within 10 min after
paving begins, the temperature of the screed plate has
increased to the point at which it can generally be
maintained by the temperature of the mix passing under
it. Thus, the burners are not needed and are shut off.
The screed heaters cannot be used to increase the
temperature ofthe mix being placed because the amount
of time that the mix is actually under the screed is much
too short to accomplish any temperature rise in the mix.
In cool weather, when the plant is cold, the haul
trucks are cold, and the paver is cold, it is sometimes
advantageous to place the second or third truckload of
mix delivered to the paver first. This second or third
load of mix is typically higher in temperature than is the
first load and will serve to heat the paver more and
reduce the amount of tearing that might occur under the
screed. By placing the second or third truckload of mix
first, two warm loads of mix are laid down instead of
one cooler first load. This procedure can provide for a
more uniform surface texture of the mix when paving
must be accomplished in lower ambient temperatures.
Screed Crown Control
The screed on the paver can be angled at its center
to provide for positive or negative crown. The amount
of crown that can be introduced into the screed varies
with the width of the basic screed and with the make
and model of the equipment. The adjustment of the
crown is typically done using a turnbuckle device to flex
the bottom of the screed and impart the desired degree
ofcrown. When rigid extensions are used in conjunction
with the main or basic screed , the crown being placed in
the pavement by the paver can usually also be altered at
any of the points where the extensions are joined. If a
hydraulically extendable screed is being used with the
paver, the crown can be introduced not only in the
center of the main screed but also at the points between
the basic screed and the hydraulic extensions.
Most of the paver manufacturers recommend that
the screed be warped slightly, from front to back in the
center of the screed, to facilitate the passage of mix
under the screed and to obtain a more uniform texture
on the asphalt mat. This involves setting the lead crown
on the screed slightly greater than the tail crown on the
screed. In general, there should be more lead crown
than tail crown, but the amount of difference depends
on the make of paver and the type of screed on the
machine. Normally the lead crown setting is 1/32 in. to
3/16 in. greater than the tail crown position, with 1/8 in .
being the average difference in the crown settings.

10/15/91
Screed Vibrators
Early pavers were equipped with tamper bars that
were located on the leading edge of the paver screed .
These tamper bars were used to tuck the asphalt mix
under the screed and to provide some degree of initial
compaction to the mix as it passed under the screed.
The tamper bar system was replaced by the more effi-
cient vibratory screed system. A few of the most recent
pavers (and many pavers used in other countries) are
equipped with combination screeds--both tamper bars
and a vibratory screed . The discussion below, however,
is limited to pavers having vibratory screeds only.
The amount of compaction imparted to the asphalt
mix is a function of many variables. The properties of
the mix itself are very important; the stiffness of the mix,
the temperature of the mix, and the amount of asphalt
cement and moisture in the mix all affect the ability of
the screed to densify the mix. Two factors within the
screed itself also contribute to the degree of compaction.
The first is the frequency of vibration and the second is
the amplitude of the compactive effort.
The frequency of vibration is controlled by the rotary
speed of the vibrator shaft. Increasing the revolutions
per minute of the shaft will increase the frequency of
the vibration. The applied amplitude is determined by
the location of the eccentric weights that are located on
the shaft. The position of the eccentric weights can be
altered to increase or decrease the amount of compact-
ive effort applied to the mix by the screed , as illustrated
in Figures 3-39 and 3-40. In general, the vibrators
Figure 3-39. Screed vibrator shaft with weights (Blaw-Knox).
Page 3-33
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
should be used near the maximum possible frequency .
On screeds where it is possible to change the amplitude
of the applied vibrational force, the amplitude setting
selected is related to the thickness of the mat being
placed; lower amplitude for thinner lifts and higher
amplitude for thicker lifts.
The amount of density obtained by the paver screed
is also a function of the speed of the paver. The faster
the paver moves, the less time the screed sits over any
particular point in the new mat, and, thus, the amount
of compactive effort applied by the screed decreases.
For asphalt concrete mixes, it can be expected that
approximately 70 to 80 percent of the theoretical maxi-
mum density of the mix will be realized in the mix when
it passes out from under the paver screed.
Screed Extensions and End Plates
When the basic width of the paver screed (8 ft for
small pavers and 10 ft for the larger machines) needs to
be changed to accommodate increased paving widths,
rigid screed extensions can be employed, as seen in
Figures 3-41 and 3-42. These extensions come in several
widths, usually 6-in., 1 -ft, 2-ft, 3-ft, and 5-ft sections. In
order to keep the paver in balance, the width of the
rigid extensions added to the paver screed should be
approximately equal on both sides of the machine, if
possible.
It is important for the screed extension to be at-
tached securely to the main screed . Further, it is very
important that the extension be set at the same elevation
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1 10/15/91

MINIMUM NORMAL INCREASED MAXIMUM

Figure 3-40. Eccentric- weight positions (Blaw-Knox).

and angle as the basic screed to prevent the presence of
a transition line or ridge at the intersection of the main
screed and the extension or between different sections
of extension. Alignment of the front edge of the
extension is typically controlled independently of the
alignment of the rear edge of the extension.
Whenever a rigid screed extension is employed on
the basic paver screed , auger extensions and the accom-
panying auger tunnel extensions should also be added .
The length of all the auger and tunnel extensions should,
in general, be the same length as the added screed
extensions to allow room between the end of the auger
and the end plate of the screed. Typically the distance
between the end of the auger extension and the end
plate should be about 18 in. Further, whenever rigid
screed extensions are employed, the strike-off or pre-
strike-off assembly must also be added to the extension,
and set at the same location as the strike-off on the
main screed.
An end plate (or end gate or edger plate) is attached
to the end of the screed to restrict the outward move-
ment of the mix around the end of the screed, as shown
in Figure 3-43. The vertical alignment of the end gate
is adjustable so that mix can be bled out from under the
gate if necessary. In typical operating mode, however,
the end plate is positioned tight to the surface being
paved to retain the mix and control the width of materi-
al being placed.
Cutoff shoes can be used, if necessary, to reduce the
width of mix placed to a width that is less than the basic

Figure 3-41 . Rigid screed extensions (J. Scherocman).

Page 3-34
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

Figure 3-42. Rigid screed extensions (Blaw-Knox) .

main screed width. As illustrated in Figure 3-44, the longitudinal mark or ridge will occur in the surface of
standard cutoff shoes are attached to the paver end gate the mix at the junction between the two screeds. This
and are employed to restrict the width of mix being laid mark can easily be eliminated by adjusting the elevation
between the end plates. Typically the cutoff shoes come of the extendable screed in relation to the main screed .
in widths of 1 ft or 2 ft, and are adjustable in increments In addition to the longitudinal mark, a mismatch in the
of 1 1/2 in. or 3 in . , depending on the manufacturer. elevation between the two screeds can also result in a
possible difference in surface texture in the mix behind
Hydraulically Extendable Screeds the extended screed and the main screed . Finally, the
Most paver manufacturers have developed hydrauli- lack of proper alignment between the two screeds can
cally extendable paver screeds that trail the primary or cause a difference in the degree of compaction that is
basic screed on the paver. One make of pavers, howev- obtained in the mix under the extendable screed.
er, is equipped with a power extendable screed that If a hydraulically extendable screed is to be used at
places the extendable portion of the screed in front of a fixed extended width for a period of time, the paver
the main screed. An example of each type of extendable should be equipped with auger extensions equal to the
screed is shown in Figures 3-45 and 3-46.
For all hydraulically extendable screeds, it is very
important that the angle of attack for the extendable
screeds (one on each side of the main screed) is the
same as the basic screed (see Figure 3-47). On some
makes and models of pavers, it may be necessary for the
trailing (rear) screeds to have a slightly positive attack
angle compared with the main screed. In general ,
however, the forces that act on the extendable screed
are similar to those that are present on the main paver
screed. Further, if a strike-off assembly is used on the
main screed, similar strike -off devices should be used on
the extendable screed sections.
If the extensions on the extendable portion of the
screed are not properly aligned with the main screed, a Figure 3-43. End plate (Blaw-Knox).

Page 3-35
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1 10/15/91

SCREED FRAME
SCREED DEPTH CRANKS

PRE - STRIKE OFF SHIELD

VIBRATORS-
EDGER PLATE

BEVEL EDGER

SCREED HEATERS

SCREED PLATE

CENTER CROWN STATION

CUT-OFF SHOE

Figure 3-44. Screed components (Blaw-Knox).

width of the extended screed (and ending approximately
18 in. from the end plate) . The use of the auger exten-
sions will enhance the distribution of the asphalt mix
across the width being paved and help keep a constant
head of material pushing on the whole width of the
screed. Further, auger tunnel extensions should also be
added to the paver.
If a hydraulically extendable screed is to be employed
at variable widths with the width being paved changing
frequently, some paver manufacturers recommend that
the machinery be equipped with kick out paddles or
augers at the end of the main auger. This particular
device helps push the mix out to the end of the extend-
able screed and keeps the head of material in front of

SERIES

BARBER - GREENE
35-9004

Figure 3-45. Rear- mounted extendable screed (J. Scherocman) .

Page 3-36
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

Figure 3-46. Front- mounted extendable screed (J. Scherocman) .

TURN CW TURN CCW

TO RAISE TO LOWER

Clamping Hdwr .

No Adjustment is Necessary.
Factory Set.
Strike - Off

" Ext . Main

Ground Line

Set Strike - Off ¼ " (.6cm) Above Main Sceed .

Set Screed Extensions ¼ " ( .6cm ) Below Main Screed .

Figure 3-47. Angle of attack on extendable screed (Blaw-Knox).

the screed as constant as possible . Some pavers may be
equipped with augers that extend automatically as the
screed is extended. For either of these procedures, the
material feed sensors should be mounted on the end
gate of the screed to assure that an adequate amount of
material is delivered to the outside edge of the screed .
MIX PLACEMENT TECHNIQUES
When standing next to an asphalt paver, there are
several key operating techniques that should be observed
to determine whether the paver is operating properly.
Those items are:
If the mix is being delivered by a haul truck that

Page 3-37
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
dumps mix directly into the paver hopper, the truck
should stop short of the paver. The paver should be
moving forward when it comes in contact with the truck;
the paver should pick up the truck instead of the truck
backing into the paver. This procedure will eliminate
indentations of the screed in the mix if the truck were to
hit the paver.
• Before the tailgate on the haul truck is opened to
deliver mix to the paver hopper, the truck bed should
slowly be raised in the air until the mix in the truck bed
begins to slide against the tailgate. This procedure will
allow the mix to flood the paver hopper when the tail-
gate is opened and will reduce the amount of segrega-
tion that appears behind the screed . If the tailgate-
opening lever cannot be reached when the truck bed is
raised, it should be modified to allow for operation from
ground level when the bed is raised .
If a windrow elevator is used to gather mix from
a windrow on the roadway and deliver the mix to the
paver hopper, the slat conveyor should pick up all of the
mix that is in the windrow without leaving any mix on
the existing surface .
• The windrow should be sized so that the hopper
on the paver is from 25 percent to 75 percent full . The
paver hopper should contain enough mix so that the slat
conveyors are not visible on the bottom of the hopper,
and the hopper should not be so full that mix runs out
the front of the hopper.
• When a truck has completed delivery of mix and
pulls away from the paver, the paver should be stopped
as quickly and smoothly as possible without jerking the
paver. Enough mix should remain in the paver hopper
to be at least at the level of the bottom of the flow
gates. In no case should the hopper be emptied to the
point that the slat conveyors at the bottom of the hop-
per are visible. The slat conveyors also should not be
visible when a windrow elevator or a material transfer
device is used to deliver mix to the paver hopper.
When the paver is stopped to allow the next
truckload of mix to move into position, the wings on the
paver can be folded, but only when necessary to prevent
buildup of cold mix in the hopper corners. The wings
should not repeatedly be banged as they are emptied .
The wings should be dumped into a relatively full paver
hopper; the slat conveyors should not be visible at the
time the wings are emptied. Dumping the wings into a
relatively full hopper may result in some mix spilling out
of the front of the hopper; rubber flaps should be used
to contain as much mix as possible.
Once the new truckload of mix has begun to be
emptied into the half-full hopper, the paver should be
Page 3-38
10/15/91
brought up to paving speed as quickly as feasible and
operated at a constant speed in proportion to the
amount of mix being delivered from the plant. This will
keep the head of material in front of the screed as
constant as possible.
• The paver should not be operated at a slow speed
while the truck exchange is being completed . When the
paver continues to move forward while one truck is
leaving and the second truck is moving into position, the
amount of mix in the hopper will be drawn down, possi-
bly to the point that the hopper is emptied. This proce-
dure will cause the amount of mix at the augers to be
reduced, in turn also causing the screed to fall and the
thickness of the mat to decrease. The reduction in the
speed of the paver, from normal paving speed to crawl
speed between truckloads, will also change the forces
acting on the screed, further altering the thickness ofthe
asphalt layer. In addition, when the newly delivered mix
is emptied into the hopper and is pulled back to the
augers by the slat conveyors, the large amount of mix
(head of material) against the screed will cause the
screed to rise, increasing the thickness of the mat.
Thus, slowing the paver between truckloads of mix while
emptying the hopper causes significant changes in the
forces acting on the screed and accompanying changes
in the thickness of the layer being constructed .
• The flow gates on each side of the machine on
the back of the paver hopper should be set at a height
to permit the slat conveyor and corresponding auger to
operate as close to 100 percent of the time as possible.
The key to a smooth layer of mix is a constant head of
material in front of the screed . The key to a constant
head of material is a constant paver speed and continu-
ous operation of the paver augers, with a good rule of
thumb being that the amount of material in front of the
screed should be located near the center of the auger
shaft.
• Ifthe paver is equipped with automatic flow-con-
trol devices, the flow- control equipment should be set at
a location near the end plate in order to maintain a
constant head of mix in front of the screed by causing
the auger to run continuously. The location of the
device is important to prevent too much or too little mix
from being carried at the outside edge of the screed .
• Ifthe paver screed is being operated under manu-
al control, the screed operator should not change the
angle of attack of the screed by turning the thickness-
control cranks except to increase or decrease the thick-
ness of layer being placed. After the controls are
turned , it takes five times the length of the tow arm on
the paver before the screed completes the input change
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

in thickness. If the paver is being operated under
automatic grade and slope control, the screed operator
should not attempt to change the angle of attack of the
screed by turning the thickness-control cranks . The
automatic controls, if they are mounted in the proper
position, will simply correct any changes made in the
angle of attack of the screed by changing the position of
the tow point where the screed is attached to the tractor
in order to reestablish the original angle of the screed.

Page 3-39
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
SECTION FOUR
AUTOMATIC SCREED CONTROLS
INTRODUCTION
The screed unit on the paver is attached to the
tractor unit at only one point on each side of the paver:
the pull or tow point. As the tractor follows the grade
of the existing pavement surface with the rubber tires or
crawler tracks, the length of the wheelbase of the paver
becomes the reference for the screed. Because of the
reaction time of the screed, as discussed in the previous
section, the screed will react more slowly to changes in
grade than will the tractor. Thus, under manual screed
control, the screed will average out deviations in the
roughness of the present pavement layer, placing more
mix in the low spots and less mix over the high points in
the underlying pavement .
Automatic screed controls are employed to keep the
elevation of the tow points on the paver at a more
constant elevation relative to the reference being used.
Deviations in the pavement surface are averaged out
over the length of the reference (either a preset string-
line or a long mobile ski) . As the tractor unit moves up
and down over the existing grade, the elevation of the
tow point moves over a smaller range of elevations than
if the relatively short wheelbase of the tractor provided
the reference . Keeping the elevation of the tow points
constant permits the screed to maintain a more consis-
tent angle of attack. This provides for a smoother mat
behind the screed.
Many factors, however, affect the smoothness of the
mix placed by the paver. The use of automatic screed
controls by themselves will not necessarily assure that
the mat constructed will always be smooth. Proper
attention to the operation of the paver, as discussed in
the previous section, is extremely important is obtaining
a smooth-riding pavement layer.
If the paver always moved over a level grade, the
forces on the screed would be constant as long as the
paver was moving at a constant speed. The towing force
on the screed would be stable and the head of material
in front of the screed would be consistent as long as the
feed-control system was set to operate as much of the
time (close to 100 percent) as possible. Under these
conditions, a very smooth asphalt mat could be ob-
tained from behind the paver without a screed operator
ever changing the setting of the thickness-control cranks
on the back of the screed. Indeed, once the angle of
attack of the screed is set when the paver starts up in
Page 3-40
10/15/91
the morning, no changes would ever need to be made to
the setting of the thickness-control handles.
In the real world, however, the tractor unit operates
on a grade that is variable. As the elevation of the
existing surface moves up and down, the wheelbase of
the tractor unit (either crawler or rubber tire) follows
that grade. This vertical movement of the tractor as it
moves forward causes the elevation of the tow or pull
point on the tractor to change in direct relation to the
movement of the tractor unit. As the location of the
tow point is altered by the movement of the tractor, the
angle of attack of the screed is changed.
If the elevation of the pull point is raised, the screed
will be rotated upward at a ratio of 1 :8 compared with
the change in elevation of the tow point. As the paver
moves forward a distance equal to at least five times the
length of the leveling arm on the machine, the screed
will float up to the new elevation and the asphalt mat
will be thicker. If the tractor unit moves into a dip in
the existing pavement surface, the elevation of the tow
point will be lowered, reducing the angle of attack of the
screed. If no other changes are made in the forces
acting on the screed, the screed will move downward as
the paver travels forward, lessening the thickness of the
layer being placed .
The self-leveling action of the screed takes place
continuously as the tractor unit travels over the roadway.
The reaction of the screed to the location of the tow
point, the speed of the tractor, and the head of material
in the auger chamber determine the thickness of the mat
being laid. This whole operation occurs without the
thickness-control cranks on the screed ever being
changed . The floating screed principle permits the
paver to reduce the thickness of the mix placed on high
points in the existing pavement surface and increase the
depth of the material deposited in the low spots on the
same surface .
If the thickness-control cranks or handles are turned
by the screed operator, the screed will react to the
change in setting (change its angle of attack) by rotating
around the hinge or pivot point where it is attached to
the leveling arm and thus to the tow point of the screed .
As the paver moves forward , the screed will float up to
or down to the new elevation. Similar to the change in
elevation of the tow point on the leveling arm, however,
the paver must travel forward a distance of at least five

10/15/91
lengths of the leveling arm before the change in the
depth of the mat is fully realized .
On many projects, particularly those involving the
resurfacing of an existing pavement, the screed operator
is forced by the job specifications to maintain a certain
yield of asphalt mix per square yard or per station. It is
not uncommon to watch a screed operator continually
check the thickness of the mat being placed by the paver
and then adjust the setting of the thickness-control
cranks to increase or decrease the amount of mix being
placed . This change in the setting of the thickness-
control system is done without regard to the changes
being made at the same time to the screed as the
elevation of the tow point changes while the tractor unit
moves forward over the variable grade.
Two inputs, then, are being introduced into the self-
leveling system at the same time. The first input the
vertical movement of the tow point of the screed, which
reacts to changes in the movement of the wheelbase of
the paver. The second input is the manual changing of
the thickness-control cranks by the screed operator. The
input from the movement of the tow point and the input
from the change in setting of the thickness-control
device may be in the same direction as one another or
they may be opposite to one another, even canceling
each other out.
Under manual screed operation, the ability of the
screed operator to produce a consistently smooth asphalt
layer is dependent on a number of factors. The first is
the frequency at which the operator feels the need to
adjust the setting of the thickness-control cranks: The
more the screed operator changes the angle of attack of
the screed, the more uneven the resulting asphalt pave-
ment will be. The second factor is the roughness of the
existing pavement surface : The more the screed operator
tries to assist the self-leveling action of the screed, the
rougher the resulting pavement surface will be.
The third factor is the need to meet a certain maxi-
mum yield specification . It is usually not possible,
particularly for thin courses, to produce a smooth pave-
ment layer and stay within a certain volume of material
usage at the same time. This is particularly true if a
minimum overlay thickness is specified at the same time
as the yield criteria are to be met. This problem is
discussed later in this section.
The fourth factor is related to the need of the screed
operator to match the elevation of the longitudinal joint
in the adjacent lane. As paving speeds have increased
because of greater plant production rates, it has become
more difficult manually to maintain the level of the new
mat relative to the adjacent mat.
Page 3-41
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Finally, when it is desired to produce a constant
cross-slope across the width of the lane being paved,
automatic grade and slope devices can be employed to
control the elevation of the tow points of the screed on
both sides of the paver at the same time. This is very
difficult to do manually, even with two very experienced
screed operators. Grade control can be used on both
sides of the machine, or, more commonly, on one side
of the paver, with slope control used on the other side.
AUTOMATIC SCREED CONTROLS
The primary purpose of automatic screed controls is
to produce a smoother asphalt pavement layer; smoother
than the paver can accomplish by itself and smoother
than a screed operator can accomplish by continually
changing the setting of the thickness-control cranks.
The automatic screed control functions by maintain-
ing the elevation of the screed tow points in relation to
a reference other than that of the wheelbase of the
paver itself. Figure 3-48 illustrates the automatic grade
and slope control system for one particular make of
paver.
The elevation of the tow point is kept at a constant
elevation in relation to a given grade reference. The
automatic system does not permit the relative position
of the tow or pull point to change even though the
tractor unit is moving up and down vertically in response
to the roughness of the surface over which it is traveling.
Thus, by maintaining the tow point at a constant eleva-
tion, the angle of attack of the screed is also maintained
at a constant setting. This allows the screed to ride at
a consistent angle, permitting the screed to do an even
better job of reducing the quantity of mix placed over
the high spots in the existing pavement surface and
increasing the amount of mix laid in the low spots. The
principles of the automatic screed control system are
shown in Figure 3-49.
Before the automatic screed control is engaged, the
screed should be nulled (angle of attack set in flat
position) before paving starts and the proper angle of
attack should be set for the screed.
If automatic controls are being used on the paver,
the screed operator should not try to change the angle
of attack of the screed manually by turning the thick-
ness-control cranks. If this is done while the machine is
moving, the automatic grade and slope controls will
attempt to compensate for the manual input by changing
the elevation of the tow point. Manual input will be
needed , however, if the tow point actuator has reached
the limit of its travel--the tow point hydraulic ram is at
its upper or lower limit. In this case the paver should be
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
10/15/91

HOW THE SYSTEM WORKS
The grade control unit sensor
follows an erected stringline,
mobile reference, adjacent mat or
other suitable reference and
controls the edge of the screed on
the side of the paver on which it is
operating. The other side of the
machine can be controlled manually
through the thickness control
screws, by another grade controller
sensing to a reference or by a
slope controller.
Since the system is " nulled out"
or "zeroed in" before startup, the
desired relationship is maintained
by the hydraulic cylinder at the tow
point on the grade controller side.
As corrections are required to keep
the screed on grade, the tow point
is automatically adjusted to
compensate for variations.
Once properly set, the slope
controller accurately maintains
slope automatically across the full
width of the screed ( % " [3.18
mm] in 24' [7.32 m] ) . Any deviation
from slope is sensed bythe
controller and the appropriate
correction is made at the tow point.
Like the grade controller, the slope
control is a proportional unit. A
remote set dial allows the screed
operator to change slope while the
machine is paving as required by
job specifications.

HYDRAULIC RAM

TOW POINT LEVELING ARM

HYDRAULIC RAM

H
.

TOW POINT TRANSVERSE BEAM

LEVELING ARM GRADE REFERENCE

GRADE CONTROLLER

SLOPE CONTROLLER

Figure 3-48. Automatic grade and slope control (Barber-Greene).

stopped and the tow arm reset at the centerpoint of its
travel. The screed should be nulled, the proper angle of
attack input to the screed, and paving restarted again.
In addition, when a superelevated curve is being
paved that requires a change from the existing cross-
slope, it is necessary to run the grade sensor on one side
of the paver automatically and the slope sensor on the
other side of the paver manually. This process will
permit changes to be made in the amount of super-
elevation and provide the required degree of cross-slope.

Page 3-42
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

laydown machine. When a grade reference is used in

Pull Point Rises
Screed Angle conjunction with a slope-control device, the grade sensor
Cylinder Extends to
Remains Unchanged Compensate is typically positioned on the centerline side of the
paver, with the slope controller determining the depth of
the mat on the outside edge of the pavement.

