Professional Documents
Culture Documents
MATERIALS
MANUAL
1ST EDITION
OCTOBER 2014
This document has been prepared for the Roads Authority of Namibia for the exclusive use of the Roads Authority and
Consultants employed by the Roads Authority.
Published by the Roads Authority
The Chief Executive Officer
Private Bag 12030
Windhoek
Namibia
www.ra.org.na
First Edition October 2014
Copyright
Copyright of this manual vests in the Roads Authority of Namibia and its successors in title, where relevant. In terms of the
Copyright Act, no part of this manual may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, scanning or by any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing by the publisher. Fair dealing for the purpose of research or private study, or criticism or review as
permitted under the Copyright Act, as well as such copying as is necessary to comply with the requirements of this manual
are however permitted.
PREAMBLE SUMMARY OF CONTENTS
PREAMBLE
Summary of Contents
Preamble
1 Introduction
2 Standard specifications and other documents
3 Materials in road pavements
4 Materials investigation for roadworks
5 Structural design of pavements
6 Materials Standards
7 Materials design guidelines
8 Laboratory procedures
9 Control
MATERIALS MANUAL I
PREFACE PREAMBLE
Preface
The Roads Authority of Namibia is a statutory body established in terms of the Roads Authority Act, Act 17 of 1999.
Section 3 of the Act sets out the object of the Authority as follows:
“Subject to this Act and the Road Fund Administration Act, the object of the Authority is to manage the national roads
network in accordance with section 16 with a view to obtaining a safe and efficient road sector.”
It is important to understand that “efficient” includes economic and financial efficiency as well as the common
understanding of the word.
Key clauses of the Roads Authority Act that are of particular relevance to operational issues are Section 15 wherein the
Roads Authority’s functions are set out; and Section 16, which elaborates on one of these functions that being the
management of the national road network including inter alia:
The planning, design, construction and maintenance of roads;
The quality control of materials required for the construction and maintenance of roads;
The supervision of work contracted out; and
The prescribing of minimum standards to achieve a safe road system and cause the least possible disruption to the
environment.
These four aspects of the Roads Authority’s mandate are complex and wide ranging. In order to assist it to comply with
these obligations, the Roads Authority commissioned a suite of manuals applicable to road work and related matters. It
consists of the following interlinked units:
Procedures Manual
Economic
Construction Drainage Environmental
Evaluation
Manual Manual Manual
Manual
Additional manuals, such as a Maintenance Manual, may in future be required.
Roads Authority personnel carrying out similar functions are also subject to the requirements of the Procedures Manual.
II MATERIALS MANUAL
PREAMBLE THE MANUALS IN GENERAL
To provide a basis for the attainment of uniformity of action of all persons carrying out design and related work for
the Roads Authority, whether these be in‐house personnel or external consultants;
To promote the attainment of uniformity between in‐house personnel and external consultants in the handling of
construction projects.
To set out the minimum standards and requirements of the Roads Authority, either directly in a specific manual or
through its linkages with the other manuals in the suite.
These manuals are to be seen as books of reference and instructions to be used in the planning, design and administration
of projects.
Both relevant in‐house personnel and all consultants are therefore expected to make themselves thoroughly familiar with
the contents of the Procedures Manual and such other manuals as may be relevant to a project, so that each project can
pass through the different stages of planning, design, tendering and construction satisfactorily and that the submission of
reports, records, drawings, documents, etc. is according to requirements.
Consultants must supply copies of relevant manuals to each designer and Engineer’s Representative employed on
construction contracts for the Roads Authority, which latter copies shall be kept at each Site Office.
Should any portion of this manual appear to be contradictory, either internally or in relation to any other manual; or
insufficiently detailed, the Project Control Engineer must be contacted for a ruling.
Constructive criticism and suggestions for improvement of any of the manuals would be appreciated and should be
addressed to:
The Chief Executive Officer, Roads Authority, Private Bag 12030, Windhoek, Namibia
with a copy to the Project Control Engineer.
MATERIALS MANUAL III
DEFINITIONS PREAMBLE
Definitions
The following definitions are relevant to all manuals:
CAUTION – This icon, usually accompanied by highlighted text, indicates that the user must be aware and
use caution when following certain procedures or deviating from standard design methods.
YIELD – This icon indicates that the Roads Authority must be informed of an issue. This might be a deviation
from the Terms of Reference; a deviation from design standards; or the achievement of milestones. Work
may however continue.
STOP – Unlike for the yield icon, the stop icon indicates that the Roads Authority’s written approval must be
obtained before commencing with any further design or other tasks related to the issue for which approval
is to be obtained.