Erected Stringline
Adjusted Thickness
Theoretically, the use of an erected stringline, shown
in Figure 3-50, should allow for the smoothest possible
Travel asphalt mat behind the paver screed. This method of
Screed Angle
for Level Paving supplying an elevation input provides the most consistent
reference for the paver tow point. Thus, its principal
advantage is that a predetermined grade can be matched
very accurately if the controls are used properly.
Laser technology has been used successfully on a
number of paving projects. Additional care must be
exercised when using this equipment.
Travel Screed Angle Practically, however, the use of the erected stringline
Pull Point Drops
Remains Unchanged Cylinder Retracts has a number of drawbacks that may offset the theoreti-
to Compensate cal increase in smoothness obtained by its use. The
elevation of the erected stringline must be set by a

Adjusted Thickness

Travel

Figure 3-49. Principle of automatic screed control

(Cedarapids).

GRADE CONTROL
Types of Grade References
Grade sensors are used to monitor the elevation of
the existing pavement surface in a longitudinal direction .
There are three basic types of grade references that can
be employed to maintain the elevation of the screed tow
point: (a) the erected stringline, (b) the mobile refer-
ence, and (c) the joint matching shoe.
Each type of grade control can be used alone on
either side of the paver. Grade sensors can also be
employed on both sides of the paver at the same time.
This use ofthe references will average out the variations
in the grade of the existing pavement surface on both
sides of the lane being paved . The same type of grade
reference can be used on both sides of the machine or
a different type of grade reference can be mounted on
each side of the paver; a preset stringline on one side
and a mobile reference on the other side, for example.
Use of double grade references generally will not
produce a uniform cross-slope for the new asphalt layer
Figure 3-50. Erected stringline reference (Barber-
except if a preset stringline is used on both sides of the
Greene).

Page 3-43
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
surveying crew. The accuracy of the elevation of the
line and resulting pavement smoothness is directly
dependent on the care taken in its erection . If the grade
set by the surveyors is incorrect in any way, the paver
screed will duplicate that error in the pavement surface.
On horizontal curves, it is very difficult to use an erected
stringline to control the grade of the new pavement
layer. The string cannot be set in a curve, and therefore
a series of chords must be used around the radius of the
curve. This, in turn, requires the positioning of a large
number of support posts and rods, usually at 5-to-20 -ft
intervals, around the curve . The surveying done to set
the stringline must be accurate in order to prevent a
misalignment of string and the setting of the wrong
grade reference for the paver.
The stringline must be very taut when it is set.
Typically, the string is supported at 25-ft intervals on
metal posts and rods. The string is anchored at one end
of its length and then pulled tight and anchored at its
other end. It is extremely important that the string be
stretched very taut, without any dips or sags in the line
between the support rods. If the string is not stretched
tightly, the sensor wand on the paver, which can run
either on the top or below the stringline, will react to
the sags in the line and duplicate those sags in the new
pavement surface. Even when high-strength line (great-
er than 100 lb tensile strength) is used, it is not always
possible to keep the line tight enough to prevent some
small sags from occurring between the support posts.
Another disadvantage of the erected stringline is the
fact that the haul trucks and all paving personnel must
keep away from the line and not disturb it in any way.
Once the line is set at the proper elevation, it is imper-
ative that the line remain untouched both before and
after the paver sensor passes over the line. Any change
in the elevation of the line caused by someone hitting
the line or a truck backing into the line will result in a
change in the input to the grade sensor and movement
of the pull point on the paver leveling arm.
With a properly set and maintained stringline , the
mat placed by a paver equipped with automatic screed
controls can be very smooth and at the correct elevation.
This is primarily because of the extended length of the
reference being used compared to the more limited
length of a mobile reference. Unless smoothness, or
compliance with a predetermined grade reference, is an
extremely important criterion on a paving project,
however, it is questionable that the added price of
erecting and maintaining the stringline is cost -effective
for the typical hot-mix asphalt highway-paving job.
Thus, for the vast majority of the highway-paving pro-
Page 3-44
10/15/91
jects, an erected stringline is not used . For airport
runway paving, however, the use of a stringline may be
cost-effective in providing a smooth-riding pavement,
proper lateral drainage, and the correct elevation of the
overlay in relation to abutting pavement structures.
Mobile References
Different paver manufacturers use different types of
mobile reference devices to extend the relative wheel-
base for the automatic screed-control system . The
operation of these reference systems, however, is essen-
tially the same. The purpose of the mobile reference is
to average the deviations in the existing pavement
surface out over a distance that is greater than the
wheelbase of the tractor unit itself.
One paver manufacturer offers two different versions
of a mobile reference or ski. They both employ a
semirigid tubular grade reference (pipe) that is 20, 30, or
40 ft in length, as seen in Figure 3-51 . For one version,
the pipe or tube rides directly on the existing pavement
surface. A spring-loaded wire is stretched between the
quarter points of the ski, on top of the pipe . The grade
sensor that inputs the electrical signal to the paver tow
point rides on top of the wire. As the pipe moves up
and down (and flexes) over the existing grade, the
stretched wire on the ski is used to average out the
differences in elevation that occur under the mobile
reference .
The second variation employs the same semi-rigid
tubular grade reference pipe with the spring-loaded wire,
but it is equipped with numerous spring-loaded wheel
assemblies attached to the pipe at 2 1 /2-ft intervals .
This version is similar to a floating beam.
Another paver manufacturer provides a different type
of mobile reference, termed a floating beam. A series
of feet or shoes are attached to the bottom of the
floating beam, as shown in Figure 3-52 . The purpose of
the shoes is to allow one or more of the feet to pass
over a singular high or low point in the existing pave-
ment surface without altering the slope of the whole
beam. The feet are spring loaded (see Figure 3-53) to
allow them to be deflected by a large stone on the
pavement surface, for example, without pushing the
whole beam upward . The grade sensor usually rides
directly on the beam at its midpoint. As with the other
types of mobile references, this floating-beam system
averages out the variation of the existing grade over a
30- or 40-ft distance.
A third paver distributor also supplies a floating-
beam type of mobile reference system. The beam is
normally 30 or 40 ft in length. Instead of multiple feet

10/15/91
CR541
Figure 3-51 . Tubular grade reference (Cedarapids).
spread out along the length of the beam, however, a
series of shoes is placed at each end of the beam (Figure
3-54). These shoes are allowed to rotate and can be
individually displaced by isolated disruptions in the
existing pavement surface without changing the height of
the whole beam. This allows the beam to average the
grade of that surface over the length of the reference
without being influenced by the presence of a single high
point or dip in that surface . As for the other mobile
reference systems, the grade sensor is located in the
center of the length of the beam .
Figure 3-52. Floating- beam grade reference (J. Scherocman) .
Page 3-45
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Cedaranids
Of the three types of mobile reference devices de-
scribed above, the floating-beam type reference that uses
multiple feet or shoes typically results in a smoother
pavement compared with the mat placed with the rigid
tubular grade-control device . The beam will typically
provide a reference for the paver that will ignore
isolated deviations in grade (a rock on the roadway) and
provide a smoother layer behind the paver. Further, the
longer the grade reference used, within reason, the
better the paver will average out variations in the
elevation of the existing pavement surface . A mobile
BLAN-KNOK
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1 10/15/91

Figure 3-53. Spring-loaded shoe on mobile grade reference (J. Scherocman) .

reference will not, however, assure that the mix being .

placed will be at the proper elevation; the elevation is
controlled by the elevation of the underlying pavement
surface.
As shown in Figure 3-55, one paver manufacturer has
produced a mobile reference ski that is 55 ft in length
from front to back. Part of the reference beam is
located in front of the paver screed . This is basically a
floating-beam-type system, equipped with a series of
spring-loaded shoes. This portion of the reference
system senses the grade of the existing pavement surface .
To the rear of the screed, riding on a series of spring-
loaded wheels, is another floating beam that is used to
reference the grade of the newly placed asphalt mix. A
set of intermediate bridge beams, which go up and over
the screed , are used to join the two parts of the floating
beam together. The grade sensor rides on one of the
intermediate bridge beams and transmits the average
grade of the front and back beam to the paver tow point
to control its elevation. This device may not be practi-

G-260B

Figure 3-54. Different make of mobile grade reference (J. Scherocman).

Page 3-46

10/15/91
Figure 3-55. Over the screed mobile grade reference (J. Scherocman).
cal, however, in hilly terrain or on a pavement that
has a great number of vertical curves.
Joint Matching Shoe
The third type of reference is the joint matching
shoe, which is shown in Figure 3-56. This device con-
sists of a short (approximately 1 -ft-long) shoe or ski that
is used to reference the grade of an adjacent piece of
pavement or curb. This type of mobile reference is used
only when the grade being sensed is relatively smooth.
The shoe rotates around its own pivot point and supplies
an input signal to the paver tow point when the shoe or
ski is displaced (see Figure 3-57) . The shoe should be
checked to assure that it is free to rotate properly.
Figure 3-56. Joint matching shoe grade reference
(Blaw-Knox).
Page 3-47
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
179
ROSE
Because of its short length, the joint matching shoe
will not remove any major variations that occur in the
pavement surface. Indeed, the purpose of the shoe is to
duplicate the grade of the adjacent surface . This grade-
control device should be used with caution because
pebbles, rocks, and other obstructions over which the
shoe might ride will input grade changes into the screed
tow point. When placing the second lane of a base
course or a binder course layer, it may be better to use
a longer mobile reference (a 30-ft-long ski) instead of
the joint matching shoe. The mobile reference will
provide the input needed to construct a smoother
pavement surface than will the joint matching shoe. For
the surface course layer, however, the joint matching
shoe may be used to assure that the elevation of the mix
on both sides of the longitudinal joint is the same,
although the use of a longer mobile reference is still
better paving practice.
Figure 3-57. Joint matching shoe (Barber-Greene).
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Location of the Grade Reference
Different paver manufacturers have different recom-
mendations for the placement of the grade reference-
control sensors. Occasionally the grade sensor will be
mounted adjacent to the tow point on the paver (Posi-
tion 1 ), as seen in Figure 3-58. As also shown in this
figure, the grade sensor is sometimes located at various
positions (Positions 2 and 3) on the leveling arm. This
side-mounting position typically is recommended when
it is desired to correct long vertical deviations in the
present pavement surface. When located on the leveling
arm, the reaction time to changes in grade is short and
the angle of attack of the screed is altered quickly. On
some occasions, and particularly for wide-width paving,
the grade sensor is mounted near or on the paver screed
(Position 4) . To function properly, the grade sensor
must be located in front of the pivot or hinge point of
the screed .
The location of the grade sensor makes a difference
in the reaction of the tow point and the screed to the
.
grade being sensed . There is no set rule that can be
followed, however, as to the proper location to place the
grade sensor. It is recommended, therefore, that the
paver manufacturer's suggestions be followed for the
particular make and model of paver being used. If no
information is available about the suggested location for
the sensor for a particular paving operation, it is recom-
mended that the sensor be hung on the leveling arm, at
a point between one-third and two-thirds of the length
of the arm between the tow point and the screed.
The operation of the grade-control sensor should be
checked regularly. The sensor wand should be lifted
1/32 in. when the machine is stopped and the movement
of the tow point observed. Input to the sensor should
result in a corresponding movement of the tow point.
When the paver is moving, the up and down lights on
the grade sensor should either blink occasionally or blink
constantly but change in intensity, both top and bottom ,
to indicate that a signal is being sent to the tow point
actuator. If the grade sensor uses a meter instead of
lights, the reading on the meter should change when the
sensor wand is moved as well as when the paver is
placing mix on the roadway. In addition, the elevation
of the tow point should change occasionally, depending
on the amount of roughness of the existing pavement
surface, in order for the angle of attack of the screed to
remain constant as the tractor unit follows the underly-
ing pavement grade. The change in elevation, however,
should be smooth; the screed should not be moving up
and down rapidly and constantly.
Page 3-48
10/15/91
SLOPE CONTROL
In most cases, paving that is done with automatic
screed controls is accomplished with a combination of
grade control on one side of the paver and slope control
to determine the grade on the other side of the ma-
chine. The slope control operates through a slope
sensor that is located on a cross-beam between the two
side arms of the screed . One side of the paver screed is
controlled by the grade sensor. The other side of the
screed is controlled by the slope controller, as shown in
Figure 3-48.
When slope control is used, the thickness of the mat
on the side of the machine (usually the outside edge of
the roadway) that is controlled by the slope sensor could
be variable in depth, depending on the condition of the
existing pavement surface. The desired degree of cross-
slope, shown in Figure 3-59, is dialed in to the slope
controller, seen in Figure 3-60 . This cross-slope is then
regulated by a pendulum-type device that is part of the
slope -control system. Without regard to the grade of
the existing pavement, the slope controller maintains a
constant cross-slope regardless of the resulting thickness
of the asphalt layer placed. If there is a high point in
the present pavement surface, the slope controller will
place less material over that location . If there is a low
point in the existing pavement, the slope controller will
allow the screed to deposit more mix in that location.
For a wide pavement, such as an airport runway, it is
good practice to check the slope of the outside edge of
the mix being placed after two passes of the paver in the
longitudinal direction. If the slope is not set properly or
the slope sensor setting is changed accidentally, it is
possible to compound the error in the slope setting all
the way across the pavement. This can result in a very
thick or a very thin layer of mix on the edge of the
runway, unless proper monitoring is completed regularly
during the paving operation. Thus, the use of one or
more stringlines across a wide pavement may be benefi-
cial in providing the proper cross-slope .
YIELD , MINIMUM THICKNESS, AND SCREED
CONTROLS
The paving specifications for hot- mix asphalt overlay
projects are written in a variety of ways. In some cases,
the specifications call for a minimum thickness of mix to
be placed. For this type of requirement, in order for the
minimum thickness specification to be met at all points
in the pavement layer, it is usually necessary for the
paver to place a mat thickness that is greater than the
minimum depth required in the contract. The amount
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

BLAW-KNOX
PF-500 PAVER

4
CA

3
2

Choo

BLAW-KNOX BLAW- KNOX

PF 180H PAVER PF 100H PAVER

Figure 3-58. Mounting position for grade sensor (Blaw-Knox).

Page 3-49
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1 10/15/91

Inches Per Foot Inches Inches Inches Inches Inches Inches Inches Inches Inches Inches Inches
Percent Per Per Per Per Per Per
Slope Actual Approx. Per Per Per Per Per
Decimal Fraction 10' 11' 12' 13' 14' 15' 16' 17' 18' 19' 20'
0.10% .012 & 4/8 18 + + } 32 32
0.18% .015 A $ + À A 32 3z 14 4 +
0.20% .024 1/4 1/4 & 31 % % 32 18 30 35
0.26% .031 17 f 11 % 32 18 32 3/2 13 ጸ 12 %
0.80% .036 A 8/3 32 to 1/2 33 f 5% 31 11 32
0.40% .048 डी 3/6 17 ₤ 5% 32 H 18 /
% 32
0.50% .060 to 11 # 32 38 31 38 3 13 1 18 1
0.52% .062 to 5% 4 34 18 7/8 18 1 1 18 1 114
0.60% .072 & 32 H %
/ 18 1 1 132 12 1 1% 1

1128
0.78% .093 18 132 11/8 137 1% 132 11/2 132 111 139 1%
0.80% .096 $ 31 18 1 114 144 17 % 117 15% 132 118 132
112
112

1.0% .120 3/8 1 1 17% 18 178 112 139/20 2 2 2 211

1.5% .180 Å 178 14 23/ 211 211 21 2% 3TH 314 311 811
2% .240 1/4 27% 25 % 2% 38 3% 31319/20 337 432 4fo 4 438
8% .360 % 35 % 331/12/20 4fo 41 53 5H 54 618 614 631 71%
4% .480 H 41 53/2 54 614 611 7% 71* 8 8% 9% 912
5% .600 H 6 6313/12/20 71% 718 811 9 9/19/200 10 101 1132 12
6% .720 H 7 731 85% 938 102 1013 1111 1214 12 1311 144
7% .840 81 914 10,33 103/ 1134 12/31/1/1/20 131% 143/2 1518 1531 161
8% .960 # 9109/90 10f 1111 121/1/20 13178 142191 1538 16 17/2 1814 19
9% 1.08 1 1011 11 % 12 1432 15 % 16 17 / 188 19 2011/1 21H
10% 1.20 1 12 131 14332 1531/20 16 18 19f 2011 2131/9/20 2213 24
11% 1.32 1f 138 1411 1533 17/2 18192 1912 21 % 221 2334 25 261
12% 1.44 18 144 1531/12/2 17 1833 2032 211/ /
9 2332 2411 25392 2738 281

Inches Per Foot Inches Inches Inches Inches Inches Inches Inches
Percent Inches Inches Inches
Actual Approx. Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Per
Slope 21' 22' 23' 24' 25' 26' 27' 28' 29' 30'
Decimal Fraction
0.10% .012 A 1/4 1/4 ਹੰਝ ਲੰਨ f fo H H 38
0.13% .015 B + H H 3/8 3/8 H 18 TH H
0.20% .024 1/2 # f P H 5/8 H 18 11 #
0.26% .031 32 H ** 32 3/4 H 축구 7/8 12
0.30% .036 & 3/4 H 18 8 39983 12 H 1 14 1
0.40% .048 # 11 1 13 1ਨ 1YA 114 13/2 TH 112 17%
0.50% .060 to 114 1% 138 1 11/2 116 158 118 134 118
0.52% .062 + 1 18 17180 11/2 1 18 172 13/4 1a 1%
122

0.60% .072 & 11/2 14 1H 13 112 1% 112 22 2 2

0.78% .093 + 1吋 218 2ਲ 214 211 218 211 28 231 218
0.80% .096 + 23/12 218 2 2FF 243 212 219190 21 24 2%
1.0% .120 18 211 2% 234 2% 3 318 314 338 312 3%
1.5% .180 f 311 31/1 418 4f 412 411 48 512 57 543
2% 240 14 53% 5 511 534 6 614 613 63 6吋 7t
3% .360 3/8 71 % 718 8 85 % 9 938 933 10秒 10 1011
4% .480 1/2 10 10 11 1147 12 12/2 12 1318 1318 14
5% .600 H 121 13 / 1318 1432 15 15310/9/20 16 161 17121 18
6% .720 H 15 % 1537 16f 17 18 18332 19 2013/2 20 % 21H
7% .840 H 17 % 18 号 19f 20 / 21 213 2211 2311 248 25
8% .960 H 20 21 % 22 23 24 24곡초 2531 268 2711 2813
9% 1.08 14 221 2334 2431 2531 27 28 29 3014 31 3211
10% 1.20 1A 25 261 271 281 30 31f 321 3311 3418 36
11% 1.32 1 2711 29 30 % 31 33 34f 35 % 3631 383/9/2 3911
12% 1.44 17 3014 311 33 % 34 36 377 / 38 % 40 4134 43f

All figures shown in feet are measured horizontally.

All figures shown in inches are measured vertically and are accurate to within inch.

Figure 3-59. Slope conversion table (Cedarapids).

Page 3-50

10/15/91
LEFT SIDE CHONY SIDE
SLOPE CONTROL
SLOPE
PERCENT SLOPE
CONTROL STATION
1 MANUAL
JOG MONITOR
MONI
AUTOMATIC
Figure 3-60 Slope-control device (Blaw-Knox).
of extra thickness depends on the roughness of the
existing pavement: The more uneven the pavement being
paved, the greater will be the volume of mix needed to
assure compliance with the minimum thickness require-
ment.
As an example of this type of specification, if the
existing pavement is relatively uneven, and if a minimum
asphalt concrete overlay thickness of 1 in. is required,
the paver thickness-control system would need to be set
so as to place an average depth of uncompacted layer of
asphalt concrete of approximately 1 1/2 in. This means
that the angle of attack of the screed would have to be
positioned so that the average thickness placed would
assure that the minimum depth of mix was laid over all
the high spots in the pavement surface.
The second type of specification calls for the place-
ment of a given amount of mix, in terms of pounds of
mix per square yard, over the pavement surface area. In
this case, the thickness requirement is an average depth,
not a minimum depth. If the specifications for a project
called for the placement of 110 lb of mix/yd² (approxi-
mately 1 in. of compacted thickness for an asphalt
concrete mixture), the angle of attack of the paver
screed would not have to be set at as great an angle in
order to place the mix an average depth of 1 in . (com-
pacted) compared with a minimum specification thick-
Page 3-51
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
ness of 1 in.
The paver screed, left to operate without human
intervention on the thickness-control cranks and run
either with or without automatic controls, will typically
overyield mix. This means that the paver will require
more material than generally expected in order to react
to variations in the grade of the existing pavement and
to shave off the high spots and fill in the low spots in
that surface. In order to meet the yield requirement,
therefore, it is usually necessary to reduce the thickness
of the mat being placed slightly in order to comply with
the yield requirement. An additional problem with a
yield-type specification is the longitudinal distance used
to determine the yield value. In some cases, yield is
checked after every truckload of mix. This frequency of
checking often leads to continual changes in the thick-
ness-control cranks on the paver. Yield should only be
checked periodically: the tons of mix placed over a
distance of 1000 ft or more than an hour's duration of
paving.
The third type of specification is one that requires a
certain degree of smoothness for the finished pavement
surface. Many different smoothness specifications exist.
Most are related to the amount of deviation permitted
from a straightedge of a given length or to a certain
maximum number of inches of roughness per unit of
length, typically a mile or some part of a mile . Although
it is normally possible to meet such smoothness specifi-
cations through the use of automatic screed controls, the
ultimate success in making the requirements depends on
the amount of mix available to be placed, the condition
of the existing pavement, and the number of layers of
mix to be laid. The amount of mix necessary to meet a
smoothness requirement will usually be greater than the
amount needed to meet a given yield requirement.
The problem comes when it is desired to meet some
specified yield requirement and to meet a minimum
thickness or smoothness requirement at the same time.
Because of the principle of the floating screed, it gener-
ally is not possible to accomplish both of the specifica-
tions at the same time on the same project, depending
on the smoothness of the pavement being overlaid.
Particularly for thin overlays, the paver is normally not
capable of meeting a minimum thickness and/or a
smoothness specification at the same time as a yield type
requirement. The governing criteria (yield, minimum
thickness, or smoothness) should be determined at the
time the job is designed and verified to the contractor
before paving commences (during the preconstruction
meeting) .
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
AUTOMATIC SCREED-CONTROL OPERATING
TECHNIQUES
When automatic screed controls are used on a paver
to control the grade and/or the slope of the pavement
layer being constructed , there are several key operating
techniques that should be observed to determine wheth-
er the automatic controls are being used properly.
Those items are:
• The screed operator should not attempt to make
manual changes in the angle of attack of the screed by
turning the thickness-control cranks, because the auto-
matic controls will attempt to change the elevation of
the pull point to compensate for the manual input to the
screed .
• The grade sensor should be checked to assure
that it is working. If the wand (which rides on the
stringline or mobile reference device) is raised 1/32 in.,
there should be a corresponding movement of the
actuator at the tow point on the paver. If the wand is
raised (or lowered) and the actuator does not move,
either the system is not turned on or the sensitivity of
the sensor is set too wide--with too great a dead band or
sensitivity setting.
• When the sensor is set on the grade reference
and the paver is moving forward, the up and down lights
on the sensor should blink occasionally or the constantly
blinking lights should change intensity occasionally, both
top and bottom, to indicate that a signal is being sent
from the sensor to the tow point cylinder. On grade
sensors that use a meter, the meter should indicate a
change in reading as the paver travels down the road-
way. Further, the movement of the tow point actuator
should be smooth, without constant up and down
movement.
• If a stringline is used as the grade reference, the
linehould be very taut. There should not be any sags
in the line, particularly between the vertical support
locations. This can be checked by sighting down the line.
Page 3-52
10/15/91
The grade sensor wand should ride easily over the
stringline and not be displaced in a vertical direction
when it passes over a support arm. Every effort should
be made to keep all personnel and equipment from
coming in contact with the stringline and disturbing it,
either longitudinally or vertically.
• If a mobile reference is used for the grade con-
trol, the sensor should ride on the reference at the
midpoint of its length . This allows the input to the
paver to be made equally over the length of the mobile
reference. If the mobile reference is equipped with
multiple feet or shoes, each of the devices should be
checked to assure that each is clean and free to move or
rotate around its own hinge or spring point. The length
of the mobile reference should be as long as practical to
provide for the greatest averaging out of variations in
the elevation of the existing roadway surface .
• If a joint matching shoe is employed for grade
control, the shoe should be checked to assure that it is
free to move or rotate around its own hinge or spring
point .
• If the automatic-control system includes grade
control on one side of the paver and slope control on
the other side of the paver, the cross-slope of the layer
placed should be checked regularly to assure that the
proper cross-slope is being built in to the pavement layer
by the paver. This is particularly important on very wide
pavements, such as an airport runway.
• For most paving situations, the grade-control
sensor should be hung on the leveling (tow) arm of the
paver, typically between one-third and two-thirds of the
way between the tow point and the screed . For some
paving jobs, the sensor can be placed just in front of the
screed and but never behind the pivot point of the
screed. The sensor, except in conjunction with the use
of a joint matching shoe, should generally not be located
at the tow point.

10/15/91
SECTION FIVE
JOINT CONSTRUCTION
INTRODUCTION
During the construction of hot-mix asphalt pave-
ments, two types of joints are encountered . The first
type of joint is a transverse joint. This joint occurs
whenever the paving operation is interrupted for a
period of time--from an hour or so to overnight. The
second type of joint is the longitudinal joint. This kind
of joint occurs when one lane of asphalt mix is con-
structed adjacent to a previously placed lane of mix.
The techniques for constructing each type of joint are
discussed in this section.
TRANSVERSE JOINTS
End of Paving
When the placement of the asphalt mix is to be
suspended for a period of time, it is necessary to con-
struct a transverse joint across the pavement being
placed. This is accomplished in one of several ways,
depending primarily on whether traffic is to travel over
the asphalt mix between the time the paving is stopped
and it is started again.
If traffic is not going to pass over the end of the
paving, a vertical butt joint can be constructed . If traffic
will be permitted to travel over the transverse joint, a
tapered joint will be necessary. In either case, the
operation of the paver is essentially the same. The
actual construction of the joint itself, however, is differ-
ent.
It is very important that the paver be run in normal
fashion right up to the point at which the transverse
joint is constructed . This means that
the head of material carried in front
of the screed should be as consistent
as possible at the location of the joint .
This requirement permits the forces
acting on the screed to be constant
and maintains the angle of attack for
the paver screed. The result of such
a paving operation is a uniform mat
thickness at the joint, the same thick-
ness as for the previously placed mix.
It is a common but incorrect prac-
tice, however, to empty out the paver
hopper whenever a transverse joint is
to be built. The paver operator nor-
mally anticipates the location of the Figure 3-61 .
Page 3-53
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
joint by drawing down the mix in the paver hopper. In
most instances, the hopper is emptied and the amount
of mix carried on the augers is minimal. This process
reduces the head of material in front of the paver
screed, causing the screed to fall, thereby decreasing the
thickness of the mat at the joint. It is a much better
practice to locate the transverse joint at the point where
the amount of material in front of the screed is normal
than it is to run the hopper and the auger chamber
empty and then construct the transverse joint at the
point the paver runs out of mix.
Butt Joints
For a butt joint, a vertical face is constructed by hand
methods across the width being paved . This operation
consists of raking, shoveling, and then removing the mix
that is located downstream of the selected joint location,
as shown in Figure 3-61 . The asphalt mix that is in
place upstream of the joint is not touched in any man-
ner. The mix that is removed from the downstream side
of the joint is then recycled or discarded.
Compaction of the mix on the upstream side of the
joint is accomplished in normal fashion. It is necessary,
however, for the rollers to compact the mix immediately
adjacent to the joint. For this to be done properly,
runoff boards must be placed next to the joint. The
thickness of the boards should be approximately equal
to the compacted thickness of the layer being placed . In
addition, the boards must be wide enough and long
enough to support the full length of a roller. The
Construction of transverse butt joint (J. Scherocman).
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Figure 3-62. Constructing transverse butt joint with cutting wheel (J. Scherocman) .
compaction equipment passes over the mix at the joint
and onto the boards before the rolling direction is
reversed. This assures that the transverse joint receives
the same degree of densification as the rest of the mix
in the pavement layer.
Runoff boards should be used; when they are not
used, the front wheel of the compaction equipment is
normally run up to the transverse joint, stopping just
short of the joint. The roller direction is then reversed
and the rest of the mat is compacted . Occasionally, one
wheel or roll of the roller will be driven over the end of
the course, over the vertical face of the joint. Passing
the rollers over the edge of the transverse joint, without
having any boards beyond the edge to support the
weight of the rollers, will cause rounding of the edge of
the joint. The degree of rounding that will occur will
depend on the number of times the roller runs off of the
joint and the thickness of the layer being constructed .
This latter type of joint construction results in two
problems. First, the rounding of the edge of the butt
joint prevents the construction of a proper vertical joint
when paving is restarted . Second, the amount of
compactive effort applied to the asphalt mix adjacent to
the joint is typically not adequate . The lack of proper
compaction results in a high air void content in the mix
Page 3-54
10/15/91
HYSTCD
upstream of the joint and a weak spot and bump in the
pavement structure. The use of runoff boards for the
rolling equipment is thus necessary to assure the correct
construction of a butt-type transverse joint. This prob-
lem is eliminated by cutting the mix back to a point of
constant thickness and density, as illustrated in Figures
3-62 and 3-63.
Tapered Joints
If traffic is to be carried over the transverse joint, it
is necessary to build a tapered joint. For this type of
joint, as for the butt joint, it is proper for the paver
operator to keep the head of material in front of the
paver screed as consistent as possible up to the point
that the joint is to be built. This process assures that
the thickness of the mix being placed is uniform up to
the joint. There is more opportunity for this to be done
in practice with tapered joint construction than with butt
joint construction because the mix left in the paver
hopper can be used to build the taper.
At the point of the transverse joint, the asphalt mix
downstream of the joint is temporarily pushed aside,
away from the joint. A vertical edge is formed at the
upstream face of the mix. If the tapered joint is to be
only temporary, treated paper or other similar material
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

Figure 3-63. Constructing transverse butt joint by sawing (J. Scherocman).

is then placed downstream of the joint directly on the
existing pavement surface (Figures 3-64 and 3-65) . This
paper is used because the asphalt mix will not stick to it.
The length of the paper is dependent on the thickness
of the course just placed but is typically about 3 or 4 ft
long and the width of the lane being paved. If the
length of the paper used is too short, the roller might
tend to shove the mix, causing rounding of the joint at
the upstream side of the paper.
Once the paper is in place, the asphalt mix is shov-

Figure 3-64. Placing treated paper for tapered joint (J. Scherocman).

Page 3-55
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
10/15/91

Paper Rolled Mat

a.

remove

paper
& ramp

New Mat Rolled Mat

b.

Figure 3-65. Paper transfer joint (NAPA).

eled back over the paper and a ramp is formed in this way to form the transverse joint is to use a board that is
mix with a lute or rake. Any asphalt mix that is not the same thickness as the compacted pavement layer.
used to construct the ramp or taper is discarded . If the The paver passes over the joint location and the mix is
joint is to be left in place permanently, the taper is
constructed in the same manner except that the treated
paper is not used.
Instead of treated paper, sand or dirt from the edge
of the roadway is sometimes spread on the road surface,
as shown in Figure 3-66. This is not good practice.
Although the sand or dirt does prevent the asphalt
material in the taper from sticking to the underlying
pavement surface, it is also very difficult to remove the
sand or dirt completely from the surface once the mix in
the taper has been removed . Typically some of the
bond-breaking material remains on the existing surface
even after that surface has been swept with a hand
broom. This dirty surface will provide a slip plane for
the new asphalt mix, and a shoving failure can occur at
that point when the new pavement is subjected to traffic.
This is true even if a tack coat is applied on top of the
dirty surface to "improve" the bond of the new mix to
the existing pavement. Indeed , in many cases an extra
amount of tack coat material is applied near the joint to
compensate for the dirt at that location. The extra tack
coat material, particularly if it is not cured before the
new mix is placed on it, can increase the chances for
slippage to occur at that point. Constructing a tempo-
rary tapered transverse joint using sand or dirt as the
bond-breaking medium is not an acceptable paving
practice. Figure 3-66. Placing sand for tapered joint (J. Scher-
As shown in Figures 3-67 and 3-68, an alternative ocman).

Page 3-56
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

Figure 3-67. Transverse joint with boards (J. Scherocman).

shoveled away from the joint. A vertical face is formed
in the upstream side of the joint, but the mix adjacent to
the joint on that side is not disturbed . Once the vertical
face is formed, the board is set in place, immediately
downstream of the vertical face and against it. The mix
that had been removed from the joint is then shoveled
back against the board and a taper formed from the
edge of the board to the existing pavement surface.
Traffic runs over the edge of the joint, over the board,
and down the taper. To prevent dislodgement of the
board by traffic, the board must be the same thickness
as the layer being constructed and must be straight and
not bowed upward where the wheels of the vehicle can
hit it and jar it loose. In practice, this type of transverse
joint is rarely constructed because of movement of the
boards under traffic.
A third type of tapered joint is the nonformed , sawed
joint. For this type of joint, the paver operator keeps

Ramp Lumber Rolled Mat

a.

remove
A
lumber
& ramp

New Mat Rolled Mat

b.

Figure 3-68. Use of boards for transverse joints (NAPA) .

Page 3-57
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1 10/15/91

Figure 3-69. Tapered joint completed by running out of mix in paver hopper (J. Scherocman).

the paver operating normally until there is no more mix
in the hopper or in the auger chamber (Figure 3-69) .
At the point where the mix becomes nonuniform across
the width of the lane being paved, a ramp is constructed
with the "left-over" mix. No vertical face is formed, and
the mix is merely tapered from the proper layer thick-
ness to the level of the adjacent existing pavement. Any
mix not needed to make the ramp is removed and
wasted. Figure 3-70 illustrates the compaction of such
a tapered transverse joint.
One advantage of the tapered joint is the fact that
the compaction equipment can run over the edge of the
transverse joint and down the ramp without rounding
the joint. Because the rollers can pass over the end of
the mat easily, the compaction of the mix upstream of
the joint is usually superior to the mix adjacent to the

Figure 3-70. Compacting tapered joint (J. Scherocman).

Page 3-58

10/15/91
butt-type joint. A second advantage is that there
generally is less mix to shovel from the joint, because
some of the extra mix is used to make the ramp or
taper. The disadvantage of this kind of joint is that this
mix must eventually be removed before paving com-
mences downstream of the transverse joint.
Handmade Joints
In areas where the new hot-mix asphalt layer abuts
an existing structure, such as a bridge deck, it is often
necessary to place the mix adjacent to the joint by hand.
The mix that is needed to complete the joint is deposit-
ed in the area to be paved either by the paver or by
being dumped from a haul truck. In order to avoid
overworking the mix and possibly causing segregation,
the mix should be placed as close as feasible to its final
location. The mix is then spread by hand methods,
normally using rakes or lutes.
In addition, the mix must be "left high" in order to
allow for the compression of the material by the com-
paction equipment. Because the mix is being placed by
hand, it will not be as dense as it would be if it were laid
by the paver. Thus the 1/4 in./1 in. rule of thumb
usually used will not be valid for hand-spread mix. To
permit proper compaction of the mix and have the mix
end up at the proper elevation to match the adjacent
structure, the level of the mix should be approximately
3/8 in. higher than the surrounding pavement for each 1
in . of compacted layer thickness.
The hand work area must be rolled by the compac-
tion equipment as soon as possible after the mix is in
the proper location. Because of the time necessary to
place the mix, rolling will be delayed and the mix will be
cooling during the placement process. In order to
achieve the required density, extra rolling may be
needed.
Start of Paving
Removal ofthe Taper
If a tapered joint has been constructed at the trans-
verse joint, the mix in the ramp or taper must be
removed before the paving can be started . For a taper
built with treated paper, there is no bond between the
mix in the ramp and the underlying pavement. The
paper and mix are readily removed and returned for
recycling. A vertical face is left at the upstream edge of
the joint.
For a taper constructed with the board and a ramp
of asphalt mix, the material downstream of the board
will be partially bonded to the existing pavement surface.
A front-end loader typically is used to pry up the mix in
Page 3-59
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
the taper. This can be very difficult to do , depending on
the amount of traffic that has passed over the transverse
joint and the environmental conditions at the site. Once
the mix has been removed, the board is then removed ,
exposing the vertical face of the joint .
If a nonformed tapered transverse joint is used, it is
necessary first to saw a transverse joint in the asphalt
mat. The advantage of this type of joint is that the saw
cut can be made at any longitudinal point in the asphalt
layer (Figure 3-63) . It can be placed far enough back
from the taper to assure that the thickness of the layer
is constant. Once the joint is cut completely through the
asphalt mat, a front-end loader is used to pry up the mix
that is downstream of the saw cut. As with the tapered
joint that uses the board, one disadvantage of this type
ofjoint is that it is often very difficult to remove the mix
downstream of the saw cut from the existing roadway.
As an alternative, a cold-milling machine can be used
both to form the vertical edge of the transverse joint and
to remove the mix in the taper.
A straightedge should be used to determine the
condition of the transverse joint before paving begins.
If the mix upstream of the joint is level, the location of
the transverse joint is fine. If the straightedge indicates
that the previously placed mix is not level, the location
of the transverse joint should be moved to a point where
the proper thickness and smoothness of the pavement
layer exists. The mix downstream of the new joint
location should be removed and recycled.
Use of Starting Blocks
The asphalt mix that passes out the back of the paver
screed still must be compacted . As a rule of thumb, an
asphalt concrete is expected to densify approximately 20
percent under the action of the compaction equipment.
This means that the mix must be placed about 1 1/4 in.
thick in order to produce a compacted mix that is 1 in.
thick. This rule must be applied when the paver is used
to place mix at a transverse joint.
If the layer being placed is to be 2 in. thick, the mix
passing out from under the screed should be approxi-
mately 2 1/2 in. in depth to allow for compaction. It is
therefore improper and very poor practice to set the
paver screed directly on the old mat upstream of the
transverse joint and start the placement of the new mix
by dragging the screed off of the previously placed
material. If this is done, not enough mix will be placed
on the downstream side of the joint, and a dip in the
compacted pavement surface will result. Proper paving
practice requires that the paver screed be placed on a
set of starting blocks on the upstream side of the
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
transverse joint. The thickness of the blocks, or strips of
wood, should allow the additional thickness of the layer
to be placed, which will be compacted to the required
asphalt thickness.
The starting blocks should be placed completely
under the length of the screed, front to back, as illustrat-
ed in Figures 3-71 and 3-72. At least three strips of
wood should be used for a standard screed up to 16 ft
Figure 3-71 . Starting blocks under paver screed at
transverse joint on asphalt overlay (schematic) (Blaw-
Knox).
wide equipped with rigid extensions. If the width of the
screed with rigid extensions is greater than 16 ft, at least
four blocks should be placed under the screed . For a
screed equipped with hydraulic extensions, at least three
blocks should be set under the main screed and two
Figure 3-72. Starting blocks under paver screed at transverse joint on asphalt overlay (J. Scherocman).
Page 3-60
10/15/91
additional blocks placed under each extension .
If the paver is starting out at a new location where
there is no old mat on which to set the starting blocks
and screed, the thickness of the starting blocks must be
increased to compensate for the lack of mix on the
upstream side of the joint (Figure 3-73) . In this case, if
a 2-in. (compacted) layer of mix is being constructed, the
blocks should be about 2 1/2 in. thick in order to allow
for the compaction of the mix by the rollers. For a
3-in.-thick compacted mat, the depth of the starting
wood strips should be approximately 3 3/4 in.
Nulling the Screed and Setting the Angle of Attack
Once the paver screed has been set on starting blocks
of the proper thickness, the screed should be nulled.
This means that the angle of attack of the screed should
be set in the neutral or flat position. The thickness-
control cranks should be able to be turned slightly in
both directions when the screed is in the nulled position
without any pressure being put on the screed and
without the angle of attack of the screed being altered.
An angle of attack should then be set into the screed .
This is accomplished by turning the thickness-control
cranks approximately one full turn (depending on the
make of the paver) and introducing an up angle to the
front of the screed . Both thickness-control cranks or
handles (one on each side of the machine) must be

10/15/91
Figure 3-73. Use of starting blocks on new construction (J.
Scherocman).
adjusted in order for the screed to be set properly.
Before the paver pulls off of the starting blocks, the
material feed system on the machine is activated and
mix is deposited in the auger chamber in front of the
screed. The amount of mix delivered should be enough
to cover the augers up to the center of the auger shaft.
INSUFFICIENT MATERIAL
TOO MUCH MATERIAL
Figure 3-74. Head of material of transverse joint (Blaw-Knox) .
Page 3-61
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
This will provide the proper head of material
against the screed. Once the auger chamber
is properly filled, the paver is started , the
screed is pulled off of the starting blocks
(Figure 3-74), and the paver is brought up to
the desired laydown speed as quickly as feasi-
ble. The angle of attack of the screed is
adjusted, as needed, as the paver moves down
the roadway, in order to provide the proper
thickness of the asphalt mat. If the paver
screed is nulled and the angle of attack set
correctly while the screed is on the starting
blocks, the amount of adjustment necessary to
the screed should be minimal .
Raking the Joint
If the transverse joint is constructed prop-
erly up to this point, the amount of raking that
needs to be done also is minimal, as shown in
Figure 3-75. If the paver screed starts out on
blocks and if the head of material against the
screed is constant, the thickness of the mat
downstream of the joint will be correct. Very
little mix, if any, will need to be brushed back
from the joint. There is never any reason to
rake a transverse joint excessively (Figure
3-76).
When a joint is raked, there is a tendency for the
raker to reduce the thickness of the new, uncompacted
mat to match the elevation of the compacted pavement
on the upstream side of the transverse joint. This is
accomplished by pushing the mix at the joint down-
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
10/15/91

Figure 3-75. Proper raking of transverse joint (J. Scherocman) .

stream farther onto the new mat. When the level of the
new, uncompacted mat is the same as the old, compact-
ed mat, the final elevation of the newly placed material,
after compaction by the rollers, will be lower than the
mix on the upstream side of the joint. Thus, only
minimal raking should be done.
Before the material on the downstream side of the
joint is compacted, it should be determined if the joint
is smooth by running a straightedge across the joint, as
seen in Figure 3-77. The straightedge should rest on the
uncompacted mat and extend over the already compact-
ed mix. The distance between the bottom of the
straightedge and the top of the compacted mat should
be equal to the amount of rolldown that will occur
during the compaction process, approximately 1/4 in./in.
of compacted mat thickness. The straightedge should be

Figure 3-76. Excessive raking (J. Scherocman) .

Page 3-62
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

Figure 3-77. Checking transverse joint elevation (J. Scherocman) .

used again to check the level of the joint once the
compaction process has been completed.
Compacting the Joint
As shown in Figure 3-78, ideally, a transverse joint
should be compacted transversely. This means that the
equipment that is used to roll the joint should operate
across the width of the lane instead of longitudinally
down the mat. If the rolling is done transversely, wood
boards must be used to support the roller as it moves
beyond the longitudinal edge of the pavement . The
roller should operate in a manner so that the whole
width of the joint receives equal compactive effort. This
is very difficult to accomplish unless the wood boards
placed on each side of the lane are long enough to allow
the roller to move completely off the mix on both sides
of the pavement .
If the roller cannot compact the joint in the trans-
verse direction because of site restrictions (adjacent
guardrail or steep side slope, for example) or traffic in
the next lane, the transverse joint will have to be rolled
in the longitudinal direction (Figure 3-79) , similar to
rolling of the mix at other locations. The initial (break-
down) rolling should be accomplished, however, as

DYNAPAC
apac

4.530
394 530
apac

Figure 3-78. Compacting transverse joint (J. Scherocman).

Page 3-63
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
DYNAPAC apac
Figure 3-79. Compacting transverse joint in longitudinal direction (J. Scherocman).
quickly as possible after the paver has moved off of the
joint. The roller should pass slowly and completely over
the joint before the machine is reversed . If the joint has
been constructed properly, the compaction process is no
different from the application of ordinary compactive
effort on any other part of the asphalt mixture.
LONGITUDINAL JOINTS
Cutting Back the Joint
In some cases, before the longitudinal joint between
two adjacent lanes of pavement is constructed, the
longitudinal edge of the previously placed mix is cut
back for a distance of 1 to 2 in. This is accomplished
with a saw or with a cutting wheel attached to a grader
or front-end loader. The purpose of this operation is to
remove that portion of the mix at the longitudinal joint
that may have a lower density than the main portion of
the mat because of the lack of confinement of the mix
during the compaction process. If this is done, a tack
coat should be placed on the newly exposed face of the
longitudinal joint.
Further, a vertical face is formed at the longitudinal
joint instead of the normal inclined face (typically about
a 60-degree angle) . This generally permits an increase
in density to be obtained in the newly placed mat
adjacent to the cut joint. Adequate joint density,
Page 3-64
10/15/91
apac
however, can typically be obtained without cutting back
the longitudinal joint: by properly overlapping, raking,
and compacting the joint. If the joint is not cut back
and the mix along the joint is clean, a tack coat is not
normally needed .
Overlapping the Joint
The key to the construction of a good longitudinal
joint between lanes of asphalt mix is the amount of
overlap between the new mat and the previously placed
mat . The end gate on the paver should extend over the
top surface of the adjacent mix a distance of not more
than 1 to 1 1/2 in., as shown in Figure 3-80. This
amount of overlap provides just enough material on top
of the joint to allow for proper compaction without
having extra mix, which must be pushed back from the
joint by a raker. The height of the new mix above the
compacted mix should be 1/4 in. for each 1 in. of
compacted mix.
One major problem with longitudinal joint construc-
tion is an excessive amount of overlap of the paver
screed over the previously placed mat . (This may be
caused, in part, by a ragged or wavy longitudinal edge
on the first paver pass. Use of a string to guide the
paver operator as the first lane is placed will usually
reduce this problem greatly.) Because this extra asphalt

10/15/91
Figure 3-80. Overlap of new mix at longitudinal joint
(J. Scherocman).
mix cannot be pushed into the compacted mat, the
material is raked or luted onto the new mat. If the
longitudinal edge of the first lane is straight and if the
correct amount of overlap is used, the amount of raking
that must be done will be minimal.
Raking the Joint
If the amount of overlap of the new mix on the old
lane is 1 to 1 1/2 in., any raking that is done should be
used merely to "bump" the joint, pushing the mix off of
the old lane and onto the new mat directly over the
joint, as shown in Figure 3-81 . This will leave the mix a
little high at the joint and will create a slight amount of
extra mix to be compacted by the roller. If the adjacent
lane is overlapped too far and too much mix is deposited
on the old mat, the excess material should be pulled
away from the new mat instead of being pushed onto
the new mix. The mix should not be broadcast across
Page 3-65
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
the new lane. The excess mix should be picked up and
recycled, as shown in Figures 3-81 and 3-82.
Poor longitudinal joint construction is often related
to " over-raking" the joint. Instead of any excess mix
being pulled away from the joint, most often the extra
material is brushed back onto the new mix, as shown in
Figure 3-83. During the raking process, there is a
tendency for too much material to be pushed off of the
joint, leaving the level of the mix adjacent to the longitu-
dinal joint at the same elevation on both sides of that
joint. In some cases, so much mix is raked off the joint
that a dip occurs at the longitudinal joint even before
compaction of the mix is done. When either of these
two problems occurs, it becomes impossible to obtain
the required density at the joint.
Mix that is pushed off the longitudinal joint is
deposited on the new asphalt mat. This material
changes the surface texture of a portion of the mat
where the mix is deposited . Depending on the gradation
of the mix being placed, the extra mix raked onto the
new mat can make a significant difference in the texture
of the mat from one side of the lane to the other.
Excessive raking of the longitudinal joint is detrimental
to the long-term performance of that joint.
Excellent longitudinal joints can be constructed
without raking the joint at all. If the proper amount of
overlap of the new mix on the previously placed mat has
been done, raking of the longitudinal joint can be
eliminated, as shown in Figure 3-84. It is recommended
that raking of this joint be deleted if proper overlap and
compaction can be obtained .
Compacting the Longitudinal Joint
If the level of the new, uncompacted mix is even with
or below the level of the compacted mix in the adjacent
lane, the compaction equipment will not be able to
densify the mix along the joint properly. Whether the
first pass of the roller is on the cold side of the joint or
on the hot side of the joint (Figure 3-85) , part of the
weight of the roller will be supported on the previously
compacted mat. This means that the compaction
equipment will bridge the mix in the joint, leaving it
essentially uncompacted or only partially compacted.
(Use of an intermediate pneumatic tire roller instead of
a steel wheel roller--static or vibratory--will reduce this
problem.) Thus, the level of the mix at the longitudinal
joint must be above the elevation of the compacted mix,
by an amount equal to approximately 1/4 in. for each 1
in. of compacted pavement, if proper compaction of the
mix at the joint is to be accomplished .
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1 10/15/91

25-50 MILLIMETERS 14T

(1-2 INCHES)

UNROLLED MAT ROLLED MAT

EZEZNEMENTENENES
(a) OVERLAP OF ADJOINING LANE.

-BUMPED MATERIAL

UNROLLED MAT ROLLED MAT

(b) OVERLAP CROWDED BACK READY TO BE ROLLED.

SQUARE- ENDED
SHOVEL

UNROLLED MAT ROLLED MAT

NENENEENENESI
(c) MAKING A TRIMMED JOINT.