NO ENTRY – This icon indicates no‐go areas for practitioners. These could be set values for certain variables,
or certain processes that may not be followed.
WORK IN PROGRESS – The “men at work” icon is used where sections can and should be extended or where
work is pending. Due to funding or time constraints these parts or sections are not yet included in the
manual.
IV MATERIALS MANUAL
PREAMBLE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Full copyright in respect of the abovementioned field books, data, calculations, plans, reports and tender documents rests
with the Roads Authority. No part of these items shall be stored, copied or transmitted by any means whatsoever without
prior written agreement of the Roads Authority having been obtained. This restriction does not apply to retention of
records as may be required in law or to satisfy good engineering practice.
Acknowledgement
In preparation of this and the other manuals comprising this suite of manuals applicable to road works, considerable use,
including direct application, has been made of similar work done previously by the predecessor in title of the Roads
Authority and by other authorities, notably the manuals, directives and memoranda of the Western Cape Provincial
Administration (South Africa), the Department of Transport (South Africa) and the South African National Roads Agency Ltd
(SANRAL). These sources were used with due permission. The Roads Authority acknowledges with thanks the valuable
content from these non‐Namibian sources used in the Manuals, as well as that from Namibian sources such as the
Meteorological Services, the Ministry of Environment and Tourism and others. It goes without saying that the Roads
Authority also acknowledges with thanks all individual authors who contributed to the source documents from which
content has been taken for use in these manuals.
In respect of materials and pavements, permission to use the South African Pavement Engineering Manual (SAPEM) was
provided by SANRAL. This Manual was however not available until completion of this suite of Procedures Manuals of the
Roads Authority. The reader is nevertheless referred to this comprehensive Manual for further reading. With constant
developments towards more sophistication in testing methods ‐ including advances in computerised testing equipment –
and the introduction of new design and construction technologies in the Southern African Roads Industry, the Roads
Authority will study the implications of deviations included in the SAPEM Manual and will inform the industry in Namibia
when adjustments to this Construction Manual will become necessary.
Particularly the current revision of TMH1 into SANS 3001 standards, the introduction of SANS 4001 and the re‐writing of the
Standard COLTO Specifications (1998 edition) will have a direct impact on materials testing, planning, design and
construction in Namibia. A table which indicates the corresponding SANS 3001 standards already prepared are included in
Annexure E of this Manual. Guidelines on the application of these new standards in Namibia will be notified by the Roads
Authority in due course.
MATERIALS MANUAL V
PREAMBLE CONTENTS
Contents
Preamble .......................................................................................................................................................................... i
Summary of Contents .................................................................................................................................................................... i
Preface ......................................................................................................................................................................................... ii
The Procedures Manual................................................................................................................................................................ ii
The manuals in general ............................................................................................................................................................... iii
Access to the manuals ................................................................................................................................................................. iii
Definitions ................................................................................................................................................................................... iv
Guidelines for users of the manuals ............................................................................................................................................ iv
Copyright of work done by the Consulting Engineer ................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................................................................................ v
Contents ..................................................................................................................................................................................... vii
Tables .................................................................................................................................................................................... xiii
Figures ................................................................................................................................................................................... xiv
Annexures ............................................................................................................................................................................. xiv
Glossary of terms ...................................................................................................................................................................... xiv
Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................................................................ xiv
1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 1‐1
1.1 General ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1‐1
1.1.1 Purpose ................................................................................................................................................................ 1‐1
1.1.2 Variations ............................................................................................................................................................. 1‐1
1.1.3 Special Cases and Innovative Solutions ................................................................................................................ 1‐1
1.1.4 Entry onto Land .................................................................................................................................................... 1‐1
1.1.5 Liability ................................................................................................................................................................. 1‐1
1.1.6 Roads Authority Officials ...................................................................................................................................... 1‐1
1.2 Safety ............................................................................................................................................................................ 1‐2
1.2.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................. 1‐2
1.2.2 Traffic regulation .................................................................................................................................................. 1‐2
1.2.3 Holes dug for sampling ......................................................................................................................................... 1‐2
1.2.4 Safety devices ....................................................................................................................................................... 1‐2
2 Standard specifications and other documents ........................................................................................................ 2‐3
2.1 General ......................................................................................................................................................................... 2‐3
2.1.1 Background ........................................................................................................................................................... 2‐3
2.1.2 Source ................................................................................................................................................................... 2‐3
2.1.3 Upgrading ............................................................................................................................................................. 2‐3
2.1.4 Sampling and Testing ........................................................................................................................................... 2‐3
2.2 Standard specifications ................................................................................................................................................ 2‐3