Figure 3-81 . Constructing longitudinal joints (NAPA) .

Rolling from the Hot Side

The most efficient way to compact the longitudinal
joint is to put the roller on the hot mat and overlap the
joint by a distance of approximately 6 in. over the cold
mat, as shown in Figure 3-86. This places the majority
Figure 3-83 . Excess raking of longitudinal joint (J.
of the weight of the compaction equipment where it is Scherocman).
needed . The mix at the joint is still pushed into the
joint area by the roller as long as the elevation of the
new mix at the joint is proper. The longitudinal joint

Figure 3-82. Removing excess mix from longitudinal joint .

Page 3-66

10/15/91
Figure 3-84. Longitudinal joint not raked (J. Scherocman).
can be compacted effectively by keeping the roller on
the new mix instead of on the already compacted mix.
Any type of roller used for the breakdown rolling of the
mix can be employed to compact the longitudinal joint
as long as the elevation of the mix at the joint is above
the level of the cold mat and the mix is still hot.
Sometimes the first pass of the roller is completed
with the edge of the machine about 6 in. inside of the
longitudinal joint. The theory behind this method of
compaction is that the mix will be shoved toward the
joint by the roller, and better compaction will be ob-
tained. If the mix being placed is stable enough, the
roller should not be able to move the material laterally
COLD
TANDEM HOT
VIBRATORY
N already-compacted asphalt material.
TI
COLD
SINGLE
HOT DRUM
VIBRATORY
Figure 3-85. Compacting longitudinal joint (Dynapac).
Page 3-67
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
to any significant degree. If the mix design is proper,
this method of compacting the joint does not provide
any advantage over moving the first pass of the roller
outward 1 ft (from 6 in. inside the joint to 6 in. outside
the joint) .Rolling the mat by lapping the roller over
the adjacent old pavement typically is the more efficient
way to provide roller coverage for the whole pavement
width.
Rolling from the Cold Side
It has been common practice in the past to do the
initial rolling of the longitudinal joint from the cold
(previously placed mat) side of the joint, as seen in
Figure 3-87. The major portion of the weight of the
roller was supported by the cold, compacted mat . Only
6 in. or so of the width of the roller hung over the fresh
mat, compressing the mix along the joint. The majority
of the compactive effort was wasted because the roller
essentially was applying its compactive effort to an
During the time that the roller was operating on the
cold side of the longitudinal joint, the mix on the hot
side of the joint, and the rest of the mix in the course
being laid, was cooling. Depending on the environmen-
tal conditions and the thickness of the mix being placed,
the process of compacting the joint from the cold side
often proves to be detrimental to the ability to obtain
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
R66
DYNAPAC
Figure 3-86. Compacting longitudinal joint from hot
side (J. Scherocman).
density on the whole pavement layer.
The reason often given for rolling the joint from the
cold side of the joint was that this compaction method
allowed the rollers to " pinch" the joint and obtain a
higher degree of density. There is no evidence that this
is true. Indeed, regardless of the method used to
compact the longitudinal joint, the level of density
obtained at that location is typically 1 to 2 percent below
the average density that can be produced in the main
part of the mat. This is primarily because of the fact
that the first placed lane has an unsupported edge that
is always more difficult to compact. It is the lack of
density in this original part of the longitudinal joint that
affects the level of density that can be obtained when
the new mix is placed along the joint.
Echelon Paving
If echelon paving (two pavers running next to each
other) is used, the construction of the longitudinal joint
Page 3-68
10/15/91
McDONALD
INDUSTRIES
HYSTET
Figure 3-87. Compacting longitudinal joint from cold
side (J. Scherocman) .
is essentially similar to the building of a joint against a
cold, compacted pavement layer. In this case, however,
the amount of overlap between the first and second
lanes is very important. The distance that the screed
and end gate of the trailing paver should extend over
the uncompacted mat behind the first paver should be
limited to no more than 1 in. The end gate of the
second paver must be set at the same level as the
bottom of the screed plate of the first paver. This will
prevent the end gate of the screed of the second paver
from dragging on the mix placed by the first or leading
paver.
No raking of the joint need be accomplished . The
compaction process is modified to require the rollers
densifying the mix behind the lead paver to stay about
6 in. away from the free edge of the mat on the side
toward the second paver. Once the mix from the second
or trailing paver is placed against the uncompacted edge
of the mix from the first paver, the rollers compacting

10/15/91
the second lane are employed to densify the mix on both
sides of the joint. Properly lapped and properly com-
pacted, it is usually difficult to see the longitudinal joint
produced by the echelon paving process. In addition,
use of this technique will normally result in the density
ofthe longitudinal joint being equal to the density of the
adjacent mat.
JOINT CONSTRUCTION OPERATING TECHNIQUES
Several key techniques should be observed when
viewing the construction of both transverse and longitu-
dinal joints in an asphalt pavement. They are:
• If a transverse butt joint is to be built, the paver
operator should maintain a constant head of material in
front of the screed to a point downstream of the loca-
tion where the joint is to be made. In order to prevent
a decrease in the layer thickness upstream of the
transverse joint, the operator should not be allowed to
run the hopper, slat conveyors , and augers empty of mix
before the joint location is reached.
• For the construction of a transverse butt joint,
either treated paper or a wooden board should be used
just downstream of the actual butt joint location.
Provision must be made to compact the mix adjacent to
the butt joint to the same degree as the previously
placed mix.
⚫ For the construction of a tapered transverse joint,
the thickness of the layer should be maintained to a
point downstream of the location where the vertical face
of the joint will eventually be constructed . Treated
paper, not sand or dirt, should be used as a bond-
breaker material under the taper.
• When paving is restarted, the asphalt mix down-
stream of the transverse joint should be removed and
recycled . A vertical face should be present at the
selected joint location. A tack coat should be applied to
the existing pavement surface adjacent to the joint
location.
• The screed of the paver must be set on "starting
blocks" on the cold side of the transverse joint. The
thickness of the starting blocks should be 1/4 in. for each
1 in. of compacted layer thickness when the blocks and
paver screed are set on another pavement layer. If the
Page 3-69
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
paver is starting to pave at a new location, the thickness
of the starting blocks should be the thickness of the
compacted new layer plus 1/4 in./in . of compacted
thickness. It is impossible to construct a proper trans-
verse joint if the blocks are not used to bring the screed
to the proper elevation on the cold side of the joint
before paving is started .
• The mix on the downstream side of the transverse
joint must be higher than the mix on the compacted side
of the joint. This is necessary to allow for adequate
compaction of the freshly placed mix.
• Minimal raking needs to be done at a properly
constructed transverse joint. The rakers should never be
allowed to disturb the paver-placed mix at the joint
except to clear away any new mix that has been dribbled
or overlapped onto the upstream or previously compact-
ed side of the joint.
• Ideally, the transverse joint should be compacted
in a transverse direction with the rollers. On a practical
basis, the transverse joint can be compacted properly
with the roller running in a longitudinal direction as long
as the initial elevation of the new mix is above that of
the old mix on the cold side of the joint.
• During the construction of a longitudinal joint,
the end plate or end gate of the paver should overlap
the previously placed lane by no more than 1 1/2 in.
Any increase in the amount of overlap beyond this
distance will provide excess material that will need to be
raked off of the joint . The thickness of the new mix
should be 1/4 in./in . higher than the compacted mix.
• Minimal or no raking of the longitudinal joint
should be necessary if the amount of overlay of the
paver screed on the adjacent lane is 1 1/2 in . or less. If
raking is done, the raker should not broadcast the mix
across the newly placed mix. The excess material should
only be pushed 1 in. or 2 toward the longitudinal joint
location and be deposited just on the uncompacted side
of the joint.
• Compaction of the longitudinal joint should be
accomplished by rolling from the hot side of the layer
with the roller wheels lapping approximately 6 in. over
on the cold mat.
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
SECTION SIX
COMPACTION
INTRODUCTION
Compaction is the single most important factor that
affects the ultimate performance of a hot-mix asphalt
pavement. Adequate compaction of the mix increases
the fatigue life, decreases permanent deformation
(rutting) , reduces oxidation or aging, decreases moisture
damage, increases strength and stability, and decreases
low-temperature cracking. An asphalt mixture that has
all the desirable mix design characteristics will perform
poorly under traffic if that mix is not compacted to the
proper density level. A properly compacted mix with
marginal properties will often outperform a mix with
desirable properties if that mix that is inadequately
compacted.
DEFINITIONS
The terms density and compaction are often used
interchangeably to describe the process of compressing
asphalt mix and increasing its unit weight. The two
terms, however, have different definitions.
The density of a material is simply the weight of the
material that occupies a certain volume of space . For
example, an asphalt concrete mixture containing lime-
stone aggregate might have a compacted density of 147
lb/ft³ . This density, or unit weight, is an indication of
the degree of compaction of the mixture . Different
paving materials made with different aggregates can
have significantly different densities. An asphalt con-
crete mixture manufactured with lightweight aggregate,
for example, might have a compacted density of only 85
lb/ft³ of volume.
Compaction is the process through which the asphalt
mix is compressed and reduced in volume. Compaction
permits the unit weight or density of the mix to be
increased by placing more materials in a given volume of
space or by taking a given amount of material and
compressing it into a smaller space or volume. As a
result of the compaction process, the asphalt-coated
aggregates in the mix are forced closer together, which
increases aggregate interlock and interparticle friction
and reduces the air void content in the mix.
It is possible, under controlled laboratory conditions,
to compact an asphalt concrete mixture to a certain
maximum value . At this point, called the maximum
theoretical density, no further compaction would be
possible and no air voids would remain in the mix (a
Page 3-70
10/15/91
voidless condition) . The maximum theoretical density of
a mix can be calculated from the percentages and the
specific gravities of each component in the mix. It can
also be determined from a laboratory test (the Rice
procedure, ASTM Test Method D 2041 ) , which is the
recommended procedure .
Because it is impossible on the roadway to compact
a well-designed mix to a level of a voidless condition, all
asphalt mixes will contain some void spaces or air voids
when the compaction process is completed by the rollers.
The air void content of the mix is simply the volume of
the space between the asphalt-coated particles. Because
the volume of those air voids is impossible to measure
directly, a ratio of actual unit weight to the theoretical
maximum density is used . The air void content is ex-
pressed as the ratio of the difference between the maxi-
mum theoretical density and the actual density of the
mix, as shown by the formula percent air voids = 100[ 1-
(bulk specific gravity/maximum theoretical specific
gravity) ] and in ASTM Test Method D 3203. Thus, if
the compacted density of an asphalt concrete mix is
147.0 lb/ft³ and the maximum theoretical density of the
same mix is 154.0 lb/ft³, the air void content of the mix
would be the difference in the two values ( 154.0 - 147.0
=
7.0) divided by the value of the maximum theoretical
density ( 154.0) , or 4.5 percent.
FACTORS AFFECTING COMPACTION
Four primary factors affect the ability of the compac-
tion equipment to densify an asphalt mixture : the
properties of the materials in the asphalt mixture,
environmental variables, conditions at the laydown site,
and the type of compaction equipment used . Each of
these factors is discussed below.
Properties of the Materials
Aggregates
Three properties of the coarse aggregate particles
used in an asphalt mixture that can affect the ability to
obtain the proper level of density are the particle shape
of the aggregate, the number of fractured faces, and the
surface texture . As the crushed content of the coarse
aggregate increases, as the nominal maximum size ofthe
aggregate increases, and as the hardness of the aggre-
gate (granite compared with limestone, for example)
increases, the compactive effort needed to obtain a

10/15/91
specific level of density also increases. Angular particles
offer more resistance to manipulation than do rounded
aggregate particles. This angularity increases the
resistance to the applied compactive effort. The surface
texture of the individual aggregate particles is also
important, with aggregates that have a rough surface
texture being harder to compact than aggregates with a
smooth surface texture . The compactive effort is also
affected by the shape of the aggregate, with a cubical or
block-shaped aggregate needing a greater degree of
manipulation than a rounded particle shape before
achieving a given density level.
A continuously graded (dense-graded) aggregate,
from coarse to fine, may be easier to compact than a
mixture with any other aggregate gradation . A harsh
mix typically requires a significant increase in compactive
effort to obtain the desired level of density. An over-
sanded or finely graded mix, on the other hand , tends to
be extremely workable . It still might be difficult to
achieve density on such a mix, however, because of the
inherent tender nature of such an oversanded mix.
Mixes that contain an excess of midsize fine aggregate
[between the No. 30 and No. 50 (600 μm and 300 μm)
sieves or between the No. 40 and No. 80 (425 μm and
180 μm) sieves] also are difficult to compact because of
their lack of internal cohesion; they tend to displace
laterally rather than compress vertically. The dust
content [ amount of aggregate passing the No. 200 (75
μm ) sieve] affects the compactive effort needed. A mix
designed with a high dust content will generally be more
difficult to compact than a mix designed with a lower
dust content.
All of the properties of an aggregate that are benefi-
cial in terms of improving the characteristics of the mix
in regard to resistance to fatigue and permanent defor-
mation typically increase the difficulty in obtaining a re-
quired level of density with a given compactive effort.
Thus, the compactive effort needs to be increased to
achieve the density level needed in the mix.
Asphalt Cement
The grade and amount of asphalt cement used in the
mix affects the ability to densify the mix. An asphalt
cement that is higher in viscosity or lower in penetration
will generally provide for a stiffer mix at a given mix
temperature and therefore require a greater compactive
effort. Thus, a mix produced with an AC-20 viscosity-
graded asphalt will typically be stiffer, at any particular
temperature, than a similar mix that contains an AC- 10
asphalt cement . The stiffer the mix, the more com-
pactive effort needed to reach a given density level.
Page 3-71
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
This stiffness trend, however, is affected by the tempera-
ture viscosity relationship for each particular binder
material.
The degree of hardening that occurs in the asphalt
cement during the manufacture of the mix affects the
compactibility of that material. Different asphalts
harden differently during the mixing process, and that
hardening is related , in part, to the chemical properties
of each asphalt cement and its temperature susceptibili-
ty. The degree of hardening is also a function of the
type and operating characteristics of the plant; more
hardening will typically occur when a drum mix plant is
operating at partial capacity compared with when it is
producing mix at full capacity. Further, hardening is a
function of the mixing temperature at the plant, with
higher manufacturing temperatures typically producing
stiffer mixes.
The asphalt cement content of the mix influences its
compactability. In general, a mix with too little asphalt
cement may be stiff and require an increase in compac-
tive effort, whereas a mix with too much asphalt cement
may shove under the rollers.
Mix Properties
A mix that is placed at a higher temperature will be
easier to compact than will a mix that is lower in
temperature when it is laid . If the initial mix tempera-
ture is too high, however, the mix may be tender and
difficult to compact until the mix temperature decreases
and the viscosity of the asphalt cement increases . If the
mix temperature is too low, an increased amount of
compactive effort will be needed to obtain the required
density, and, if the temperature is too low, required
density may never be achieved .
The workability of the mix is affected by the temper-
ature susceptibility of the asphalt cement. For a highly
temperature-susceptible asphalt binder material, less
time will be available for compaction because the mix
will change stiffness more quickly with a change in
temperature than will a mix containing a less tempera-
ture-susceptible asphalt.
The fluids content of the mix, not just the asphalt
content, affects the compactive effort needed . Fluids
content is the sum of the asphalt cement content and
the moisture content of the mix. If the amount of
moisture in the mix from the plant is high, the extra
fluids content may make the mix unstable and difficult
to compact. Thus, the moisture content of the mix
should be less than 0.5 percent, by weight of mix, when
the mix is discharged from the plant.
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Environmental Variables
Research work completed in the early 1970s deter-
mined the time available for compaction of various
asphalt concrete mixes. The time available for compac-
tion was defined as the time, in minutes, it took for a
mix to cool from laydown temperature to a minimum
compaction temperature. Laydown temperature is the
mix temperature when the paver screed passes over the
mix. Minimum compaction temperature for this study
was set at 175°F. Below this temperature, it was found
that the internal friction and cohesion of the mix
increases to the point that little density gain is achieved
with the application of additional compactive effort.
Any additional rolling with steel wheel rollers, except to
remove roller marks, may result in fracture of the
aggregate in the mix and in a decrease in density. (It
is emphasized, however, that rolling should occur at as
high a temperature as possible, given the properties of
the asphalt mix, in order to achieve the required level of
density with minimum compactive effort . At tempera-
tures near 175°F, the probability of significantly increas-
ing density or reducing air voids is very low except for
unusual mix behavior or with the use of special rolling
techniques such as heavy vibratory rollers or pneumatic
tire rollers with very high tire pressures.)
Six variables were found to have an effect on the rate
of cooling (and, therefore, on the possibility of obtaining
a required level of density) of a layer of asphalt placed
on top of another existing layer of the same type of
material. Those variables are: layer thickness, air
temperature, base temperature, mix temperature, wind
velocity, and solar flux.
A series of "cooling curves" for asphalt concrete
mixtures, which are shown in Figures 3-88 and 3-89,
illustrate the amount of time available for compaction
under different combinations ofvariables. For these two
figures, it is assumed that the material being compacted
is a dense-graded asphalt concrete mix. Ambient air
temperature is assumed to be equal to the surface
temperature of the base. A constant wind velocity of 10
knots (about 11.1 miles/hr) and a constant degree of
solar radiation (solar flux of 50 BTU/ft²/hr) is also used
to generate the graphs. The curves then provide the
time, in minutes, for the mix to cool from the laydown
temperature to the minimum compaction temperature
(175°F) for different compacted layer thicknesses.
To use the graphs it is necessary to determine the
value of three different variables: initial mix laydown
temperature, base surface temperature (which is often
assumed to be equal to the ambient air temperature),
and compacted layer thickness. Figure 3-88 is to be
Page 3-72
10/15/91
used for mix laydown temperatures of both 250°F and
300°F. Figure 3-89 is to be used when the mix laydown
temperature is 225°F or 275°F. The range of base
temperatures for each set of curves is from 10°F to
60°F. The range of mix layer thicknesses is from 1/2 in.
to 6 in.
Layer Thickness
Layer thickness is probably the single most important
variable in the rate of cooling of asphalt mixtures,
especially for thin lifts. In many places, for early spring
and late fall paving, layers of mix less than 2 in. in
compacted thickness are very susceptible to premature
failure because of the inability of the compaction equip-
ment to densify the mix adequately before it cools below
the minimum compaction temperature . It is very difficult
to obtain the desired density on thin lifts of mix in cool
weather because of the rapid loss in temperature in the
mix.
As the thickness of the layer being placed increases,
the time available for compaction also increases. For
example, in Figure 3-88, for a mix laydown temperature
of 250°F and a base of 40°F, a 1 -in.-thick mat will cool
from that 250°F temperature to the 175°F compaction
cutoff point in less than 4 min . For a 2-in.-thick layer,
under the same mix and base temperature conditions, it
will take about 10 min for the material to cool to 175°F .
Doubling the lift thickness from 1 to 2 in. increases the
time available for compaction from 4 to 10 min . If the
layer depth is 4 in., the time to cool changes to about 29
min, a significant increase in available compaction time
under similar temperature conditions.
Using the same figure, the relative effect of pave-
ment lift thickness is the same for a mix laydown
temperature of 300°F and a base temperature of 40°F.
As the course depth is decreased from 4 in. to 2 in. to
1 in., the time available for the mix to cool from 300°F
to 175°F decreases from more than 40 min to 16 min to
only 6 min, respectively. From these data, it is apparent
that the time available to compact a thin layer of asphalt
is extremely limited in cold weather.
Air and Base Temperature
A portion of the heat in the asphalt layer is lost to
the air. All other factors being equal, an increase in the
ambient air temperature decreases the rate of cooling of
the mix. This increase in air temperature allows more
time for the compaction equipment to achieve the
desired density level in the mix.
Heat in the mix is also lost to the layer on which the
new material is placed . There usually is more rapid
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

OL
+ 8
50

Minutes
Time
Cool
Mat
175
for
to
°F
40

30-
Time for mat to cool to 175 ° F vs.
mat thickness for lines of constant
20 mix and base temperatures.
Alm , temp………, same as base temp.
Solar flux 50 Blu/ft²/hr
10 Wind velocity . 10 knots

Mat Thickness, Inches

0 2 3 4 5 6

Figure 3-88. Time for mat to cool to 175°F vs. mat thickness for lines of
constant mix and base temperatures (250°F or 300°F behind paver)
(Dickson and Corlew; AAPT 1970).

cooling of the mix downward to the base than upward
into the air. Base temperature is actually more impor-
tant than air temperature in determining the time
available for compaction. Most specifications, however,
specify a minimum air temperature for paving and
compaction operations.
It is often assumed that air and base temperature are
the same. This is not necessarily true, particularly in
cool weather. In early spring, the base temperature
(surface temperature of an existing pavement layer) will
Base
Mix
be less than the ambient air temperature early in the
morning. The air temperature may be "40°F and rising,"
but the base might be 5°F or 10°F below the air temper-
ature. This low base temperature will cause the newly
placed course to cool quickly, reducing significantly the
time available to achieve adequate density. Base
temperatures are often higher in the late fall than in the
early spring for the same overnight air temperature.
Thus, less heat is lost to the base and it is easier to
compact a given thickness of material in the fall com-

5 2233
275

g
,10

50
inutes
Time
Cool
Mat
M175
for
to
°F

40-

30-

Time for mat to cool to 175 °F vs.

20 mat thickness for lines of constant
mix and base temperatures.
Atm . temp. . same as base temp.
10 Solar flux 50 Btu/ft2/hr
Wind velocity 10 knots
Mat Thickness, Inches
0
5

Figure 3-89. Time for mat to cool to 175°F vs. mat thickness for lines of
constant mix and base temperatures (225°F or 275°F behind paver)
(Dickson and Corlew; AAPT 1970) .