2.3 TRH documents ............................................................................................................................................................ 2‐3
2.4 TMH documents ........................................................................................................................................................... 2‐4
MATERIALS MANUAL VII
CONTENTS PREAMBLE
2.5 UTG documents ............................................................................................................................................................ 2‐4
2.6 Other design guidelines ................................................................................................................................................ 2‐5
2.6.1 Asphalt Academy (AsAc) technical guidelines ...................................................................................................... 2‐5
2.6.2 South African Bitumen Association (SABITA) manuals ......................................................................................... 2‐5
3 Materials in road pavements ................................................................................................................................. 3‐6
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................. 3‐6
3.2 Gravels and soils ........................................................................................................................................................... 3‐6
3.3 Pavement behaviour .................................................................................................................................................... 3‐7
3.3.1 Traffic ................................................................................................................................................................... 3‐7
3.3.2 Climate ................................................................................................................................................................. 3‐7
3.4 Pavement balance ........................................................................................................................................................ 3‐7
3.5 Testing of materials ...................................................................................................................................................... 3‐8
3.6 Structure of manual ...................................................................................................................................................... 3‐8
4 Materials investigation for roadworks ................................................................................................................... 4‐9
4.1 Centreline materials survey .......................................................................................................................................... 4‐9
4.1.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................. 4‐9
4.1.2 On new routes where the profile has not been finally fixed prior to survey ....................................................... 4‐9
4.1.3 On routes where the finished road level has been fixed prior to the centreline materials survey ..................... 4‐9
4.1.4 On Existing Roads ............................................................................................................................................... 4‐10
4.1.5 Partly on Existing Road and Partly on Natural Ground ...................................................................................... 4‐10
4.2 General requirements for borrowpits ......................................................................................................................... 4‐11
4.3 Fill and Selected borrowpits ....................................................................................................................................... 4‐12
4.3.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 4‐12
4.3.2 Test holes ........................................................................................................................................................... 4‐12
4.3.3 Testing ................................................................................................................................................................ 4‐12
4.4 Subbase and shoulder borrowpits .............................................................................................................................. 4‐12
4.4.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 4‐12
4.4.2 Test holes ........................................................................................................................................................... 4‐12
4.4.3 Testing ................................................................................................................................................................ 4‐12
4.4.4 Mechanical stabilisation ..................................................................................................................................... 4‐12
4.4.5 Chemical stabilisation ......................................................................................................................................... 4‐13
4.4.6 Testing for salt .................................................................................................................................................... 4‐13
4.5 Base borrowpits/quarries ........................................................................................................................................... 4‐13
4.5.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 4‐13
4.5.2 Test holes ........................................................................................................................................................... 4‐13
4.5.3 Testing ................................................................................................................................................................ 4‐13
4.5.4 Mechanical stabilisation ..................................................................................................................................... 4‐13
4.5.5 Chemical stabilisation ......................................................................................................................................... 4‐13
4.5.6 Bitumen stabilisation .......................................................................................................................................... 4‐13
4.5.7 Testing for salt .................................................................................................................................................... 4‐13
4.6 Binder and stabiliser sources ...................................................................................................................................... 4‐14
4.6.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 4‐14
VIII MATERIALS MANUAL
PREAMBLE CONTENTS
4.6.2 Testing ................................................................................................................................................................ 4‐14
4.7 Aggregate for bituminous surfacing .......................................................................................................................... 4‐14
4.7.1 Surface treatment .............................................................................................................................................. 4‐14
4.7.2 Asphalt surfacing ................................................................................................................................................ 4‐14
4.7.3 Check testing ...................................................................................................................................................... 4‐14
4.8 Aggregate for concrete .............................................................................................................................................. 4‐14
4.8.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 4‐14
4.8.2 Testing ................................................................................................................................................................ 4‐14
4.8.3 Check testing ...................................................................................................................................................... 4‐14
4.9 Duplicate samples ...................................................................................................................................................... 4‐14
4.10 Recording of test results of materials investigation ................................................................................................... 4‐15
4.11 Structural design and materials usage ....................................................................................................................... 4‐15
4.12 Reports on materials investigation............................................................................................................................. 4‐15
4.12.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 4‐15
4.12.2 Minimum Requirements for Materials Report ................................................................................................... 4‐15
4.12.3 Draft Materials Report ....................................................................................................................................... 4‐16
4.12.4 Final Materials Report ........................................................................................................................................ 4‐16
4.12.5 Tender Materials Report .................................................................................................................................... 4‐16
4.13 Inspection of quarries and borrowpits ....................................................................................................................... 4‐16
4.13.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 4‐16
4.13.2 Arrangements ..................................................................................................................................................... 4‐16
4.14 Water Investigations .................................................................................................................................................. 4‐17
5 Structural design of pavements ........................................................................................................................... 5‐18
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................ 5‐18
5.1.1 Objective ............................................................................................................................................................ 5‐18
5.1.2 Achievement of objective................................................................................................................................... 5‐18
5.1.3 Types of pavements ........................................................................................................................................... 5‐18
5.1.4 Design Approach ................................................................................................................................................ 5‐18
5.2 Design of flexible pavements ...................................................................................................................................... 5‐18
5.2.1 Roads Authority's design policy .......................................................................................................................... 5‐18
5.2.2 Design process .................................................................................................................................................... 5‐18
5.2.3 Gathering of inputs ............................................................................................................................................ 5‐19
5.2.4 Structural analysis .............................................................................................................................................. 5‐19
5.3 Design of rigid pavements .......................................................................................................................................... 5‐20
6 Materials Standards ............................................................................................................................................ 6‐21
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................ 6‐21
6.2 Fill, Roadbed and Selected Layer ................................................................................................................................ 6‐21
6.2.1 Definitions .......................................................................................................................................................... 6‐21
6.2.2 Standards : Fill and Roadbed .............................................................................................................................. 6‐21
6.2.3 Standards : Selected Layers ................................................................................................................................ 6‐21
6.3 Subbase ...................................................................................................................................................................... 6‐22
6.3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 6‐22
MATERIALS MANUAL IX
CONTENTS PREAMBLE
6.3.2 Untreated materials ........................................................................................................................................... 6‐22
6.3.3 Treated material ................................................................................................................................................. 6‐22
6.4 Shoulders .................................................................................................................................................................... 6‐22
6.4.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 6‐22
6.4.2 Durability Requirements .................................................................................................................................... 6‐22
6.5 Base ............................................................................................................................................................................ 6‐22
6.5.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 6‐22
6.5.2 Untreated Natural Base (G4 Type) ..................................................................................................................... 6‐23
6.5.3 Treated Base ....................................................................................................................................................... 6‐24
6.6 Wearing Course Gravel ............................................................................................................................................... 6‐24
6.6.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 6‐24
6.6.2 Requirements ..................................................................................................................................................... 6‐24
6.6.3 Properties ........................................................................................................................................................... 6‐24
6.6.4 Compaction ........................................................................................................................................................ 6‐25
6.6.5 Guidelines for a Salt‐Gravel Wearing Course ..................................................................................................... 6‐25
6.7 AGGREGATE FOR SEALS AND ASPHALT ...................................................................................................................... 6‐26
6.7.1 Sand for Sand Seals ............................................................................................................................................ 6‐26
6.7.2 Coarse Aggregate for Seals ................................................................................................................................. 6‐26
6.7.3 Aggregate for Slurry Seal .................................................................................................................................... 6‐26
6.7.4 Aggregate for Asphalt Surfacing ......................................................................................................................... 6‐26
6.8 Bituminous binders for seals, asphalt surfacing and crack sealing ............................................................................ 6‐26
6.8.1 Bituminous Binders Normally Used .................................................................................................................... 6‐26
6.8.2 Selection of Binder ............................................................................................................................................. 6‐27
6.9 Aggregates for Concrete ............................................................................................................................................ 6‐28
6.9.1 Fine and Coarse Aggregate ................................................................................................................................. 6‐28
6.9.2 Cement ............................................................................................................................................................... 6‐29
7 Materials design guidelines ................................................................................................................................. 7‐30
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................ 7‐30
7.2 Bituminous Surfacing ‐ General .................................................................................................................................. 7‐30