Page 3-73
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
pared with the spring.
A moist base layer significantly increases the cooling
rate of the new overlying asphalt layer. Heat is lost
from the mix to the moisture, turning water into steam
and increasing the rate of heat transfer. Paving on a
wet surface is detrimental to the ability to gain proper
density in the mix. The presence of the moisture may
cause the mix to cool quickly and reduce the time
available for compaction.
As the temperature of the ambient air and existing
pavement surface increases, the time for the mix to cool
from the laydown temperature to 175°F also increases.
In Figure 3-89, for a mix of 275°F and a lift thickness of
3 in., it takes only 22 min for the mix to cool when the
base and air temperatures are both 20°F. The time
available is extended to 25 min for a base/air tempera-
ture of 40°F and to 30 min for a 60°F base/air tempera-
ture .
For a 2-in. lift thickness, using the same mix laydown
temperature of 275°F in Figure 3-89, the time to cool to
175°F increases from 11 min, to 13 min, and to 15 min
for a base/air temperature of 20°F, 40°F, and 60°F,
respectively. The temperature of the ambient air and
base surface are important, but not nearly so crucial as
mat lift thickness in determining the time available for
compaction.
Mix Laydown Temperature
Asphalt mixes are usually produced at temperatures
between 270°F and 325°F. Depending on environmental
conditions and the length of haul, the mixture can lose
between 5°F and 25°F from the plant to the paver. It is
not the plant mixing temperature that is important in
determining the time available for compaction but the
temperature at which the mix comes out from under the
paver screed. As the initial mix laydown temperature is
increased, the time available for compaction also in-
creases. Within limits, the mixing temperature should be
determined by the laydown and compaction temperature
requirements.
As the temperature of the hot-mix asphalt being
placed is increased, the time available for compaction is
greater. This is seen in Figure 3-88 for laydown temper-
atures of both 250°F and 300°F. For a lift thickness of
2 in. and a base/air temperature of 40°F, the time to
cool to 175°F increases from 9 min to 16 min as the
placement temperature increases from 250°F to 300°F.
For a 4-in. course thickness and a 60°F base/air temper-
ature, a change in laydown temperature from 300°F to
250°F reduces the time available for compaction from 36
min to 21 min.
Page 3-74
10/15/91
The effect of mat laydown temperature is more
significant at lesser mat thicknesses and lower base
temperatures. As the time to cool to 175°F becomes
shorter, an increase in the mix laydown temperature
extends the compaction time significantly in most cases.
Wind Velocity
A thin layer of mix will cool more quickly in a strong
wind than when there is little or no wind . Wind has a
greater effect at the surface of the mix than within the
mix, and can cause the surface to cool so rapidly that a
crust will form. This crust must be broken down by the
rollers before the actual compaction process can begin.
The velocity of the wind must be considered more for
thin layers of mix placed in cool weather than for thicker
layers laid in warmer temperatures.
Solar Flux
The amount of radiant energy available from the sun
(solar flux) is a function of many variables, including the
position of the sun above the horizon, the distance
above sea level of the paving project, the amount of
turbidity in the air, and the degree of cloud cover. A
mix will cool more slowly on a sunny day compared with
a cloudy one. The amount of solar flux is more impor-
tant in its effect on base temperature than its effect on
mix temperature. The base temperature will be higher
on a sunny day, for a particular ambient air temperature,
than it will be on a day with heavy cloud cover. This
higher base temperature will reduce the rate of cooling
of the mix and increase the time available for compac-
tion.
Obtaining Proper Density under Varying Environmental
Conditions
Compaction of the mix requires common sense. If
the lift thickness decreases, if the air and base surface
temperatures are both reduced , if the laydown tempera-
ture is less, if the amount of solar flux is decreased ,
and/or the wind velocity is increased, then the time
available to properly obtain the required level of density
before the mix cools to 175°F also decreases. A signifi-
cant change in any one of the above factors can make
the difference between constructing a durable pavement
structure or building one that would be subject to an
early pavement failure .
If possible, the best solution to a potential compac-
tion problem is to increase the thickness of the material
being placed. One-in.-thick layers cool so quickly, even
in good environmental conditions, that proper density is
almost impossible to obtain. The minimum course

10/15/91
thickness that should be specified under the best of
circumstances should be 1 1/2 in. For early spring or
late fall paving projects, at least 2 in. of compacted
asphalt mix should be placed in a single lift, if possible .
The easiest solution to a potential time- availability
problem is to increase the discharge temperature of the
asphalt mix at the plant, if this procedure does not cause
other problems with the mixture . This will permit an
increase in the laydown temperature of the mix behind
the paver screed, thereby allowing more time for the mix
to cool to 175°F, all other factors being constant.
Increasing the mix temperature may not be enough,
however, to provide adequate time for compaction under
adverse environmental conditions and for thin layers of
material. If the mix temperature is increased too much,
the mix may be tender under the compaction equipment .
The mix must then be allowed to cool before the
compaction process can be commenced . Thus, there is
an upper limit to the amount of temperature increase to
which the mix can be subjected .
Compaction effort can be increased by simply using
more rollers to compact the pavement layer. In addi-
tion, rollers that are wider and/or heavier can be substi-
tuted for narrower and/or lighter compaction equipment.
A double-drum vibratory roller, for example, that is 7 ft
wide can be employed in place of a static steel wheel
tandem roller that is only 4 1/2 ft wide.
Another means to achieve proper compaction levels
is to use the compaction equipment more effectively.
Depending on the width being paved and the width of
the rollers, the rollers can be placed almost "side by
side" instead of end to end. Two rollers running in
echelon can cover a given area much more quickly than
two rollers operating in conventional fashion. The level
of density obtained will be increased because more
compactive effort may be applied before the asphalt mat
cools to 175°F. In essence, this method provides for two
breakdown rollers instead of one breakdown roller and
one intermediate roller. To obtain the required density
levels, however , use of an intermediate roller or rollers
may still be necessary.
If two different types and/or sizes of rollers (such as
a vibratory roller and a pneumatic tire roller) are used
for echelon rolling, it is important that each roller cover
all of the mix surface. This may mean that the rollers
have to cross back and forth and run different roller
patterns and numbers of passes. In addition, if one of
the rollers is compacting a longitudinal joint, consider-
ation of this fact must be made in setting the rolling
pattern for each piece of compaction equipment. It is
very important that both rollers are able to keep up with
Page 3-75
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
the speed of the paver and that the density obtained is
measured to assure that the required level of compac-
tion is achieved uniformly across the width of the mat.
One procedure that should not be done in an attempt
to increase the level of density in the mix is to increase
the asphalt cement content of the mix arbitrarily.
Although the additional asphalt cement may be benefi-
cial in increasing the workability of the mix, it defeats
the purpose of mix design and may create long-term
performance problems for the mix under traffic, such as
rutting and shoving. Thus, the required level of density
should be obtained by changing the compaction opera-
tions instead of increasing the asphalt content of the
mix.
Laydown Site Conditions
A number of factors at the laydown site directly
affect the ability of the compaction equipment to gain
the required level of pavement density. The most
important of these is the thickness of the layer being
placed . As discussed previously, the thicker the lift, the
more slowly the mix will cool down and the more time
will be available for compaction. The retained heat of
the thicker courses makes it easier to obtain the desired
air void content.
The relationship between lift thickness and nominal
maximum aggregate size in the mix is another variable
that affects the amount of density that can be obtained.
If the course depth is at least twice the nominal maxi-
mum aggregate size, adequate density can be achieved
with normal compactive effort. When the lift thickness
is less than two times the dimensions of the largest
aggregate pieces, a rough surface texture may result
when the large aggregate pieces are dragged by the
paver screed. The voids created in the mix from the
dragged aggregate negate any efforts to obtain the
proper level of density in the mix.
The uniformity of the lift thickness is another factor
to be considered. It is much easier to obtain a required
level of density in an asphalt layer that has a constant
thickness compared with a course that varies in depth.
Asphalt leveling courses that, by their very nature and
purpose, are nonuniform in thickness, are often difficult
to densify to a given air void content uniformly, especial-
ly when placed over a rutted or wavy road.
Depending on the width and the depth of the rut,
static steel wheel rollers tend to bridge over the rut,
particularly if the rut is relatively deep and narrow.
Vibratory rollers also tend to be supported by the high
points in the surface, but the vibratory action has some
beneficial effect in compacting the mix in the rut . Thus,
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1 10/15/91

225 HIGHWA
ASPHAL

Figure 3-90. Static 3-wheel roller (J. Scherocman) .

adequate density is usually not obtained throughout the Compaction Equipment

mix, particularly in the rutted areas where it is needed
the most. Use of a pneumatic tire roller may be helpful
in achieving density in the low spots (ruts) as well as in
the high spots on the pavement surface if proper tire
inflation pressure and wheel load are used.
The type of equipment used to compact the asphalt
mix obviously has a significant effect on the degree of
density that can be obtained in a given number of passes
of a particular roller . Three types of self-propelled
compaction equipment are currently being used: static

827
HIGHWAY
ER

ASPHALT CO

Figure 3-91 . Static tandem roller (J. Scherocman) .

Page 3-76

10/15/91
steel wheel rollers, pneumatic tire rollers, and vibratory
rollers.
Static Steel Wheel Rollers
Static steel wheel rollers, shown in Figures 3-90 and
3-91 , normally range in weight from 3 to 14 tons and
have compression drums or rolls that vary in diameter
from approximately 40 in. to more than 60 in. The gross
weight of the roller can usually be altered by adding
ballast to the roller, but this adjustment cannot be made
while the roller is operating, and is not normally
changed during the term of a paving project. For this
type of roller, the gross weight of the machine and the
contact area of the rolls with the mix are both important
in determining the compactive effort applied by the
roller.
Effective weight or contact pressure, in terms of
pounds per square inch of contact area, is the key
variable for this type of equipment and is dependent on
the depth of the penetration of the rolls into the mix.
The greater the depth of penetration, the greater the
contact area and thus the less the contact pressure . This
means that on the first pass of the roller, when the
indentation of the rolls into the mix is the greatest, the
roller exerts less compactive effort on the mix. On
subsequent passes of the roller over the same mix and as
the mix gets more dense, the rolls on the roller pene-
trate the mix to a lesser degree and the compactive
effort obtained by the roller is increased.
Drawbar pull is defined as the horizontal force
required to move the roller forward . The most efficient
roller is the machine with the smallest drawbar pull.
Rollers with large-diameter rolls have lower drawbar
pull (rolling resistance) because they do not tend to
penetrate as far into the mix as does a roller with
smaller-diameter rolls.
Once the size and weight of a static steel wheel roller
is selected , the variables under the control of the roller
operator are the speed of the roller, the position of the
roller on the mat in relation to the paver, operation with
the drive wheel toward the paver, and the number of
passes made with the roller.
Pneumatic Tire Rollers
Most pneumatic rollers are operated in the interme-
diate roller position, behind a vibratory or static steel
wheel breakdown roller and in front of a static steel
wheel finish roller. These rollers are sometimes used,
however, for initial rolling of the mix as well as occa-
sionally for finish rolling.
For this type of roller, shown in Figure 3-92, the
Page 3-77
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
compactive effort applied to the mix is a function of the
wheel load of the machine, the tire pressure , the tire
design (tire size and ply rating) , and the depth of pene-
tration of the tires into the mix. All of the tires on the
roller should be the same size, ply, and tire pressure.
The area of each tire footprint and the wheel load of
the roller are the primary factors in judging the effec-
tiveness of a rubber tire roller. The greater the contact
pressure between the tire and the mix, the greater the
compactive effort applied by the roller. To be effective
when used in the breakdown roller position , larger tire
size rollers should be used . Rollers that are equipped
with tires that are 7.50 x 15 or less are not normally
effective as a breakdown roller; pneumatic tire rollers
with larger-size tires should be employed . If these
rollers are used as intermediate rollers, the minimum
tire ply rating should be 10 ply and the tire pressure
should be 60 psi or greater.
The tire pressure used depends in part on the
number of plies used in the tires. In general, a 6 -ply tire
is limited to a tire pressure of 60 psi, whereas a 10-ply
tire can carry a pressure up to 90 psi. A 12-ply tire,
normally used on most large pneumatic tire rollers, can
be inflated up to 120 psi to compact asphalt mixes. The
minimum weight of the pneumatic tire roller should be
15 tons.
If the mix is tender, a lower tire pressure will dis-
place the mix less than will a higher pressure in the tires.
For a stiff mix, a higher tire pressure can be used,
because the mix will be stable enough to support the
weight of the roller without the mix shoving laterally
under the tires. Tire pressure is normally kept constant
for a particular project, but the level selected should be
dependent on the properties of the mix being compacted
and the position of the roller on the mat. The tire
pressure should not necessarily be the same if the
pneumatic tire roller is used in the breakdown position
compared with the intermediate position in the roller
train.
Some pneumatic tire rollers have the capability of
changing tire pressure during the compaction process;
the "air on the run" or centralized tire inflation-control
system. In theory, this feature allows the roller operator
to change tire pressures as the mix becomes more dense;
that is, a low tire pressure is used for the initial passes
of the roller and a higher tire pressure is used as the mix
stiffness is increased (as the density of the mix becomes
greater) . In practice, however, this process seldom is
used because the operator cannot develop a consistent
rolling pattern and is not able to adjust the tire pressure
continually as the mix and environmental variables
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
10/15/91

change throughout the day. tire roller is not adequate, the operator should alter the
The tires on the pneumatic roller will often pick up wheel load on the tires and/or change the inflation
the mix when an oversanded surface course mix or a mix pressure in the tires.
with some particular additives is being compacted .
Many times attempts are made to eliminate this pickup Vibratory Rollers
problem by spraying water or a release agent on the Vibratory rollers come in a variety of configurations.
tires during the rolling process. This does not always Single-drum vibratory rollers, illustrated in Figure 3-93,
solve the problem. A better solution is to allow the tires are manufactured with both a rigid frame and an articu-
on the roller to reach the same temperature as the mix
being compacted without adding water or release agent
to the tires. When the pneumatic tires and the mix are
at the same temperature, the amount of pickup will be 227302
minimized or eliminated . Skirts, consisting of pieces of
plywood or rubber sheeting, are sometimes hung down
from the sides of the roller around the tires for the
purpose of shielding the tires from the wind and keeping
them hotter. The benefits of such a practice are not
well documented .
If this type of roller is to be used as the breakdown
roller in the roller train at the start of paving in the
morning, it is suggested that, in order to minimize
pickup, the roller should be run back and forth for 10 Figure 3-93. Single-drum vibratory roller (J. Scheroc-
man).
min or so, before the paver begins to lay mix, in order
to start heating up the tires. Once paving commences, lated frame. Double-drum vibratory rollers, shown in
the rubber tire roller should be operated in the interme- Figures 3-94 and 3-95, come in rigid-frame, single-articu-
diate position, behind a static steel wheel roller or a lated -frame, and double-articulated -frame models.
vibratory roller, for another 10 min while the tempera- These rollers can be operated in any one of three
ture of the tires increases to the same level as the mix.
modes: static (with the vibrators off), with one drum
During the heating process, some pickup
of the mix may occur with the tires.
Once the tires have reached the same
temperature as the mix, however, the
pneumatic tire roller can be moved into
the breakdown position and should be
able to operate successfully without pick-
up of the mix. If the paving process is
interrupted for any significant length of
INGRAM
time, this heating start-up procedure will
have to be repeated . In no case should
the pneumatic tire roller, or any other
roller, park on the hot mat while waiting
for the paving operation to start again.
Once the size of the pneumatic tire
roller and the tire pressure to be used
are selected, the only variables that can
be controlled easily by the operator are
the rolling speed, the location of the
roller with respect to the paver, and the
number of roller passes over each point
in the pavement surface. If the com-
pactive effort applied by the pneumatic Figure 3-92 . Pneumatic roller (J. Scherocman) .

Page 3-78
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

This

DYNAPAC

Figure 3-94. Double-drum vibratory roller (J. Scherocman).

vibrating and one drum static, and with both drums
vibrating.
These rollers thus have two types of compactive force
that is applied to the hot-mix asphalt: static weight and
dynamic (impact) force. The compactive effort derived
from the static weight of the roller is caused by the
weight of the rolls and frame. The compactive effort
derived from the impact force is produced by a rotating
eccentric weight located inside the drum (or drums) . As
the eccentric weight rotates about the shaft inside the
drum, a dynamic force is produced . This force
proportional to the eccentric moment of the rotating
weights and the square of the rotational velocity, as
shown in Figure 3-96. Changing the eccentric moment

5-28

Figure 3-95. Articulated double-drum vibrator roller (J. Scherocman) .

Page 3-79
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
arm or adjusting the eccentric mass has a directly
proportional effect on the dynamic force.
Although it is possible to combine the static and the
dynamic forces to determine a total applied force, this
procedure is not recommended for comparing vibratory
rollers of the same or different classes. Each component
of the total applied force should be evaluated separately.
The elements of comparison for the dynamic component
of a vibratory roller are the magnitude of the centrifugal
force, its vibrating frequency, the nominal amplitude,
and the ratio of the vibrating and nonvibrating masses
acting on the drum. The nominal amplitude is defined
as equal to the weight of the drum divided by the
eccentric moment of the rotating weight and is a func-
tion of the weight of the drum and the location of the
eccentrics.
Normal values of nominal amplitude range from 0.01
to 0.04 in. Some rollers can operate at only one fixed
amplitude. Other rollers have "high" and "low" ampli-
tude positions. For these rollers, the "low" nominal
setting is typically 50 percent of the "high" nominal
amplitude setting. The actual amplitude differs from the
nominal amplitude because of the variation in damping
effect of different materials at different states of com-
paction. An increase in the applied nominal amplitude
of vibration increases the compactive effort applied to
the asphalt mixture. For a given frequency, changing
the amplitude setting has a proportional effect on the
dynamic force. For a given amplitude, changing the
frequency influences the dynamic force to the second
power.
The effectiveness of an increase in the amplitude
value, however, is sometimes dependent on the thickness
of the layer being densified . For relatively thin layers of
mix, generally less than approximately 1 1/4 in. in
compacted thickness, the vibratory roller should typically
be operated in the static mode--without vibration . This
is because the roller will bounce after a few passes (and
possibly decompact instead of compact the mix) on such
thin layers of mix because of the variable stiffness of the
underlying pavement courses. In general, for layers
1 1/4 in. thick or greater, a "low" amplitude setting
should be used on the vibratory roller. As the layer
thickness increases, it is often advantageous to increase
the nominal amplitude applied to the asphalt mix.
Unless "high" amplitude is needed to achieve a particular
density level, the vibratory roller should be operated in
"low" amplitude.
The frequency of vibration is the number of complete
cycles that the eccentrics rotate per minute. The faster
the rotation of the eccentrics, the greater the frequency
Page 3-80
10/15/91
of vibration. Some vibratory rollers can operate at only
one frequency or have a very limited selection of
frequencies. Other vibratory rollers can alter the
frequency of the applied load between 1600 and 3000
vibrations/min. Frequencies below 2000 vibrations/min
are not normally acceptable to compact asphalt mixtures.
The spacing of the impacts of the applied force is a
function of the frequency of the vibration and the travel
speed of the roller. A decrease in the frequency of
vibration and an increase in the roller speed both serve
to increase the distance between impacts on the surface
of the mix. Conversely, an increase in the vibratory
frequency and a decrease in the roller speed both cause
the number of impacts per foot of distance to increase,
thereby increasing the compactive effort applied by the
roller. A smaller impact spacing (a greater number of
impacts per foot) is thus usually preferred. It must be
realized, however, that the productivity of the roller can
be decreased as the roller speed is reduced .
It has been suggested by several roller manufacturers
that the ideal impact spacing is in the range of 8 to 10
impacts/ft in order to provide a balance between roller
productivity and layer smoothness. This spacing can be
determined by dividing the roller speed by the frequency
of vibration: Impact spacing = roller speed in feet per
minute divided by the frequency in vibrations per
minute. Eight impacts/ft = 1.5 in. between impacts,
whereas 10 impacts/ft = 1.2 in. between impacts. At a
vibratory frequency of 2400 vibrations/min, a roller
speed of 3.4 miles/hr would provide an impact spacing of
8 impacts/ft, and a roller speed of 2.7 miles/hr would
result in an impact spacing of 10 impacts/ft . If the
vibratory frequency was 3000 vibrations/min, the corre-
sponding roller speeds would be 4.1 and 3.3 miles/hr for
an impact spacing of 8 and 10 impacts/ft, respectively.
In general, the vibratory roller should be operated at
as high a frequency as possible. A roller capable of
running from 2000 to 2400 vibrations/min should be
operated at the upper end of this frequency range.
Similarly, a roller that can be run at 3000 vibrations/min
should be run at or near that maximum frequency
instead of some lower frequency. The use of the highest
possible frequency of vibration increases the number of
impacts per foot at a given roller speed . Most rollers
are designed so that the highest frequency can be
employed at the highest amplitude setting. For some
rollers, however, it is necessary to operate at a somewhat
lower frequency when the roller is used in the highest
amplitude setting. In any case, the most appropriate
impact spacing varies with the lift thickness and the
properties of the asphalt mixture . The selected impact
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

vibratory roller more versatile than either the static steel

wheel or the pneumatic tire rollers. Construction of a
F roller test strip is needed, however, to determine the
optimum combination of rollers, roller speed, and
vibratory amplitude for each particular set of project
conditions. If the required compactive effort cannot be
achieved, the speed of the roller should typically be
decreased and the nominal amplitude setting being used
should be changed .
(4 π 242Fr) Care should be taken when operating a vibratory
Centrifugal force, N (Ib) =
g roller in areas where buildings are nearby. (A safe
where: F = weight of eccentric, N (1 lb) distance from buildings would be about 3 ft for each ton
r = eccentricity, m (ft)
Fr = eccentric moment , Nm (1 lb - ft) of roller weight.) In addition, the use of vibration on
f = frequency , Hz (cycles /s) the roller when underground utilities and drainage
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m /s2 structures are directly under the pavement layer being
MOVEMENT

(32.17 ft/s2)
compacted needs to be considered carefully.
Centrifugal force .
COMPACTION VARIABLES
UP

The primary compaction variables for all types of

AMPLITUDE rollers that can be controlled during the rolling process
(A) are: (a) roller speed , (b) number of roller passes, (c)
rolling zone, and (d) roller pattern . In addition, for
TIME
DOWN

vibratory rollers, vibration frequency, vibration ampli-

TIME (T) FOR FULL CYCLE
Frequency, f = the number of hertz (cycles/s) -- a
single cycle is one full rotation of 1
the eccentric weight. Frequency =
Amplitude, A = the maximum deviation from position at
rest -- one-half of the total movement.
Frequency and amplitude.
Figure 3-96. Basic formulas for vibratory compaction
effort (Asphalt Institute).
spacing (and corresponding roller speed and vibratory
frequency) should optimize the amount of compaction
obtained per pass of the roller and the smoothness of
the pavement.
The roller operator is in control of more variables
when using a vibratory roller and thus should be well
educated in the proper selection and interaction of the
variables. In addition to roller speed, location on the
layer being compacted, and number of passes made,
both the nominal amplitude and the frequency of the
vibratory impact can be varied . Roller speed and
vibratory frequency are combined to determine the
impact spacing. Further, for double-drum vibratory
rollers, the operator can vibrate either one or both rolls.
This allows the operator to control the compactive effort
applied to the mix to a greater degree and makes the
tude, and direction of travel are also under the control
of the operator. Each of these factors has an effect on
the level of density achieved under the compactive effort
applied to the mix.
Roller Speed
The faster a roller passes over a particular point in
the new asphalt surface, the less time the weight of the
roller "dwells" on that point. This in turn means that
less compactive effort is applied to the mixture . As
roller speed increases, the density achieved with each
roller pass decreases. The roller speed selected is
dependent on a combination of factors: productivity,
layer thickness, and the position of the equipment in the
roller "train ."
Static steel wheel rollers can normally operate at a
speed between 2 and 5 miles/hr (176 and 440 ft/min) .
Pneumatic tire rollers typically run between 2 and 7
miles/hr ( 176 and 616 ft/min) , whereas vibratory rollers
can operate at speeds between 2 and 3 1/2 miles/hr (176
and 308 ft/min) . In the breakdown position, the roller
used should be operated at the lower end of its speed
range. In the intermediate position, the speed of the
roller can be increased somewhat, typically into the
middle of the speed range. In the finish rolling position,
the maximum speed of each type of roller can be near
the upper end of its range of compaction speeds. The
following table provides an indication of the range of

Page 3-81
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1 10/15/91

roller speed for three different types of rollers and three Roller speed is usually established by the speed of
different operating positions: the paver; if the paver pulls away from the rollers, the
roller speed is increased in order to catch up . This only
TYPICAL RANGE OF ROLLER SPEEDS, IN causes the density developed in the asphalt mixture to
MILES PER HOUR decrease for the same number of roller passes. If the
TYPE OF ROLLER Breakdown Intermediate Finish paver continually pulls ahead of the rollers, several
Static steel wheel 2-32 22-4 3-5 courses of action can be taken. First, paver speed can
Pneumatic 2-32 22-4 4-7
be reduced to match both plant production and roller
Vibratory 2-3 22-32
production. Too often, the paver is operated on a
"hurry and wait" basis between truckloads. If plant
Rollers can move faster or slower than these speeds, production capacity necessitates higher paver speeds,
but compaction varies directly with roller speed. Com- additional rollers will be required to achieve adequate
pactive effort is significantly improved at slower roller density. Wider rollers can be employed ; a 7-ft-wide
speeds. Roller speed will also be governed by the lateral vibratory roller can be used in place of a 4 1 /2-ft-wide
displacement or tenderness of the asphalt mix. If the tandem roller, for example. The type of roller used can
mixture moves excessively under the rollers, the speed of also be changed; a double-drum vibratory roller em-
the compaction equipment should be reduced . In ployed in lieu of a single-drum vibratory roller.
addition, for vibratory compactors, roller speed also Varying the speed of the compaction equipment
affects the impact spacing as shown in Figures 3-97 and merely causes variations in density. Too often roller
3-98. As discussed above, this spacing is important for operators hustle along to catch up with the paver, park
controlling the amount of dynamic compaction energy on the hot mat, and sit and talk to the rest of the paving
applied to the mix and also for obtaining the proper crew. "Slow and steady" is the key to proper compac-
surface smoothness. tion.

Number of Roller Passes

To obtain the target air void content and uniform
density in an asphalt mixture , it is necessary to roll over
each point in the pavement mat a certain number of
times. The actual number of passes depends on many
m!!!
Т I
variables. The type of compaction équipment is one
very important consideration. Three-wheel steel rollers
1 MPH | 2 MPH❘ 3MPH
have different compaction capabilities than tandem steel
Figure 3-97. Effect of roller speed on impact spacing wheel rollers, than pneumatic tire rollers, and than
(Asphalt Institute). single- or double-drum vibratory rollers.

Roller Speed
Frequency Miles per hour (ft/minute)
(cycles per
minute) 1.5 (132) 2.0 (176) 2.5 (220) 3.0 (264) 3.5 (305)

1000 7.6 5.7 4.5 3.8 3.2

1200 9.1 6.8 5.5 4.6 3.9
1400 10.6 8.0 6.4 5.3 4.5
1600 12.1 9.1 7.3 6.1 5.2
1800 13.6 10.2 8.2 6.8 5.8
2000 15.2 11.4 9.1 7.6 6.5
2200 16.7 12.5 10.0 8.3 7.1
2400 18.2 13.6 10.9 9.1 7.8
2600 19.7 14.8 11.8 9.8 8.4
2800 21.2 15.9 12.7 10.6 9.1
3000 22.7 17.0 13.6 11.4 9.7

Figure 3-98. Impacts per linear foot (Utah DOT).

Page 3-82

10/15/91
The capabilities of each type of roller vary, however,
with mat thickness, mix temperature, mix design ( asphalt
content and aggregate characteristics) and environmental
conditions. In addition, the number of passes required
depends on the position of the rollers in the roller train.
To determine the minimum number of roller passes
needed to achieve proper density levels, a test strip
should be constructed at the start of any major paving
project. A number of different combinations of rollers
and roller patterns should be tried to determine the
"optimum" combination of compactive efforts to achieve
the required density level as efficiently as possible.
Rarely will the first combination of rollers, roller passes,
and rolling zones tried provide the most economical
rolling sequence unless the mix is one with which the
contractor is thoroughly familiar.
Roller passes must be distributed uniformly over the
width and length of the mat. All too often, the center
of the paver lane (the area between wheelpaths of a
single -lane pavement) receives adequate roller coverage
whereas the edges of the mat receive considerably less
compactive effort . As discussed further under the
section on roller patterns , the uniformity of roller
passes is just as important as the number of passes.
A nuclear density gauge can be employed to deter-
mine the optimum number of roller passes necessary to
obtain the required density level. If this piece of equip-
ment is used, however, a proper correlation to the actual
density of the asphalt pavement layer, measured by
cores, must be completed to assure that the density
measured by the nuclear gauge is equal to or greater
than the specifications requirements. Nuclear gauges
typically measure relative density of the mix, not actual
density as determined by the specific gravity of pavement
cores.
Rolling Zone
Compaction must be achieved while the viscosity of
the asphalt cement in the mix and the stiffness of the
mix is low enough to allow for reorientation of the
aggregate particles under the action of the rollers. In
other words, the mat must still be hot for effective
compaction. The rule of thumb commonly used is that
the proper level of air voids should be obtained before
the mix cools from laydown temperature to 175°F.
Many variables affect the rate of cooling of the mixture,
as discussed previously, and the mix compaction cutoff
temperature is a function of all of those variables.
Harsh mixes, for example, may require a higher cutoff
temperature, whereas a tender mix may be able to be
compacted adequately at a much lower temperature than
Page 3-83
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
175°F.
To reach the required density level the quickest,
initial compaction should occur directly behind the
laydown machine. If the stability of the asphalt mixture
is high enough, breakdown rolling can be carried out
very close to the paver, while the mat temperature is still
high. More density is obtained with one pass when the
mix temperature is 250°F than with a similar pass when
the mat is at 220°F. Thus, the rolling zone (the distance
the breakdown roller operates behind the paver) should
be as short as possible.
Sometimes when a tender mix is placed, the initial
rolling is delayed (the rolling zone is lengthened) to
avoid excessive shoving or checking of the mix by the
rollers. Depending on the characteristics of the mix, it
is still often possible to obtain the required level of
density of the mix as long as the proper combination of
rollers and compactive effort is applied to the mix. In
some cases, however, the mix is so tender that rolling
must be delayed to the point that the desired density
level cannot be achieved. In this case, other solutions
need to be tried . When a tender mix is encountered ,
the cause of the tenderness must be determined and
changes made in the mix production and paving opera-
tion to assure adequate density of the asphalt mix. A
discussion of causes for checking and shoving in the mix
is given in the following section on mat problems.
Roller Patterns
Rollers are " busy" most of the time on a paving
project. The question is whether they operate correctly
and effectively. Generally, compaction is applied , but
not necessarily in the right place. Numerous compaction
studies have shown that the middle of the width of the
paver pass typically receives more compactive effort than
the edges of the pavement. This is unfortunate, because
traffic uses the wheelpath areas and travels near the
edge of the pavement more often than in the center of
a lane.
On an actual asphalt concrete-paving project of an
Interstate roadway, the mixture was placed in a trench
section, 12 ft wide, in two 3 -in. compacted lifts . Initial
or breakdown rolling on the first layer was accomplished
by the contractor using a 7-ft-wide vibratory roller. For
the 12-ft-wide paver pass, two passes of the vibratory
roller could cover the whole mat width, with a 2-ft
overlap in the center. To gain adequate density, the
breakdown roller operator had to keep the vibratory
roller tight to each side of the trench. In order to cover
the complete width of the lane, the operator needed to
make each roller pass, on each side of the lane, directly
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Lane width 12'
.OT
10' 2 4 6' 8 12
PAVER
Pass Five 4
+ to assure proper compaction of the whole lane width.
Pass Four
Pass Three +
Pass Two
Pass One +
Figure 3-99. Improper roller pattern (J. Scherocman) .
toward and away from the paver without ever making an
attempt to roll the center of the lane.
On the job, however, the roller operator made his
first pass, 7 ft wide, up the left-hand side of the mat
(Figure 3-99). Upon reaching the back of the paver, the
roller operator reversed direction, changed lateral
direction slightly, and moved away from the paver by
traveling down the center of the mat, with 2 1/2 ft of
free area on both sides cf the vibratory roller . The third
pass, again toward the paver, was along the right-hand
edge of the driving lane The fourth pass (away from
the paver) was once more down the center, similar to
pass number two. The final roller pass, to catch up to
the paver, was a reversal of pass four--up the center of
the lane. The roller operator continued to repeat this
five-pass pattern as the paver moved down the roadway.
Five passes of this breakdown roller were applied to
the center of the 12-ft area, a place where no traffic
runs. Only one pass each was provided over each
wheelpath and the edge of the lift. The roller was
simply not being used properly because no rolling
pattern had been set up and followed. A future failure
was built because proper density was not obtained in the
wheelpaths, where it was needed . If an adequate
Page 3-84
10/15/91
number of roller passes are provided on each edge of
the lane being compacted, the density level in the center
of the lane will always be more than enough to meet
specifications. Thus, roller patterns should be designed
For each roller employed on a project, the mat width
can be divided by the width of the compaction rolls to
determine the number of passes needed to cover each
transverse point in the surface. A pass is defined as one
trip of the roller in one direction over any one spot.
Multiple passes are needed to completely compact the
transverse width of the lane being paved as well as over
each point in the pavement surface to assure attainment
of the required level of density.
If the width of the roller drums (or tires) is 84 in. (7
ft) , only two passes of the roller are needed to cover the
12-ft-wide lane, including a 6-in.-wide overhang at each
edge of pavement. This is shown in Figure 3-100 . The
two passes of the 84-in.-wide roller overlap for a dis-
tance of 12 in. in the center of the lane. If allowance is
made for the fact that the roller operator may not
always be able to maintain a 6 -in. overhang on the edge
of the pavement, the 12- in.-wide overlap in the center of
the lane is still sufficient to permit the whole pavement
width to be compacted in two passes of the 84- in .-wide
roller with a minimum of a 6-in.-wide overlap needed
between roller passes .
A roller that is 72 in. (6 ft) wide cannot cover the
complete 12-ft lane width in only two passes, as shown
on the second line of Figure 3-100 . Two passes do not
allow for any overhang at the edge of the lane or any
overlap at the center. Thus, three passes of the 72-in.-
wide roller would be necessary to properly compact the
lane, as shown in the third line of the figure .
If the roller had drums or tires that were 60 in . (5 ft)
in width, three passes of the roller would be required ,
similar to the roller with the 72-in.-wide drums. This is
illustrated on the fourth line of Figure 3-100 . If 6 in. is
allowed for edge- of-lane overhang, the amount of
overlap between roller passes is 12 in. This allows for
ample steering variation by the roller operator and will
permit the 12- ft lane width to be covered with three
passes of the 60-in.-wide roller.
A roller with drums that are 54 in . would need to
make four passes across the width of a 12-ft lane in
order to completely cover the lane width. As shown in
the fifth line of Figure 3-100 , if this roller overhangs
each edge of the pavement by 6 in. and only three
passes across the lane width are made, the roller drums
would only overlap 3 in. between the first and second
passes and 3 in. between the second and third passes
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91 Appendix 1

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6" 12"
Line 1

84" Drum

0"
Line 2

72" Drum

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6" 30" 12" 30"
Line 3

72" Drum

6" 12" 12″ 6"

Line 4

60" Drum
in

6" 6"
Line 5

54" Drum

6" 24" 12" 24"

Line 6

54" Drum

Figure 3-100. Lane width versus roller width (J. Scherocman) .

across the width. This amount of overlap between compaction process to start at the low side of the pave-
passes would not be adequate and four passes of the ment lane and proceed toward the high or upper side of
54-in.-wide roller would be necessary to properly com- the lane on subsequent passes of the rollers. With
pact a paving lane that is 12 ft wide , as shown in the last modern compaction equipment and more stable asphalt

line of Figure 3-100.
In a longitudinal direction , the rollers should not stop
at the same transverse end point with each pass of the
roller. The reversal points should be staggered to
prevent shoving of the mix. A slight change in direction,
or curl, is beneficial at each reversal spot to further
reduce the tendency of the mix to shove under the
compactor and to eliminate the possibility of a bump at
the point where the roller reversal occurs . The roller
should not sit and wait while parked on the hot mat. A
mixes, this requirement usually is not necessary but may
be advisable for superelevations and lifts that are thick
in relation to maximum particle size. In addition , some
of these same specifications stated that the rollers had
to overlap the width of the previous pass by at least half
the width of the roller. This procedure leads to very
nonuniform compaction across the width of the pave-
ment lane . It is thus recommended that each subse-
quent pass of a roller overlap the previous pass by a
minimum of 6 in.

long delay, caused by lack of haul trucks at the paver or

filling the compactor with water, allows the roller to Direction of Travel and Mode of Operation for
indent the new mat . It is generally impossible to roll out Vibratory Rollers
these marks once the mat has cooled . When using a single-drum vibratory roller, the com-
Many old compaction specifications require the pression drum should normally be operated toward the

Page 3-85
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
paver. This assures that the maximum compactive effort
of the compression drum is placed on the mat before
the lesser compactive effort of the steering drum . In
addition, it provides a denser layer to better resist
displacement of the mix caused by the continual move-
ment of the tiller drum during the steering action. A
single-drum articulated-frame roller should also be
operated with the driven drum toward the laydown
machine. Again, this assures that the maximum com-
pactive effort is applied to the mix as quickly as possible.
When only one drum is operated in vibration,
double-drum rollers are often operated with the vibrated
drum toward the laydown machine and with the static
drum trailing. A double-drum articulated-frame roller
that has two driven drums (a vibratory tandem roller)
operates the same in either direction; thus, the direction
of travel is not a consideration for this type of roller.
For harsh or stiff mixtures, breakdown rolling is
normally accomplished with both drums vibrating.
Subsequent compaction passes are also made in the full
vibratory mode. For mixtures with normal stability,
breakdown rolling with a vibratory roller should be
accomplished in the full vibratory mode or in a combina-
tion mode (with one drum vibrating and the other drum
static). The full vibratory mode is typically more
efficient in terms of compactive effort, however, than is
the combination mode. For tender mixtures, breakdown
is usually accomplished in the static mode. Subsequent
passes are usually made in the combination mode if
mixture displacement is not too significant. When in the
combination mode for tender mixtures, the trailing drum
instead of the front drum is usually vibrated.
DETERMINATION OF THE ROLLING PATTERN
Choice of Compaction Equipment
Different mixes may require considerably different
levels of compactive effort and thus different compaction
equipment and rolling procedures. An asphalt mix
containing large aggregate, for example, may need
different types of rollers to achieve a required level of
density than an asphalt concrete mix made with smaller-
size coarse aggregate .
The actual rolling pattern to be used to compact the
mix on a paving project should be determined at the
start of the project through the construction of a roller
test strip . This strip should be located at a convenient
point where the pavement layer placed will remain as
part of the final pavement structure. The mix should be
representative of the material to be produced for the
project; generally the plant should produce mix for a
short period of time before mix is made for the compac-
Page 3-86
10/15/91
tion test section. The thickness of the layer compacted
should be the same as that to be used for the rest of
that particular layer, and the length of the test strip
should be at least 300 ft . The condition of the underly-
ing layers should be representative of that on the rest of
the project .
Due consideration should be given to the selection of
rollers that are to be employed to densify the pavement
layer. The combination of rollers used on a previous
project might not be the most cost-efficient or effective
for the variables involved in the present job. Although
vibratory rollers are usually used for breakdown rolling
and pneumatic tire rollers for intermediate rolling, a
greater degree of density with a lesser number of total
roller passes might be obtained on some mixes (e.g.,
when a large pneumatic tire roller is used in the break-
down position with the vibratory roller following in the
intermediate position) . Determination of the "optimum"
combination of rollers and roller patterns might require
the construction of two or more test sections .
If a large pneumatic tire roller is used in the break-
down position, it is generally difficult to determine the
degree of density obtained in the mat through the use of
a nuclear gauge because of the rough texture of the mat
after the first several passes of the pneumatic tires.
Nuclear readings must be taken after the mix has been
smoothed out with the intermediate roller. A compac-
tion test strip should be conducted to determine the
most effective sequence of rollers to achieve the re-
quired degree of compaction, the smoothness of the
mat, and economical production.
Desired density levels are easier to obtain when the
asphalt mix is hot. Instead of using the rollers in the
traditional roller "train" concept, consideration should be
given to using two breakdown rollers (of the same type)
instead of a breakdown roller followed by an intermedi-
ate roller. This will be particularly beneficial on thin
layers of mix under unfavorable environmental condi-
tions.
Rolling Patterns
The first calculation needed concerns the amount of
mix to be produced by the plant, the width of the pave-
ment lane, and the depth of the mix. Once the typical
speed of the paver is known, the maximum speed of the
rollers should be selected . The actual speed selected for
each roller will depend on the type of roller and its
width as well as its position in the rolling sequence . It
will also depend on the ability of the roller to achieve a
balance between achieving density, smoothness, and an
unblemished pavement surface .

10/15/91
The next calculation that must be made concerns a
comparison of the width of the layer being placed and
the width of the rollers to be used in order to determine
the number of transverse roller lanes needed to cover
the whole width of the pavement. (A pass is defined as
one trip of the roller in one direction over any point on
the pavement surface . ) With the paver speed , the roller
speed, and the number of transverse lanes needed to
obtain full-width coverage of the roadway surface, the
number of passes that each roller can place over each
point in the pavement and still keep up with the paver
can be determined . The number of passes, however,
must be matched to the plant production rate and to the
speed of the paver.
The number of roller passes needed over each point
on the pavement surface is a function of a large number
of variables . One of the most important variables is the
level of density required in the pavement layer. If a
method-type specification is being used, the required
number of passes can simply be counted . What is not
known, however, is what degree of density (air void
content) will be obtained in the mix after the specified
number of passes is completed . If a certain percentage
of laboratory density or theoretical maximum density is
needed, the higher the required percentage , the more
compactive effort that will have to be applied to the
pavement layer.
The type of breakdown roller used also will be very
important. Under some conditions, one vibratory roller
may be all that is needed to achieve density, depending
on the properties of the mix. In other cases, if checking
in the mix occurs, several passes of a pneumatic tire
roller may be necessary to reach the density level
needed . One or more passes of a static steel wheel
roller is normally needed to remove roller marks,
particularly if a pneumatic tire roller has been used .
Because of the number of variables involved, it is
impossible to generalize about the "best" combination of
rollers and roller pattern to use.
The most common method for monitoring changes in
density with roller passes is through the use of a nuclear
density gauge. Density is estimated by transmitting
gamma rays into the mix and measuring the amount of
radiation reflected back to the device in a given amount
of time. The count data that are obtained can be
related to the relative density of the layer. Nuclear
gauge readings should be taken after each pass of each
roller, and the rate of increase in density after each pass
determined. When no appreciable increase in density is
obtained with the application of additional roller passes,
the maximum relative density for that mix has been
Page 3-87
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
obtained. When a pneumatic tire roller is used in the
compaction process, particularly in the breakdown mode,
it is often very difficult to obtain an accurate density
reading with a nuclear gauge . One or more passes with
a steel wheel roller may be necessary before a valid
nuclear gauge reading can be obtained .
The density value determined with the nuclear gauge
is relative and is generally not the same as the density
value obtained from cores cut from the pavement. The
gauge reading indicates the density that can be obtained
at one given time, under one set of environmental
conditions , with one combination of rollers. Thus a
correlation must be developed between the nuclear
density reading and the actual unit weight of the pave-
ment. The correlation is determined from cores that are
cut from the test section after the rolling process is
complete. That unit weight must be compared to the
maximum theoretical unit weight of the mix in order to
calculate the actual in-place air void content of the layer.
If the proposed test section rolling pattern does not
achieve the required density, as measured by the cores,
changes to the pattern should be made. An initial
adjustment might be to reduce the speed of the rollers.
The frequency of vibration and the applied nominal
amplitude from a vibratory roller might be increased.
The air pressure in the tires of a pneumatic tire roller
might be increased and/or the weight on the roller could
be increased. The first two rollers might be run in
echelon instead of end to end, as in a normal roller
train. If none of these changes can increase the density
of the mix enough and still permit the rollers to keep up
with the production requirements of the paver, addition-
al rollers may be needed to obtain the required density
levels.
ROLLER OPERATING TECHNIQUES
To compact an asphalt layer properly, the rollers
should be used efficiently while the mix is still above the
minimum compaction temperature . The factors that
should be observed when monitoring the compaction
process follow. The techniques noted in Section Five
for joint construction should also be observed .
• The time available for compaction is primarily
related to the thickness of the layer being placed. An
increase in lift thickness can substantially increase the
time available for the roller to densify the mix.
• An increase in the laydown temperature of the
mix behind the paver can increase the amount of time
available for compaction significantly. The feasibility of
this approach, however, depends on the properties of
the asphalt concrete mix at the elevated temperature
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
and the tenderness of the mix under the compaction
equipment.
• A decrease in the speed of the rollers will in-
crease the compactive effort applied to the mix.
• The breakdown roller and intermediate roller
should be operated as close to the paver as possible in
order to obtain density before the mix cools to a mini-
mum temperature of 175°F.
• If the mix cannot support the weight of the
compaction equipment, the mix should be redesigned or
the compaction procedures should be changed .
• The roller pattern should be monitored to assure
that the compaction equipment is applying the same
amount of compactive effort at all points transversely
across the lane being paved.
• The speed of the compaction equipment will
depend on the type of roller being used and its position
in the compaction process. For static steel wheel and
pneumatic tire rollers in the breakdown position, the
maximum speed should not exceed 2 1/2 miles/hr. For
a vibratory roller in the same position, the maximum
speed should not exceed 3 1/2 miles/hr.
• A vibratory roller should be operated at the maxi-
mum possible vibratory frequency in order to increase
the number of impacts per foot. At least 8 to 10
impacts/ft are needed to obtain adequate density and
layer smoothness.
• The nominal amplitude setting on the vibratory
Page 3-88
10/15/91
roller should be determined by the characteristics of the
mix and by the thickness of the layer being compacted.
In general, vibratory rollers should be operated in the
static mode when the compacted lift thickness is less
than about 1 1/4 in. For greater lift thicknesses, the
roller should normally be operated at low nominal
amplitude. If density cannot be obtained, the nominal
amplitude may be increased to determine if additional
compactive effort will be beneficial in achieving the
required density level. In general, the nominal ampli-
tude setting can be increased in proportion to the
increase in compacted thickness of the layer.
• The optimum combination of rollers and roller
patterns for a past project may not be the same opti-
mum combination for a current project or even for a
different type or layer of mix on the same project. Test
sections should be constructed to determine the most
efficient and most effective combination of compaction
equipment and roller patterns to use for each combina-
tion of job variables.
• Two similar rollers run side by side ( in echelon)
will typically produce a greater level of density in the
mix, with the same number of roller passes, than will the
same two rollers operated end to end as a breakdown
and an intermediate roller.
If the rollers cannot keep up with the speed of
the paver, more rollers should be used or the paver
should be slowed down.

10/15/91
SECTION SEVEN
EQUIPMENT AND MAT PROBLEMS
INTRODUCTION
Equipment and mat problems can be defined as
defects that occur in the asphalt mixture during or soon
after the laydown and compaction operations. These
problems can be divided into two primary categories: (a)
equipment-related problems and (b) mixture-related
problems. Several different types of mat deficiencies are
discussed, with emphasis on the description of the
problem, the cause of the problem (equipment- or mix-
related) , the solution, and the effect on pavement
performance.
Figure 3-101 summarizes the various kinds of prob-
lems that can occur in an asphalt concrete layer during
construction. Problems in other types of mixes are not
listed, but many problems are common to all mixes.
Listed in the first column is a description of various mat
defects. Marked in the remaining columns are several
possible causes for each particular mat problem. The
check marks indicate equipment-related causes, and the
X marks indicate mix-related causes. Mix-related causes
should generally be corrected by changes in the mix
design. Because of the interaction of various equip-
ment-related and mix-related causes, no attempt has
been made to prioritize the causal items.
SURFACE WAVES
Description
An asphalt surface can have two types of waves:
short waves and long waves. Short waves are generally
1 to 3 ft apart, with 1 1/2 to 2 ft being the most common
distance. Long waves are considerably further apart and
may correspond to the distance between truckloads of
mix. Long waves may also be associated with the
reversal points ofthe compaction equipment, particularly
on thick-lift construction.
An additional type of defect in the pavement surface
is a roughness or washboard effect caused by improper
operation of the vibratory roller . The distance between
this type of wave is generally very small, typically less
than 3 or 4 in.
Cause
A major cause of short waves is a fluctuating head of
material in front of the paver screed . This variation in
the amount of mix being carried back to the augers by
the slat conveyors and deposited in front of the screed
Page 3-89
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
causes the screed to rise and fall as the force pushing
against it changes. Too much mix (at the top of the
augers) and then too little mix (at the bottom of the
augers) being carried in the auger chamber in front of
the screed causes the wavy surface as the screed reacts
to the variable forces on it.
Another cause of short waves can be a screed that is
in poor mechanical condition; one that has excessive
play in the screed-control connections. Short waves can
also be formed in the mat by improper mounting or
sensitivity of the automatic grade control on the paver
or by use of an inadequate grade reference device. The
problem might also be related to a mobile reference
(floating beam) that is bouncing or to the truck driver
holding the brakes while the truck is being pushed by
the paver .
Short waves can also be a function of the mix design,
particularly in regard to a mix that varies in stiffness
caused by changes in mix temperature or mix composi-
tion. As the stiffness of the mix varies, the forces of the
mix pushing on the screed also vary, causing the screed
to rise and fall and place a mat with short waves.
Finally, if the mix design is improper in aggregate
gradation, asphalt content, mix temperature, and/or
moisture content, the rollers may shove and displace the
mix during the compaction process . Normally, however,
the short waves are placed in the mat by the paver
either because of its operation or because of changes in
mix stiffness rather than by the compaction equipment.
Long waves are caused by some of the same variables
that cause short waves. A fluctuation in the amount of
material in front of the screed and mix stiffness variation
causes the screed to react to the change in the pressure
on it. If the distance between the wave peaks, however,
corresponds to the length of pavement between truck-
loads of mix, the waves may have been caused by incor-
rectly set hopper flow gates on the paver or by the paver
hopper and slat conveyor being emptied between loads
of mix. Poor mechanical condition and improper
operation of the screed (continually changing the
manual thickness-control cranks, for example) as well as
incorrectly mounted automatic grade controls can cause
a long-wave type of surface problem. If a stringline is
being used as a grade reference, a sag in that line
between support posts can be a cause of long waves.
Delivery of the mix to the paver can also be a factor in
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
10/15/91