7.2.1 Type of Surfacing ................................................................................................................................................ 7‐30
7.2.2 Volatiles and Thermal Expansion Factors ........................................................................................................... 7‐31
7.3 Sand seal .................................................................................................................................................................... 7‐32
7.3.1 Description ......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐32
7.3.2 Bituminous binder .............................................................................................................................................. 7‐32
7.3.3 Aggregate ........................................................................................................................................................... 7‐32
7.3.4 Application rates ................................................................................................................................................ 7‐32
7.4 Single application, single coat seal using 6mm aggregate ........................................................................................ 7‐32
7.4.1 Description ......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐32
7.4.2 Bituminous binder .............................................................................................................................................. 7‐32
7.4.3 Aggregate ........................................................................................................................................................... 7‐32
7.4.4 Application Rates ................................................................................................................................................ 7‐32
7.5 Split application, two coats seal with sand blinding................................................................................................... 7‐33
7.5.1 Description ......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐33
7.5.2 Bituminous binder .............................................................................................................................................. 7‐33
X MATERIALS MANUAL
PREAMBLE CONTENTS
7.5.3 Aggregate ........................................................................................................................................................... 7‐33
7.5.4 Spray rates .......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐33
7.5.5 Spread rates ....................................................................................................................................................... 7‐33
7.6 13/6mm Double Seal .................................................................................................................................................. 7‐34
7.6.1 Description ......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐34
7.6.2 Bituminous binder .............................................................................................................................................. 7‐34
7.6.3 Aggregate ........................................................................................................................................................... 7‐34
7.6.4 Spray Rates ......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐34
7.6.5 Spread rates ....................................................................................................................................................... 7‐35
7.7 19/9 or 19/6 Double Seal ........................................................................................................................................... 7‐35
7.7.1 Description ......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐35
7.7.2 Bituminous binder .............................................................................................................................................. 7‐35
7.7.3 Aggregate ........................................................................................................................................................... 7‐35
7.7.4 Spray rates .......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐35
7.7.5 Spread rates ....................................................................................................................................................... 7‐35
7.8 Cape Seal .................................................................................................................................................................... 7‐35
7.8.1 Description ......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐35
7.8.2 Bituminous Binder .............................................................................................................................................. 7‐36
7.8.3 Aggregate ........................................................................................................................................................... 7‐36
7.8.4 Spray rates .......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐36
7.8.5 Spread rates ....................................................................................................................................................... 7‐37
7.8.6 Slurry mixture ..................................................................................................................................................... 7‐37
7.9 Modified Cape Seal ..................................................................................................................................................... 7‐38
7.9.1 Description ......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐38
7.9.2 Bituminous Binder .............................................................................................................................................. 7‐38
7.9.3 Aggregate ........................................................................................................................................................... 7‐38
7.9.4 Spray rates .......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐38
7.9.5 Spread rates ....................................................................................................................................................... 7‐38
7.9.6 Composition of hot‐mix seal .............................................................................................................................. 7‐38
7.9.7 Construction ....................................................................................................................................................... 7‐39
7.9.8 Opening to traffic ............................................................................................................................................... 7‐39
7.10 Asphalt Mixtures for Pavement and Surfacing Layers ................................................................................................ 7‐39
7.10.1 Bituminous binder .............................................................................................................................................. 7‐39
7.10.2 Aggregate ........................................................................................................................................................... 7‐40
7.10.3 Mineral filler ....................................................................................................................................................... 7‐40
7.10.4 Design Criteria .................................................................................................................................................... 7‐40
7.10.5 Mix approval ....................................................................................................................................................... 7‐40
7.10.6 Changes in materials .......................................................................................................................................... 7‐40
7.11 Asphalt mixtures for bridge decks .............................................................................................................................. 7‐40
7.11.1 Description ......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐40
7.11.2 Bituminous Binder for Open‐Graded Asphalt and Slurry Seal ............................................................................ 7‐40
7.11.3 Aggregate for Open‐Graded Asphalt and Slurry Seal ......................................................................................... 7‐41
7.11.4 Composition of the Open‐Graded Asphalt ......................................................................................................... 7‐41
7.11.5 Composition of the slurry seal............................................................................................................................ 7‐41
7.11.6 Application rates ................................................................................................................................................ 7‐41