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Page 3-90

10/15/91
long-wave roughness, particularly if the haul truck
bumps into the paver or if the truck driver holds the
brakes while the truck is being pushed by the paver.
One final factor can be the condition of the underlying
surface; the long waves may be a reflection of the waves
in that base material.
Long waves can also be found at the points where
the compaction equipment reverses direction . This
problem will be most prevalent when the asphalt layer
being placed is greater than about 4 in . thick. The
problem may be enhanced when the maximum -size
coarse aggregate used in the mix is relatively small
compared with the lift thickness. The waves are caused
by the bow wave that forms in front of the roller.
In terms of mix design, long waves can be caused by
truckload-to-truckload segregation of the mix and by
changes in mix temperature. Both of these deficiencies
cause the forces on the screed to vary, causing, in turn ,
a wavy surface. Compaction equipment can also create
a wavy mat if the roller operator turns or reverses the
machine too abruptly.
Roughness or washboarding is normally caused by
improper operation of the vibratory roller. This type of
equipment should be operated at as high a frequency as
possible and at an amplitude related to the thickness of
the layer being compacted ; usually a greater amplitude
setting for a thicker layer of mix and a lower amplitude
setting for thinner lifts of material. Further, the wash-
board effect can be worse if the roller is operated at a
high speed, particularly if the frequency setting is less
than 2400 vibrations/min.
Solution
Short waves can be cured only by preventing their
formation. The most important factor for short waves
is to keep the amount of mix (head of material) in front
of the screed as consistent as possible . In addition, the
stiffness of the mix that is related to both its tempera-
ture and its composition should be maintained as
constant as feasible. The amount of mix is controlled by
the proper setting of the hopper flow gates and by
keeping the slat conveyors and augers operating as much
of the time as possible (close to 100 percent) while the
machine is moving forward . Mix stiffness is controlled
at the asphalt plant by keeping the mix temperature,
aggregate gradation, and fluids content (asphalt content
plus moisture content) within normal specification limits.
Any factors that cause either the volume or the stiffness
of the mix at the screed to change can cause short waves
in the asphalt concrete mat.
Surface waves caused by automatic grade-control
Page 3-91
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
problems can be detected by shutting off the grade
controls and determining whether or not the long or
short waves continue to be formed . If the grade con-
trols are at fault, the operation and maintenance manual
supplied with the controls should be consulted to
determine the proper corrective action to take. Sags in
a stringline reference can be found by sighting down the
line as the grade sensor wand passes along the string.
Short or long waves caused by the mechanical condition
or operation of the paver screed can usually be detected
by careful observation of the paver during mix laydown.
The long waves formed by incorrect haul truck operation
and/or incorrect compaction equipment operation can
also be detected easily by spending a few minutes
watching each of these processes.
If washboarding is caused by the incorrect operation
of the vibratory roller, a change should be made in the
vibratory amplitude setting, the vibratory frequency,
and/or the speed of the roller. This problem is discussed
in detail in the section on compaction techniques.
Performance
Long-term pavement performance is affected by
surface waves, both short and long, in two primary ways.
First, the waves reduce the smoothness of the pavement,
which lowers the pavement condition rating or present
serviceability index of the roadway. Structural perfor-
mance of the pavement may be changed , however, only
if the waves are severe enough to increase the dynamic
or impact loading of the pavement under heavy truck
traffic. Second, short waves and the factors that cause
the short waves can affect pavement density levels . A
tender mix is generally more difficult to compact proper-
ly than is a stable mix. This may result in a decrease in
density and a corresponding increase in air void content .
Washboarding is basically roughness built into the
pavement surface during the compaction operation. As
it affects the degree of density obtained during the
compaction process, this type of defect can reduce the
long-term durability of the pavement layer. In addition,
it contributes to a rough ride for the vehicles using the
pavement.
TEARING
Description
There are three types of mat tearing or pulling of the
asphalt mix under the screed of the paver. Each of the
types is described by the location of the tear marks in
the mat: (a) in the center of the lane, (b) on the outside
edges of the lane, and (c) full width. Tearing of the mat
is usually caused by improper paver condition or opera-
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
tion, by a cold mix temperature, or by a compacted mat
thickness that is less than twice the maximum size of the
aggregate used in the mix.
Cause
The screed on the paver should be adjusted to
provide the correct degree of crown . The appearance of
streaks behind the screed is primarily caused by an
improper relationship between the crown at the leading
(front) and trailing (back) edge of the screed. A tearing
or open texture of the mat several feet wide in the
center of the mat may be caused by a lack of lead crown
in the paver screed . Conversely, a tearing or open
texture along both outside edges of the asphalt mixture
is normally caused by an excess of lead crown in the
screed. For most mixes, the lead crown of the screed
should be set slightly greater than the tail crown . The
proper relationship between lead and tail crown results
in a uniform texture of the mat across its full width.
Center streaks, 6 to 8 in. wide, can be caused by a
lack of asphalt material being tucked under the auger
gearbox area at the center of the auger chamber . This
could be the result of improper flow gate settings: not
enough mix being fed back to the screed . It is more
likely to be caused by missing, worn, or improperly set
reverse augers or paddles on the augers that are used to
force mix underneath the gearbox. Edge streaks can be
formed by improper flow gate settings or by incorrect
installation of the screed extensions .
Full-width tearing of the mat can be attributed to a
number of different factors. Tearing can occur because
of warped or worn-out screed plates . If the forward
speed of the paver is too great for a particular mix,
tearing can occur. The use of a mixture with aggregate
that is large compared with the mat thickness being
paved can be responsible for tearing of the mat . Cold
mix temperatures, particularly when combined with a
cold paver screed , can significantly affect the amount of
tearing that will occur. In addition , if the thickness of
the layer being placed is less than twice the size of the
maximum aggregate used in the mix, full-width tearing
can occur.
Solution
Constant center or outside edge mat tearing usually
can be eliminated by adjusting the relationship between
the lead and tail crown on the paver screed . If this
change does not solve the problem, the setting of the
paver flow gates should be modified . Full-width tearing,
which is normally caused by a cold screed, cold mix
temperature, worn screed plates, or a compacted mat
Page 3-92
10/15/91
thickness that is less than twice the depth of the maxi-
mum aggregate, can be cured by preheating the screed
properly before paving commences, increasing the mix
temperature, replacing the warped or worn-out screed
plates, or increasing the lift thickness, respectively.
Performance
Tearing of the mat affects the long-term pavement
performance by causing changes in mixture density in
areas where the tearing has occurred . Torn areas may
appear segregated and are usually deficient in mix
quantity. Depending on the severity of the tearing,
pavement performance will be reduced in relation to the
degree to which the tearing reduces the density and
increases the air void content of the mat. In addition,
the torn areas will be more susceptible to raveling and
also to the effects of moisture (stripping) in those areas.
NONUNIFORM TEXTURE
Description
Nonuniform mat texture (Figure 3-102) can be
described as differences in the appearance of the mix,
both transversely and longitudinally, as the mix is placed
and compacted. Normally, minor differences in surface
texture will be apparent because of differences in the
alignment of the larger coarse aggregate particles as the
mix passes out from beneath the paver screed . ' Addi-
tionally, a mix with a higher fine aggregate (sand)
content will have a more uniform surface texture than a
mix containing a larger percentage of coarse aggregate.
Cause
Many factors concerning the operation of the asphalt
paver affect the uniformity of the surface texture of the
mix. A variable amount of mix against the screed,
caused by overloaded augers or running the hopper
empty between truckloads, can cause variations in the
amount of mix tucked under the screed and thus produc-
es a nonuniform texture. Improper screed maintenance,
including worn or loose screed plates, screed extensions
incorrectly installed , or low screed vibratory frequency,
may alter the mat texture significantly and cause non-
uniformity. A low mix temperature, caused either by
plant problems or by the paver sitting too long between
truckloads of mix, can also be a factor in obtaining
uneven mat texture, especially if the paver screed is also
cold .
When the compacted layer thickness is less than two
times the dimension of the largest aggregate particles,
tearing of the mat and nonuniform surface texture
result. A good rule of thumb for the relationship

10/15/91
Figure 3-102. Nonuniform mat texture (J. Scheroc-
man).
between maximum aggregate size used in the mix and
the minimum compacted course thickness is that the
depth of the compacted layer should be at least twice
the largest coarse aggregate particle size . Thus a mix
containing a 3/4-in. top-size aggregate should be placed
at least 1 1/2 in. thick.
A soft or yielding base under the course being con-
structed may cause a variable surface texture for the new
layer. Obviously, segregation of the mix caused by poor
mix design or improper handling of the mix during the
mixing, loading, hauling, unloading, or placing opera-
tions can contribute to a nonuniform surface texture.
The variability of the texture will also be affected by any
factors that cause nonuniformity in the mix, such as
deviations in aggregate gradation, asphalt content, or
mix temperature .
Solution
The causes of nonuniform surface texture are many,
and thus the solutions to the problems are many. Paver
operation, particularly in regard to the need for a con-
stant head of material in front of the screed, should be
monitored closely. The paver and screed should both be
well maintained and in good operating condition . The
Page 3-93
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
compacted thickness of the mat being placed should be
designed so that it is at least twice the size of the largest
coarse aggregate piece used in the mix. Finally, a mix
that is tender, variable in aggregate gradation or asphalt
content, or easily segregated should be modified to
improve its characteristics before it is delivered to the
paver for laydown .
Performance
Nonuniform surface texture usually goes together
with nonuniform density. Areas in which the coarse
aggregate has been dragged by the paver screed or in
which segregation of the mix has occurred will generally
have a lower density after the application of the same
compactive effort by the rollers. As density decreases
and air void content increases, the durability and service-
ability of the asphalt concrete mat decrease markedly.
SCREED MARKS
Description
Screed marks are transverse indentations in the
asphalt mat . They occur when the paver stops between
truckloads of mix (Figure 3-103) . Depending on the
mixture being placed, some screed marks are barely
noticeable, whereas some can be very deep. Screed
marks can also occur in the longitudinal direction when
rigid or hydraulic extensions are used (Figure 3-104) .
Cause
There are several causes of transverse screed marks .
One is excessive play in the mechanical connections on
the screed. If this is the problem, the screed marks will
be visible each time the paver stops. A second cause of
screed marks is when the screed is set up incorrectly and
rides heavily on its rear edge. Another cause is the haul
truck bumping into the paver when preparing to dis-
charge the mix, and/or the truck driver holding the
brakes on the truck when the paver starts to push the
truck. In this case, the screed marks will appear only
when the truck-paver interchange is improper. An
asphalt mix that is very tender will be indented by the
paver screed, particularly if the screed is heavy, such as
a screed with hydraulic extensions or with several rigid
extensions.
Longitudinal screed marks are caused by improper
setting of the screed extensions relative to the main
screed . When extensions are used , the vertical position
of the extension and the angle of attack of the extension
must be the same as that of the primary paver screed .
If rigid extensions are set at the wrong elevation, a
longitudinal mark will occur at the point where the
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Figure 3-103. Transverse screed marks on one side of an extendable screed (J. Scherocman).
screeds are joined . If hydraulic extensions are used, two
longitudinal marks may occur--one at the end of the
main screed and/or one at the inside edge of the exten-
sion on each side of the machine.
Solution
If the transverse screed marks are a result of the
mechanical condition of the paver screed or improper
setup of the screed, the screed should be repaired . If
the screed marks are caused by the truck bumping into
the paver, the laydown operation should be altered so
that the paver picks up the haul truck instead of the
truck backing into the paver. In addition, once the
paver establishes contact with the truck, the truck drivers
should apply only enough pressure to the brakes to keep
the truck in contact with the paver.
The development of screed marks, particularly if the
mix is very tender, can be eliminated by not stopping the
paver between truckloads of mix. This can be accom-
plished by using a windrow elevator or material transfer
vehicle to deliver mix to the paver hopper. If dump
trucks are used to haul the mix, however, it generally is
better paving practice to stop the paver between truck-
loads of material (stopping and restarting the paver as
quickly as practical) instead of allowing the opportunity
for the paver operator to run the paver hopper dry,
reduce the head of mix in front of the paver screed, and
increase the opportunity for truckload-to-truckload
Page 3-94
10/15/91
segregation.
Longitudinal screed marks caused by improper
setting of the elevation of the extensions can be elimi-
nated by correcting the position of each extension
relative to the main screed . Adjustments to both the
vertical position and the angle of attack of the exten-
sions may be needed .
Performance
Transverse screed marks generally are not detrimen-
tal to the durability of the mat. They may, however,
affect the ride, creating a bump whenever the marks
cannot be rolled out completely by the compaction
equipment. In many cases, the screed marks affect the
overall performance of the mix less than does the
slowdown and startup of the paver when the operator
attempts to keep the paver moving as the empty truck
pulls away from the paver and the loaded truck backs
into the hopper .
Longitudinal screed marks indicate that the level of
the mix under the extension is different from the level of
mix under the main screed . If the screed marks are
severe, differential compaction may occur across the
"joint," with the compaction equipment initially riding on
the higher mat. If not able to be completely rolled out,
the longitudinal screed marks can leave a ridge in the
mix.

10/15/91
Figure 3-104. Longitudinal screed marks between
main and extendable screed (J. Scherocman).
SCREED RESPONSIVENESS
Description
As the thickness-control cranks on the screed are
changed, the angle of attack of the screed is increased or
decreased . As the paver moves forward to place the
mix, the screed moves up to or down to the new equilib-
rium point for the new mat thickness. When the screed
fails to respond to changes in the thickness-control
cranks, the operator is unable to alter the depth of the
layer being placed . The paver also loses its inherent
ability, through the principle of the floating screed , to
provide the self- leveling action needed to place a smooth
asphalt mat.
Cause
An extremely fast paver speed (more than 80 ft/min
for thin lifts or more than 50 ft/min for layers more than
2 1/2 in. in depth) may cause a lack of responsiveness of
the screed. The mechanical condition of the screed
affects the screed reaction . The screed riding on the
Page 3-95
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
screea lift cylinders or loose connections on the thick-
ness-control cranks will cause the screed to be unrespon-
sive. If automatic grade controls are used, an incorrect
sensor location will cause the screed to be unable to
react to input signals from the grade sensors. If the
maximum aggregate size used in the mix is too great
compared with the depth of mix being placed , the screed
will ride on or drag the largest aggregate pieces. The
screed, therefore, cannot change angle and is thus
unresponsive to changes in the thickness-control settings.
Variations in mix temperature also cause the screed to
be unresponsive to angle-of- attack changes, because the
mix stiffness variations themselves are causing the screed
to continually seek new equilibrium levels for the forces
acting on it.
Solution
The paver and screed must be in good operating
condition. The sensor for the automatic grade controls
must not be located at either the tow point or behind
the pivot point of the screed; the sensor should be
placed in the area between one-third and two-thirds of
the length of the leveling arm. If the mix texture is
uniform (indicating a proper relationship between course
thickness and maximum aggregate size) , the screed will
be able to respond to changes in the settings on the
thickness controls.
Performance
An unresponsive screed causes a rough asphalt mat .
The screed is unable to react to manual changes in the
thickness settings and also loses its ability to self-level an
existing pavement surface by being unable to reduce the
amount of mix placed over the high points in that
surface and increase the volume of material placed in
the low areas. Thus, the rideability of the course being
placed can be affected significantly by the unresponsive-
ness of the paver screed .
SURFACE SHADOWS
Description
Surface shadows are dark areas (Figure 3-105) that
appear in the surface of an asphalt concrete mix. In
most cases, the surface shadows cannot be seen until
sometime after the asphalt concrete mix has been used
by traffic and some of the asphalt cement film has been
worn off the exposed aggregate particles by the vehicle
tires. Auger shadows are seen most easily under certain
sunlight conditions--when the sun is low on the horizon
and the pavement is viewed when looking into the sun.
In severe cases, however, they may be visible immediate-
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Figure 3-105. Surface shadows (J. Scherocman) .
ly behind the screed during the laydown operation .
Even in this latter case, the shadows will "disappear"
when the mix is being compacted by the rollers. The
auger shadows may be completely across the lane width
being placed or they may be only partway across the
width.
Cause
Surface shadows are caused primarily by overloading
the augers on the paver. If the head of material in the
auger chamber is so great as to "bury" the augers, the
screed will react to the variable forces acting on it. The
spacing between the shadows will normally correspond
to the starting of the augers when those augers are
operated in a stop-start manner. Whenever the amount
of mix in front of the screed is at or above the top of
the auger, the shadows will be formed and ultimately be
seen in the asphalt concrete mix.
On most pavers it is possible to adjust the distance
between the screed and the tractor unit. This is accom-
plished by unbolting a connection on the leveling or tow
arm of the paver and moving the tractor forward (or
backward) with the screed sitting stationary on the mix.
Depending on the make and model of the paver, there
is typically a 4-in. length of slide for the screed connec-
tion. The severity of the surface shadows may be
increased with the screed in the back position--when
more mix is being carried in the auger chamber and the
augers are being overloaded .
The dark areas, or shadows, are thought to be the
result of a slight increase in mix density caused by the
startup of the augers and the forcing of additional mix
under the screed at the time the augers begin turning
again after being stopped . There is no difference in
Page 3-96
10/15/91
surface texture associated with the loca-
tion of the surface shadows . They can
only be seen from an angle; when viewed
from directly overhead, the shadows
usually cannot be seen. The intensity of
the shadows is often increased when a
tender mix is being laid.
Solution
The asphalt concrete mixture carried
in the auger chamber should be main-
tained at a level near the center of the
auger shaft. This means that the flow
gates should be set so that the augers
operate as close to 100 percent of the
time as possible and the stopping and
starting of the augers is minimized. In no case should
the top of the augers be completely covered with mix.
Further, the location of the screed should be set as far
forward as possible so that the amount of material in the
auger chamber is reduced and the head of material in
front of the screed is kept to a minimum.
Performance
Surface shadows are not necessarily detrimental to
the mix except as they may affect rideability in a minor
way. The difference in density of the mix in areas where
the shadows are present and between the shadows is
generally not enough to be determined accurately. The
main concern with surface shadows is the visual appear-
ance of the mix to the vehicle driver.
PRECOMPACTION LEVELS
Description
A modern asphalt paver normally is equipped with a
vibratory screed . This type of screed allows the mix to
be compacted partially as it passes beneath the screed.
Depending on such variables as forward paver speed,
layer thickness, mix temperature, and ambient environ-
mental conditions, the density of the asphalt concrete
mixture measured behind the paver screed before roller
compaction is usually in the range of 70 percent to 80
percent of the theoretical maximum density (a voidless
mix) .
Some pavers are equipped with combination screeds:
screeds that have both tamper bars and vibratory mecha-
nisms. At slow paver speeds, the degree of compaction
achieved in the mix by the combination screed is typical-
ly greater than that obtained by the vibratory screed
alone. At paver speeds greater than 25 ft/min, however,
the increased effectiveness of the tamper bar compactive

10/15/91
Figure 3-106. Excessive raking of transverse joint (J. Scherocman) .
effort is lost and the degree of compaction obtained by
the combination screed is similar to that achieved with
a normal vibratory screed .
Cause
The amount ofprecompaction obtained by the paver
screed decreases as the paver speed increases. It
increases somewhat as the frequency of the screed
vibration increases. Precompaction will decrease signifi-
cantly, however, if the paver screed is riding on the
screed lift cylinders, thereby limiting the available
compactive effort . The level of precompaction obtained
will be further limited if the mat is too thin for the
maximum aggregate size used in the mix, if the mix
being placed is too cold, or if the base on which the new
layer is being laid is soft and yielding.
Solution
Decreasing the paver speed and increasing the
frequency of vibration of the paver screed should in-
crease, within limits, the level of precompaction achieved
during the laydown operation . It is also possible on
some pavers to increase the amplitude of the vibration
in order to increase the impact force of the screed on
the mix. Proper maintenance of the screed also helps
obtain a uniform compactive effort from the screed .
Performance
As long as the required density level is obtained
using conventional rollers behind the paver, the absolute
level of precompaction accomplished by the screed will
not affect the long-term performance of the asphalt
concrete layer. It may be possible, however, to reduce
Page 3-97
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
the number of roller passes needed to meet the density
and air void content criteria if the amount of precom-
paction obtained by the screed is higher. In addition,
increased precompaction density can reduce the amount
of differential compaction that will occur in low spots
and rutted areas.
JOINT PROBLEMS
Description
Poor transverse joints (Figure 3-106) are associated
either with a bump at the joint, a dip in the pavement
surface several feet beyond the joint, or both. Poor
longitudinal joints (Figure 3-107) between passes of the
paver are usually characterized by a difference in eleva-
tion between the two lanes, by a raveling of the asphalt
at the joint, or both. The area adjacent to the longitudi-
nal joint is usually depressed below the level of the
surrounding pavement surface .
Cause and Solution
As discussed in Section 5 on joint construction, the
key to a good transverse joint is to start the paver with
the screed sitting on blocks on the cold side of the joint.
The thickness of the blocks is related to the depth of the
course being laid. The second factor is to do only the
amount of raking necessary to form the joint properly.
Finally, the joint should be compacted by rolling it in a
transverse direction, if possible . The key to a good
longitudinal joint is the amount of overlap of the new
mat over the adjacent cold material. If the overlap is
not greater than 1 to 1 1/2 in., minimal raking is neces-
sary, and the compaction equipment will be able to
densify the mix at the joint properly.
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Figure 3-107. Excessive raking of longitudinal joint (J.
Scherocman).
Performance
A poor transverse joint will not affect pavement
performance to any significant degree if proper density
levels are obtained by the compaction equipment . A
poor ride will usually be the only negative result . An
improperly constructed longitudinal joint, however, can
seriously decrease the serviceability of the pavement
structure. A poorly placed and compacted joint will
ravel and cause one side of the joint to be lower than
the other side. If the density level is too low, it is
possible for the whole pavement layer thickness at the
longitudinal joint to wear away under the action of
traffic. A poor joint will also be porous, allowing water
to enter the underlying pavement courses.
CHECKING
Description
Checking can be defined as short transverse cracks,
usually 1 to 4 in. in length and 1 to 3 in. apart, which
occur in the asphalt concrete mat (Figure 3-108) . These
surface cracks, or checks, are not visible when the paver
places the material. The cracks may occur after the
second or third pass of the compaction equipment over
the mix or after several passes of the roller when the
mix is approaching the design density level, particularly
when a static steel wheel roller is employed for the
breakdown rolling. Rarely does the checking appear
after only one pass of the breakdown roller. Checking
typically does not occur when a pneumatic tire roller is
Page 3-98
10/15/91
used for breakdown rolling. If a pneumatic tire roller is
followed by any type of static steel wheel roller when the
mat temperature is too high, however, that steel wheel
roller may introduce the check marks into the mix if the
mix is tender. Checking is not normally caused by "over-
rolling" of the mix by the compaction equipment . The
checks typically do not extend completely through the
course but normally are only 1/2 to 3/8 in . in depth.
Cause
Checking can be caused by two primary factors: (a)
excessive deflection of the pavement structure under the
compaction equipment and (b) a deficiency in the
asphalt concrete mix design. In the former case, the
pavement on which the new asphalt concrete layer is
being placed is weak. The weight of the rollers causes
the pavement layers to bend excessively, placing the new
mix in tension at the surface. The check marks are then
formed when the surface of the new mixture is pulled
apart as the pavement deflects during the rolling opera-
tion.
A more prevalent cause of checking is a deficiency in
the asphalt concrete mixture: (a) an excess of fluids in
the mix: too much asphalt cement or too much moisture
in the mix, or both; (b) a nonuniform sand gradation:
too much middle-size sand [ No. 16 and No. 30 ( 1.18 mm
and 600 μm) sieve size material] and too little fine size
sand [ No. 50 and No. 100 (300 μm and 150 μm) sieve
size material] ; and (c) a lack of room in the aggregate
gradation for the asphalt cement (low voids in mineral
aggregate--VMA) . The excess of fluids makes the mix
tender and allows it to be displaced easily by the com-
paction equipment. The hump in the fine aggregate
gradation curve also causes the mix to be tender. Mixes
that are low in voids in mineral aggregate content will
generally be tender and move easily under the force of
a vibratory or static steel wheel roller. Further, the
various characteristics of the aggregate such as surface
texture, crushed content, and amount of dust coating can
play a role in the amount of checking that occurs.
The mix tends to be shoved by the roller instead of
being tucked under the drums or tires of the compaction
equipment. The potential for checking is characterized
by a bow wave that occurs in front of the drums on a
steel wheel roller. The mix deficiency is compounded,
and the amount of checking that occurs is increased,
when the mix temperature is too high for the particular
asphalt cement grade being used in the mix. As the mix
temperature increases, the viscosity of the asphalt
cement decreases, causing the mixture to be more
tender. An additional factor that can affect the degree