7.12 Asphalt mixtures for sidewalks ................................................................................................................................... 7‐41
MATERIALS MANUAL XI
CONTENTS PREAMBLE
7.12.1 Description ......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐41
7.12.2 Bitumen Binder .................................................................................................................................................. 7‐41
7.12.3 Aggregate ........................................................................................................................................................... 7‐41
7.12.4 Composition of the Asphalt ................................................................................................................................ 7‐41
7.13 Asphalt for Patching Bituminous Surfaces ................................................................................................................. 7‐41
7.13.1 Description ......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐41
7.13.2 Bituminous Binder .............................................................................................................................................. 7‐41
7.13.3 Aggregate ........................................................................................................................................................... 7‐42
7.13.4 Composition of the Mix ...................................................................................................................................... 7‐42
7.13.5 Mixing ................................................................................................................................................................. 7‐42
7.13.6 Preparation ......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐42
7.13.7 Placing ................................................................................................................................................................ 7‐42
7.14 Soil Stabilisation ......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐42
7.14.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 7‐42
7.14.2 Stabilisation Processes ....................................................................................................................................... 7‐42
7.14.3 Objectives of Stabilisation .................................................................................................................................. 7‐43
7.14.4 Improvement of sub‐standard materials ........................................................................................................... 7‐43
7.15 Concrete mixes ........................................................................................................................................................... 7‐45
7.15.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 7‐45
7.15.2 Aggregates and cement ...................................................................................................................................... 7‐45
7.15.3 Water for concrete ............................................................................................................................................. 7‐45
7.15.4 Admixtures for concrete .................................................................................................................................... 7‐45
7.15.5 Design Guidelines ............................................................................................................................................... 7‐45
7.15.6 Mix Design Procedure ........................................................................................................................................ 7‐46
7.15.7 Masses per batch ............................................................................................................................................... 7‐47
7.15.8 Trial mixes .......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐47
7.15.9 Adjustment of Trial Mixes .................................................................................................................................. 7‐47
7.16 Guidelines for Design of Deviations ............................................................................................................................ 7‐48
7.16.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 7‐48
7.16.2 Gravel deviations ................................................................................................................................................ 7‐48
7.16.3 Bitumen surfaced deviations .............................................................................................................................. 7‐49
8 Laboratory procedures ........................................................................................................................................ 8‐50
8.1 Field laboratory .......................................................................................................................................................... 8‐50
8.1.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 8‐50
8.1.2 Minimum Requirements .................................................................................................................................... 8‐50
8.2 Testing and Sampling Methods .................................................................................................................................. 8‐51
8.3 Duplicate testing ........................................................................................................................................................ 8‐51
8.3.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 8‐51
8.3.2 Frequency of duplicate testing ........................................................................................................................... 8‐51
8.3.3 Preparation of samples ...................................................................................................................................... 8‐52
8.3.4 Duplicate testing between two laboratories ...................................................................................................... 8‐52
8.3.5 Comparison of Duplicate Samples ...................................................................................................................... 8‐53
8.4 Laboratory equipment ................................................................................................................................................ 8‐54
8.4.1 Non‐nuclear equipment ..................................................................................................................................... 8‐54
8.4.2 Nuclear Apparatus .............................................................................................................................................. 8‐54
XII MATERIALS MANUAL
PREAMBLE CONTENTS
8.4.3 Maintenance ...................................................................................................................................................... 8‐54
8.5 Laboratory Personnel ................................................................................................................................................. 8‐54
8.5.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 8‐54
8.5.2 Evaluation ........................................................................................................................................................... 8‐54
8.5.3 Minimum training level ...................................................................................................................................... 8‐55
8.5.4 Standard evaluation forms ................................................................................................................................. 8‐55
8.6 Inspecting and Reporting ........................................................................................................................................... 8‐56
8.6.1 Inspections ......................................................................................................................................................... 8‐56
8.6.2 Reporting ............................................................................................................................................................ 8‐56
8.7 Administrative procedures ......................................................................................................................................... 8‐56
8.7.1 Filing system ....................................................................................................................................................... 8‐56
8.7.2 Reporting ............................................................................................................................................................ 8‐56
8.8 Laboratory Stationary ................................................................................................................................................ 8‐57