10/15/91
Figure 3-108. Checking of the mix (J. Scherocman) .
of checking that occurs is the temperature susceptibility
of the asphalt cement itself.
Occasionally, checking can be caused by temperature
differentials within a layer of asphalt concrete mix (heat
checking) . On a cool day and under windy conditions,
it is possible for the mix that is in contact with the
existing pavement surface to decrease in temperature
quickly. In addition, the top surface of the mix will also
cool quickly. The temperature of the mix in the middle
of the layer, however, is still high. This temperature
differential can sometimes cause the mix to check under
the compactive effort of the rollers.
There are also a number of secondary causes of
checking. Included are a mix whose temperature is too
high; the mix overheated in the plant. In addition,
improper rolling techniques can cause checking: rolling
too fast, stopping too quickly, making sharp turns on the
hot mat, or making an excessive number of passes with
the finish roller or finish rolling with the mat still at an
elevated temperature . Finally, checking may be en-
hanced by a poor bond between the new mat and the
underlying surface because of a dirty surface or the lack
of a tack coat.
Solution
Because checking is generally a mix-design-related
problem , the proper long-term solution is to change the
mix properties. Quick mix changes might include reduc-
Page 3-99
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Appendix 1
ing the asphalt content or reducing the moisture content
by drying the aggregates properly. In addition, the
temperature of the mix at the plant can be reduced, but
this might increase the amount of moisture left in the
mix. Other changes, however, might be time-consuming
and expensive, such as altering the fine aggregate grada-
tion to remove the hump from that portion of the
grading curve or changing the gradation of the aggregate
to increase the amount of VMA in the mix. Care
should be taken, however, in making arbitrary adjust-
ments to the mix design without determining how the
mix design changes affect the long-term mechanical
properties and performance of that mixture.
In the short term, if checking develops under the
compaction equipment, changes in both the rolling zone
and in the type of rollers used to densify the mix can be
made to reduce the amount of checking obtained . If the
mix is tender because of excess fluids, a problem with
the fine aggregate gradation, or lack of VMA, it may be
possible to densify the mix at an elevated temperature
without causing the checking. By delaying compaction,
the mix has a chance to cool and the viscosity of the
asphalt cement increases. This, in turn, stiffens the mix
and decreases its displacement by the rollers. The delay
in rolling, however, may reduce the opportunity, for
some mixtures, to obtain the required level of density in
the mix. Thus the problem concerns how to obtain the
proper compaction in the mix while the mix is moving
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
under the compaction equipment. With a tender mix, it
may not be possible to accomplish both objectives (no
checking and adequate density) at the same time.
Depending on the cause of the mix tenderness, some
mixes can be adequately compacted at lower than
normal mix temperatures. In some cases, because of the
properties of the aggregate and the asphalt cement in
the mix, the effective compaction temperature range
may shift downward by as much as 50°F and adequate
density can be obtained even at relatively low compac-
tion temperatures. This means that the rolling zone (the
distance between the paver and the breakdown roller) is
increased and the mix is permitted to cool more before
the initial compactive effort is applied . The feasibility of
this solution to the checking problem is determined by
two factors: whether checking is eliminated or signifi-
cantly reduced during the delayed rolling procedure and
whether an adequate level of density is obtained . A level of density obtained by the compaction equipment
roller combination test strip should be constructed to
determine the proper rolling zone to be used. The
density level obtained should be checked with both a
nuclear density gauge and with cores cut from the
roadway. If the density level achieved is proper and if
the amount of checking obtained is significantly reduced ,
the delayed rolling procedure can be used to overcome
the problem.
Another solution is to change the roller type and
pattern being used to compact the mix. If a static steel
wheel roller is being used in the breakdown position, it
should be removed and either a pneumatic tire roller or
a vibratory roller used as the initial compaction machine.
On some very tender mixes, even when a pneumatic tire
roller or a vibratory roller is used in the breakdown
position, checking may still occur if a steel wheel roller
is used as the intermediate roller. Some benefit, in
terms of "healing" the cracks, may also be obtained by
using the pneumatic tire roller in the intermediate or in
the finish rolling position . In general, however, it is
often more effective and efficient to use the pneumatic
tire roller in the breakdown position because checking
rarely occurs under this piece of compaction equipment.
The level of density obtained with the change in roller
type and pattern must be checked through the use of a
roller compaction test strip together with nuclear density
gauge readings and core density determinations .
If the mix delivered to the paver is too hot, the mix
should be allowed to cool to normal laydown tempera-
ture before the compaction process is started . Improper
rolling techniques should be corrected . The surface of
the underlying pavement surface should be clean and
properly tack coated before placement of the new mix
Page 3-100
10/15/91
commences.
None of the solutions to the checking problem will
always work. Each mix will have its own compaction
characteristics . For some very tender mixes, checking
may occur at a wide range of temperatures, even as low
as 150°F. For other mixes, checking may occur only at
more elevated temperatures. In general, mixes that lack
internal stability will check under the steel wheel rollers
and should not be used--the mix should be redesigned.
Performance
Although the cracks or checks extend only a short
distance down from the surface, they are detrimental to
long-term performance, because the tender mix charac-
teristics affect the level of density obtained . If the
rollers are kept back from the paver to attempt to
decrease the amount of checking that occurs, and if the
is thus reduced, checking can decrease the ultimate
pavement life significantly, because the air void content
of the asphalt concrete mat is increased . A mix that
contains check marks is one that has significant potential
to have reduced pavement life under traffic.
SHOVING
Description
Shoving of an asphalt concrete layer is the displace-
ment of the mixture in a longitudinal direction . It can
take place during the compaction operation or can occur
later under traffic. In most cases, shoving is accompa-
nied by a large bow wave in front of the breakdown
roller, particularly if that roller is a static steel wheel
machine. Shoving may also occur in conjunction with
mix checking if the mix is tender enough because of the
aggregate gradation or excess fluids (asphalt cement
and/or moisture) content deficiencies. Finally, mat or
mix shoving can happen at the reversal point of the
rollers, especially at the location closest to the paver .
Cause
Shoving is caused primarily by an unstable or tender
mix. This instability can be caused by the same variables
that cause checking: an excess of fluids (asphalt cement
and/or moisture) in the mix, a hump in the fine aggre-
gate grading curve, the properties of the aggregates and
the asphalt cement, or excessive mat temperature during
rolling. A mix that has a high Marshall stability can still
be a mix that will distort longitudinally under the
compaction equipment and later under traffic. Shoving
can be very prevalent when a sand mix is placed in a
thick layer (more than 1 1/2 in . ) at a high temperature

10/15/91
(more than 280°F) . Further, thicker lifts in proportion
to the maximum-size aggregate used in the mix will tend
to shove more than thinner lifts with the same aggregate
grading.
Improper roller operation, particularly sudden
reversal of the roller, can also be a contributing factor
to the shoving of the mix during construction. If a
vibratory roller is run at too great a speed and the
impact spacing is too great, the mat may develop a
washboard effect where the peak-to-peak distance is the
impact spacing. Washboarding or shoving is more likely
to occur at normal frequencies but at high speeds where
the impact force is greater. If a pneumatic tire roller
with high tire pressure is used for breakdown compac-
tion, a tender mix may shove laterally under the tires.
Shoving can occur under any roller if the roller is
operated improperly.
Another possible cause of shoving is an excess of
tack coat material that may be pulled into the mix. In
a similar manner, excess asphalt from a bleeding under-
lying surface or from joint filler material can be pulled
into the mix and increase its fluidity and tenderness.
Shoving may also occur when the underlying surface is
dusty or dirty--a slippage-type failure .
Solution
The cure for a mix that shoves under the compaction
equipment is to increase the internal stability of the
mixture . This can be accomplished by reducing the
fluids content (either asphalt content or moisture
content or both) of the mix, but only after determining
the effect of a change in asphalt cement content on the
mechanical properties of the mix. It can also be done by
increasing the internal friction among the aggregate
particles by changing the aggregate gradation or increas-
ing the amount of angular (crushed) particles in the mix.
Figure 3-109. "Fat" spots in mix (J. Scherocman).
Page 3-101
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Tender mixes should be placed at lower laydown tem-
peratures, consistent, however, with the ability to obtain
sufficient density under the rollers. Sand mixes, because
of their inherent tender nature, should be placed in
several thin layers instead of one thick layer when used
as base or binder courses.
The compaction equipment should be operated
properly so as to reduce the opportunity to displace the
mix during the rolling operation. Further, if the under-
lying pavement surface is dirty, it should be cleaned and
a proper tack coat applied.
Performance
Mats that tend to shove under the compaction equip-
ment are basically unstable. These mixtures, under
traffic, usually will continue to distort, both longitudinal-
ly and laterally. Shoving of the asphalt concrete mixture
during construction is a strong indication that the pave-
ment will not perform properly under traffic.
BLEEDING AND FAT SPOTS
Description
Fat spots in an asphalt mixture (Figure 3-109) are
isolated areas where asphalt cement has come to the
surface of the mix during the laydown and compaction
operation. These spots can occur very erratically and
irregularly, or they may be numerous and in a fairly
regular pattern. Bleeding of an asphalt mixture (Figure
3-110) occurs when the asphalt cement flows to the top
of the mix surface under the action of traffic. Bleeding
is often seen as two flushed longitudinal streaks in the
wheelpaths of the roadway.
Cause
Fat spots are caused primarily by excessive moisture
in the mix. The problem is more prevalent with mix-
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Figure 3-110. Bleeding (and rutting) in the mix (J. Scherocman) .
tures that contain high percentages of fine aggregate
(oversanded mixes) and on mixtures that contain aggre-
gates that have a high porosity. If all the moisture in
the coarse and fine aggregate is not removed during the
drying and mixing operation at the asphalt plant, the
moisture will pull asphalt cement to the surface of the
mix behind the paver as the moisture escapes from the
mix and evaporates. Fat spots occur more frequently
when the aggregate stockpiles are wet or when the
moisture content varies in different parts of those stock-
piles. Fat spots can also be associated with segregated
areas in the mix. If the mix deposited on the roadway
by the paver is segregated , areas where excess asphalt
cement is present in the mix can result in free binder
material on the top of the layer being placed .
The cause of bleeding can normally be divided into
two categories. The first cause is related to an excess of
fluids in the asphalt mixture, either asphalt cement or
moisture or both. Under traffic, the extra moisture and
asphalt cement will be pulled to the surface by passage
of the vehicle tires. This bleeding phenomenon usually
occurs on new mix and during hot weather when the
viscosity of the asphalt cement is at its lowest level.
Typically the bleeding will occur shortly after traffic is
allowed to travel over the fresh mix, while there is still
some moisture in the mix and while the viscosity of the
asphalt cement binder is still relatively low.
Bleeding can also be associated with a lack of ade-
quate room in the mix for the asphalt cement. If the
voids in mineral aggregate content and the air void
content of the mix do not provide enough room for the
Page 3-102
10/15/91
binder material, bleeding can occur as the mix is dens-
ified by traffic, both shortly after construction and at
later time periods. The traffic compaction process will
decrease the air void content of the mix and may, in
turn, squeeze some of the asphalt cement out of the mix.
The "extra" asphalt will appear as a longitudinal streak
or fat spot throughout the length of each wheelpath.
One additional possible cause of bleeding is the
condition of the pavement layer on which the new mix
is placed. If the underlying layer has excess asphalt on
its surface or excess crack seal material in the cracks and
joints, some of this material can be drawn up through a
thin new mix layer. Further, if too much tack coat is
applied to the original pavement layer, the excess
material can be pulled up through a thin overlay and
contribute to the bleeding problem.
Solution
A wide fluctuation in the asphalt mix temperature is
an indication that the moisture content of that mix may
also be variable . This latter phenomenon can contribute
to both the generation of fat spots in the mix during
construction and bleeding of the mix later under traffic.
It is important, therefore, that the aggregate used in the
mix be dry and that the moisture content of the mix,
upon discharge from the asphalt plant, be as low as
possible but not more than 0.5 percent. Extra care in
drying needs to be exercised when producing mixtures
that incorporate highly absorptive aggregate. Bleeding
problems caused by excess asphalt cement in the mix can
most easily be solved by reducing the asphalt content of

10/15/91
mix consistent with other mixture properties such as air
voids, voids in the mineral aggregate , and stability.
Bleeding problems that occur in conjunction with pave-
ment rutting may only be solved , however, by a complete
redesign of the asphalt mixture with emphasis on the air
void content and the voids in mineral aggregate criteria.
Performance
Fat spots in the mix, if there are only a few of them,
should not affect the ultimate durability of the mixture
to a significant degree. A great number of fat spots or
bleeding in the wheelpaths does affect pavement perfor-
mance because of variable asphalt and air void contents
in different parts of the mix. In addition, other mix
problems, such as shoving, rutting, and loss of skid
resistance, can occur in a mix that contains many fat
areas or bleeding in the wheelpaths . The design of the
asphalt mixture, the operation of the asphalt plant (more
complete removal of the moisture), or both should be
checked to assure adequate pavement performance
under vehicular loading.
ROLLER MARKS
Description
During the compaction process by the breakdown
and intermediate rollers, whether static steel wheel,
vibratory, or pneumatic tire, longitudinal creases are left
in the surface of the mix. Once the mix has cooled to a
temperature range of 160°F to 140°F, these marks are
typically removed by the finish roller. Roller marks are
Figure 3-111 . Roller marks (J. Scherocman) .
*Page 3-103
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
the longitudinal indentations that remain in the surface
of the mix after the final rolling has been completed
(Figure 3-111 ).
Roller marks also exist in the asphalt surface when
any roller is parked on the hot mat for a period of time
or when a vibratory roller is vibrated in place. Particu-
larly when used in the breakdown position, pneumatic
tire rollers can leave visible longitudinal marks that can
still be seen after the finish rolling has been completed .
Vibratory washboard marks may be visible if that roller
is operated at an improper vibratory amplitude or
frequency setting.
Cause
Roller marks can be an indication that the proper
number of roller passes have not been made on the mix.
If the compaction process is halted before the required
amount of rolling is completed or if the mix cools before
the compaction process is completed , the longitudinal
marks or creases made by the rolling process will still
remain in the mix.
Roller marks left in an asphalt layer also can be an
indication of a tender mix. The roller operator will
normally be unable to remove all the marks left by the
compaction equipment if the mix is tender or unstable.
A tender mix normally will not support the weight of the
roller until the mix has cooled sufficiently for the asphalt
cement viscosity to increase enough to stiffen the mix.
By the time the mix has decreased in temperature to this
point, however, the required level of density can no
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
longer be achieved because the mix has lost its workabil-
ity. For this reason, the roller marks or indentations left
during the breakdown and intermediate roller passes
usually cannot be removed during the finish rolling
process. All of the asphalt cement, aggregate, and mix
properties that contribute to the cause of a tender mix
also contribute to the inability of the finish roller to
eliminate the roller marks.
Solution
If the cause of the roller marks is inadequate com-
paction, additional roller passes should be made with the
breakdown, intermediate, and/or finish rollers to proper-
ly densify the mix. The cures for inadequate compaction
related to mix design deficiencies are all concerned with
improvements in the design of the mix components and
with the production of the mix at the asphalt plant.
Asphalt cement quality and content, aggregate proper-
ties and characteristics, and mix temperatures all play a
significant role in the workability and stability of the
asphalt material under the compaction equipment.
Roller marks normally cannot be removed from a tender
mix until the mix temperature has decreased to a
relatively low level; usually less than 160°F.
Sometimes it is possible, depending on environmental
conditions and the properties of the mix, to remove the
roller marks left in the mix through the use of a pneu-
matic tire roller. If the surface of the mix is hot enough
Figure 3-112. Transverse (truckload-to-truckload)
segreg ation (J. Scher ocman) .
Page 3-104
10/15/91
(140°F or more) , several passes with the pneumatic tire
roller can be made to "iron out" the surface of the
pavement. Roughness or washboarding caused by
incorrect operation of a vibratory roller should be
eliminated by applying proper operating techniques with
this piece of compaction equipment; this type of defect
is virtually impossible to correct once it has been
introduced into the pavement surface during the com-
paction process .
Performance
Roller marks are an indication that the proper level
of compaction has not been achieved . In terms of
ultimate pavement durability, the air void content or
density of the mix is the single most important charac-
teristic that governs the performance of the asphalt
mixture under traffic. If the air void content of a dense-
graded mix is high, or too low, the pavement structure
will generally not perform well under vehicular loading.
SEGREGATION
Description
Segregation is the separation of the coarse and fine
aggregate particles in an asphalt mix. The segregation
of the mix can occur at several locations during the mix
production, hauling, and placing operation . Segregation
can occur as the mix is delivered from the asphalt plant
to a surge silo. It can take place as the mix is deposited
into the haul truck from the silo. It can also occur when
the mix is discharged from the truck to the paver
hopper.
Segregation that is evident behind the paver screed
can generally take one of three forms: It can consist of
areas of coarse aggregate (rock pockets) that occur
randomly across the length and width of the layer
(Figure 3-112), it can occur as a longitudinal area along
one side of the paver width (Figure 3-113) , or it can be
seen transversely across the lane " at the end of a truck-
load" of mix. Segregation was discussed at length in
Section 1 of Part 3.
Cause
The cause of segregation behind the paver is directly
related to the type of segregation that is present. Rock
pockets are generally caused by improper handling of
the aggregates in the stockpiles and cold- feed bins at the
asphalt plant. They seldom occur when a batch plant is
used to produce the mix (without a silo) , because the
screens and the hot bins in the plant recombine any
segregated material before it is fed into the pugmill.
Further, the pugmill blends all the aggregates together
 AC 150/5370-14
10/15/91
Appendix 1

and eliminates any segregation that might have occurred

previously. If a silo is employed on the batch plant,
however, the mix may segregate for all the same reasons
as a mix produced in a drum mix plant and passed
through a surge or storage silo.
Rock pockets and random segregation can occasion-
ally be found on the roadway when the mix is manufac-
tured in a drum mix plant. If the loader operator places
a bucketful of segregated aggregate in a cold-feed bin,
that material can pass through the drum, surge silo, haul
truck, and paver without being completely mixed in with
the other aggregates. This is because the drum mix
plant operates on a continuous-flow basis instead of on
a batch basis. If the aggregate in the cold-feed bins is
segregated , that material will show up on the roadway in
a random pattern both transversely and longitudinally.
Some mixes are more prone to segregate than others.
Asphalt mixes that have large top-size coarse aggregates
(1 in. or greater), low asphalt cement contents, and are
gap graded will tend to segregate more readily when
handled than will a dense-graded mix containing opti-
mum asphalt content and a smaller top-size coarse
aggregate.
Segregation that occurs on one side of the paver
(side-to-side segregation) when a batch plant without a
Figure 3-113. Longitudinal (side-to- side) segregation
silo is used to produce the mix is normally caused by
(J. Scherocman) .
improper loading of the haul truck from the pugmill . If
the mix is not loaded in the center of the width of the
truck bed, the coarse aggregate particles in the mix can tial causes. The most prevalent cause is improper
roll to one side of the truck and accumulate along that loading of the haul truck from the silo. If mix is placed
side. When the mix is delivered to the paver hopper, in the truck bed in one drop from the silo, the coarse
the segregated mix will be placed on the roadway along aggregate particles in the mix have a tendency to run to
the same side and the segregation will appear as a both the front of the bed and to the back tailgate . The
longitudinal streak on one side of the paver only. rolling of the coarse aggregate is aggravated by the plant
Segregation that occurs on one side of the paver operator continuously opening and closing the silo gates
when a batch plant with a silo or a drum mix plant is near the end of the truck- loading procedure to assure
used to produce the mix is typically caused by improper that the full weight of mix is placed on the truck .
loading of the mix into the surge silo. As the mix is It has been stated that truckload- to-truckload segre-
deposited into the silo from the conveying device (slat gation can also be caused by improper discharge of the
conveyor, belt conveyor, or bucket elevator) , the mix is mix into the silo. Mix that is dribbled into the silo from
thrown to one side of the silo and the coarse aggregate the conveying device is said to be susceptible to segrega-
particles are separated from the finer materials. When tion inside the silo. Even if this occurs, the mix that is
the silo is emptied, the coarse aggregate is deposited on segregated in the silo would appear only as random rock
only one side of the truck. This segregated material pockets in the layer behind the paver instead of in a
then passes through the paver and is seen on one side of systematic manner between truckloads of mix delivered
the mix after laydown. Further, similar to the batch to the paver. Thus, it is doubtful that any segregation of
plant operation, if the truck is not loaded in the center the mix that occurs during the continuous process of
of its width under the silo, rolling of the coarse aggre- loading the silo would appear on the roadway in a
gate particles can occur and longitudinal segregation will discontinuous pattern --only at the beginning and/or the
appear on one side of the new mat. end of a truckload of mix.
Truckload- to-truckload segregation has many poten-

Page 3-105
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
Solution
The solution to each type of segregation is related to
its cause. For random rock pockets that appear inter-
mittently in the mat, the method of stockpiling the
coarse aggregates at the asphalt plant and the charging
of those materials into the cold-feed bins by the front-
end loader should be checked to assure proper aggre-
gate-handling techniques are used . Further, all points in
the mix-production system where coarse aggregate
particles might accumulate should be inspected to
determine if the flow of the coarse and fine aggregate
pieces is uneven. A batcher should be used at the top
of the silo to direct the mix into the center of that piece
of equipment.
For longitudinal (side-to-side) segregation, the
loading of the haul truck from the batch plant pugmill
or from the silo at either the batch or drum mix plant
should be monitored to assure that the mix is being
delivered into the center of the width of the vehicle.
When a drum mix plant is employed to manufacture the
mix and the segregation always appears on one side of
the paver, several trucks should be loaded at the silo
while facing in the opposite direction to their normal
loading procedure. When this mix is passed through the
paver, the longitudinal segregation should change
sides--go from one side of the paver lane to the other
side. If the transverse position of the longitudinal
segregation does change (and it should), the solution to
the side-to-side segregation problem must take place at
the top of the silo. The mix deposited into the silo from
the conveying device must be placed into the center of
the silo instead of to one side. The flow of mix entering
the silo must be redirected into the middle of the silo so
that the coarse aggregate particles in the mix are not
thrown to only one side of the silo . This cure will
require some changes in the configuration of the equip-
ment at the top of the silo.
Most truckload-to-truckload segregation can be
reduced significantly by using multiple drops of mix to
load the haul trucks. If a tandem-axle truck is being
loaded, at least three different drops of mix should be
made: into the front of the truck, into the back of the
truck, and into the center of the truck bed . If a larger
truck is used, additional drops of mix should be made.
One of the main solutions to the truckload- to -truckload
segregation problem is to minimize the distance that the
coarse aggregate particles can roll . This is accomplished
by employing multiple drops of mix into the truck
instead of a single loading of mix into the bed.
The plant operator should be prohibited from
"topping off" the load of mix at the end of the loading
Page 3-106
10/15/91
process. Each time the silo gates are opened and a little
bit of mix is dribbled into the truck, the coarse aggregate
particles will have a definite tendency to separate from
the finer material. This can only be eliminated by
preventing its occurrence in the first place.
If segregation does take place during the loading of
the truck and there is an accumulation of coarse aggre-
gate particles both at the tailgate of the truck and at the
front of the bed, the amount of segregation that appears
on the roadway can be reduced by proper unloading of
the haul truck at the paver. First, the truck bed should
be raised a short distance, before the tailgate of the
truck is opened, so that the mix can slide against the
tailgate. This procedure surrounds any coarse particles
that have rolled to the tailgate area in nonsegregated
mix. Instead of only the coarse aggregates being deposit-
ed first into the paver hopper, a mass of mix is dis-
charged once the truck tailgate is opened , flooding the
hopper with mix.
The operation of the paver can also enhance or
reduce the amount of segregation that appears behind
the screed. If the paver hopper is emptied of mix, if the
slat conveyors are visible, and if the wings of the hopper
are dumped after each truckload of mix, any coarse
aggregate particles that have collected at the tailgate of
the new truckload of mix will be deposited into the
bottom of the hopper and then carried directly back to
the empty auger chamber in front of the screed . This
segregated material will appear behind the screed as
soon as the paver moves forward . This transverse
segregation, therefore, does not really occur at the end
of the truckload but rather occurs at the beginning of
the next truckload of mix.
Segregation can be reduced by keeping the hopper
full of mix between truckloads. The mass of mix that
floods the hopper from the haul truck will be blended
with the mix already in the paver hopper. Any segregat-
ed material will be further "lost" in the amount of mix
that is pulled back to the augers by the slat conveyors
and carried under the paver screed . The amount of
truckload-to -truckload segregation can be decreased
significantly, but not always eliminated completely, by
good paver operating techniques. The problem of
truckload-to-truckload segregation should be solved
during the truck-loading procedure.
Performance
Segregation can affect pavement durability directly by
increasing the air void content of the mix in the segre-
gated areas and increasing the potential for moisture
damage. Further, the segregated locations are suscepti-

10/15/91
ble to raveling and, if bad enough, to total disintegration
under traffic. Segregation, in the form of rock pockets,
longitudinal side-to -side segregation, or transverse
truckload-to-truckload segregation , is detrimental to the
long-term performance of the asphalt mixture.
OTHER PAVEMENT PROBLEMS
The discussion above is concerned only with those
Page 3-107
AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
distresses that occur at the time of the asphalt mix
production, laydown, and compaction. There are a
number of other deficiencies that can occur on an
asphalt pavement structure with time and traffic loading
once construction has been completed . Some of those
distresses include fatigue cracking, rutting, shoving,
raveling, and disintegration. A discussion of these
distresses is beyond the scope of this handbook.
 AC 150/5370-14
Appendix 1
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Appendix 1

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