8.8.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 8‐57
8.8.2 Retention of forms ............................................................................................................................................. 8‐57
8.8.3 List of Standard Roads Authority Forms ............................................................................................................. 8‐57
9 Control ................................................................................................................................................................ 9‐58
9.1 General ....................................................................................................................................................................... 9‐58
9.1.1 Specifications ...................................................................................................................................................... 9‐58
9.1.2 Inspection ........................................................................................................................................................... 9‐58
Tables
Table 4‐1 : Minimum test holes for fill land selected pits ...................................................................................................... 4‐12
Table 6‐1 : Natural Base grading requirements ..................................................................................................................... 6‐23
Table 6‐2 : Salt‐gravel property guidelines ............................................................................................................................ 6‐25
Table 6‐3 : Rapid evaluation of salt‐gravel ............................................................................................................................. 6‐25
Table 6‐4 : Bitumen spray and mix temperatures .................................................................................................................. 6‐27
Table 6‐5 : Bitumen ‐ aggregate combinations ...................................................................................................................... 6‐28
Table 6‐6 : Concrete aggregate properties ............................................................................................................................ 6‐28
Table 6‐7 : Basic concrete stone requirements ...................................................................................................................... 6‐28
Table 7‐1 : Acceptable surface treatments ............................................................................................................................ 7‐31
Table 7‐2 : Bitumen conversion factors ................................................................................................................................. 7‐31
Table 7‐3 : Resealing applications: typical emulsion spray rates .......................................................................................... 7‐33
Table 7‐4 : Stone spread rate ................................................................................................................................................. 7‐34
Table 7‐5 : P‐values for 13/6mm binder application .............................................................................................................. 7‐34
Table 7‐6 : Application rates of precoating fluid .................................................................................................................... 7‐35
Table 7‐7 : "P"‐ values for CS binder application .................................................................................................................... 7‐36
Table 7‐8 : Grading for crusher sand for asphalt mix ............................................................................................................. 7‐38
Table 7‐9 : Marshall criteria for hot‐mix asphalt .................................................................................................................... 7‐40
Table 7‐10 : Standards for stablisation material .................................................................................................................... 7‐45
Table 7‐11 : Maximum water/cement ratios ......................................................................................................................... 7‐46
Table 7‐12 : Maximum size of coarse aggregate .................................................................................................................... 7‐46
Table 7‐13 : Workability of concrete mixes ............................................................................................................................ 7‐47
Table 7‐14 : Relative densities ............................................................................................................................................... 7‐48
Table 7‐15 : Bitumen deviation pavement design ................................................................................................................. 7‐49
Table 8‐1 : E‐values for statistical analysis ............................................................................................................................. 8‐53
MATERIALS MANUAL XIII
GLOSSARY OF TERMS PREAMBLE
Table 8‐2 : Maximum statistical error .................................................................................................................................... 8‐53
Table 8‐3 : Training value "V" ................................................................................................................................................. 8‐55
Figures
Figure 7‐1 : Stone content ...................................................................................................................................................... 7‐47
Figure 8‐1 : Typical field laboratory layout ............................................................................................................................ 8‐50
Annexures
Annexure A Saline Materials Guide
Annexure B Laboratory Staff Training Evaluation Forms
Annexure C List of Standard Forms
Annexure D Control Test References
Annexure E SANS 3001 Standards developed in South Africa
Glossary of terms
The reader is referred to Section 1100 of the COLTO Standard Specifications for definitions of the various terms used in the
Manual.
General Conditions of Contract Conditions of Contract for Construction for Building and Engineering Works Designed by
the Employer, published by FIDIC
Particular Conditions of Contract Project‐specific Conditions prepared to explain, amplify or replace clauses of the
General Conditions of Contract
Project Specifications Project‐related Specifications in which clauses of the Standard Specifications are
explained, amplified, or replaced
Standard Specifications Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Works for State Road Authorities prepared
by COLTO and published by SAICE, referred to in short as “COLTO”
Mod AASHTO Modified AASHTO test to determine Maximum Dry Density (MDD)
Abbreviations
AADT Average Annual Daily Traffic
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transport Officials
BSM Bitumen Stabilised Material
CBR California Bearing Ratio
FIDIC Fédération Internationale des Ingénieurs‐Conseils
COLTO Committee of Land Transport Officials
CS Cape Seal
DCP Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
DMI Durability Mill Index
ETB Emulsion Treated Base
EVU Equivalent Vehicle Unit
10% FACT 10% Fines Aggregate Crushing Value
G1 to G10 Granular materials classification
GCC General Conditions of Contract
GM Grading Modulus
HS Hot‐mix asphalt Cape Seal (“Koffiemoer” Seal)
XIV MATERIALS MANUAL
PREAMBLE ABBREVIATIONS
ICS Initial Consumption of Stabiliser
ITS Indirect Tensile Strength
LAMBS Large Aggregate Mixes for Bases
MDD Maximum Dry Density
NP Non‐plastic
PI Plasticity Index
PCE Project Control Engineer
RA Roads Authority
RD Relative Density
RE Resident Engineer
S Sand
SANS South African National Standards
SP Slightly Plastic
SSD Sand Surface Dressing
TG Technical Guidelines of Asphalt Academy
TMH Technical Methods for Highways
TRH Technical Recommendations for Highways
SABITA Southern African Bitumen (and Tar) Association
UCS Unconfined Compressive Strength
MATERIALS MANUAL XV
INTRODUCTION GENERAL
1 INTRODUCTION the use of waste materials, by taking advantage of
Namibia's inherently dry climatic conditions, by selective
use of novel applications and the like. The Consultant is
1.1 General expected to apply his mind to the requirements of each
specific design situation, and where possible to put
1.1.1 Purpose forward technically sound, reasoned motivations for
The purpose of this Materials Manual is to set down the departing from the given materials standards or from
standards and norms of the Roads Authority which must conventional practices, all in an endeavour to provide a
be adhered to by Consultants and engineers of the Roads cost‐effective solution tailored to the specific problem.
Authority in the execution of materials‐related work for
Roads Authority projects. Construction ‐ related matters 1.1.4 Entry onto Land
which may be of use are discussed in the Construction The Consultant will be provided by the Roads Authority
Manual. with a delegation of authority in terms of the Roads
Ordinance No 17 of 1972, to enable him to enter onto
Some or all of the contents of this manual may seem to private property for the purposes of materials
be self‐evident, but it must be borne in mind that the investigations.
manual is intended for use by a large cross‐section of
persons in both private and public sectors, not all of The Consultant must ensure that he, his staff and his
whom are well‐versed in formal roadbuilding Agents, if any, are in possession of copies of the
specifications. delegation of authority at all times while on private
property. The Consultant must notify in writing the
1.1.2 Variations owner or occupier of all private properties which he, his
The manual is not intended to prohibit innovations or the staff and his Agents must enter for the purposes of
use of other methods, techniques or materials since materials investigations, of his intentions before actually
materials in different parts of the country, even in the commencing work upon the property. A copy of the
same borrowpit, could vary significantly from the norm. delegation of authority must accompany every such
The Materials Engineer is open to well‐motivated written notification.
suggestions for departures from the details given herein,
and would welcome feedback as to the performance of 1.1.5 Liability
the Roads Authority's normal materials guidelines, The Roads Authority will accept no liability for any
particularly when adverse but constructive criticism can accident, injury or death to the Consultant, members of
be put forward. his staff, his Agents, any member of the public or any
animals; or any damage to any property whatsoever,
Reference is made to the requirements of the Procedures caused directly or indirectly by the activities required in
Manual in respect of variations from this Manual. terms of this Manual.
Where more sophisticated or alternative test methods 1.1.6 Roads Authority Officials
should be applied or where more accurate results are The titles "Senior Materials Engineer" and "Project
necessary on a project to reduce risk, the Consultant Control Engineer" are used in this manual. Whereas the
must motivate the adoption thereof. former title refers to the Roads Authority official holding
the relevant post, the latter is the individual at the Roads
1.1.3 Special Cases and Innovative Solutions
Authority designated as Project Control Engineer for a
The setting of standards for materials must in no way be
specific project. Both these designations fall under the
seen as precluding the Consultant from adopting
Divisional Manager: Construction and Rehabilitation.
innovative approaches to the problems associated with
the provision of an adequate pavement structure, It is the responsibility of the Consultant to ascertain at
especially where suitable "conventional" materials are the project start‐up meeting which Roads Authority
scarce or expensive, or both. official is current Materials Engineer and who will be
assigned as Project Control Engineer.
Many adequate solutions can be found by careful
application of design methods to specific situations, by
MATERIALS MANUAL 1‐1
SAFETY INTRODUCTION
1‐2 MATERIALS MANUAL
STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS AND OTHER DOCUMENTS GENERAL
MATERIALS MANUAL 2‐3
TMH DOCUMENTS STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS AND OTHER DOCUMENTS
2‐4 MATERIALS MANUAL
STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS AND OTHER DOCUMENTS OTHER DESIGN GUIDELINES
MATERIALS MANUAL 2‐5
INTRODUCTION MATERIALS IN ROAD PAVEMENTS
In order to fulfil transportation needs roads must comply Soils may consist of a mixture of materials from
with functional and structural requirements: a variety of origins, with a considerable degree
of weathering and particle size distribution,
Functional: The primary purpose of a road is to called grading. Materials in which the coarser
provide the road user with a surface of portion is small and where it “floats” in the
acceptable riding quality. The degree to which otherwise fine‐graded matrix of material, are
the road fulfils this need is dependent on called soils.
traction, comfort and road safety under Gravels on the other hand are materials where
prevailing conditions. These attributes are the coarser particles comprise the dominant
generally referred to as the serviceability of the component with good strength due to particle
road. interlock, with fine‐graded material occurring
Structural: The road pavement must have between the larger particles.
adequate structural strength to carry the design
traffic on the road. Economic pavements The bearing capacity of gravels and soils depends inter
generally consist of a number of layers, including alia on inherent material strength, grading, density,
the surfacing. Material characteristics, the moisture content and resistance to deformation, which is
composition and the behaviour of the materials directly affected by cohesion or clay content. Whereas
in the composite layered structure under traffic the bearing capacity of cohesionless materials is not very
loading determine the structural capacity of the moisture‐sensitive, the opposite is true in the case of
pavement. clayey materials where wet clay acts as a lubricant which
reduces particle interlock and hence the bearing capacity.
Materials planning and pavement design in the Materials Therefore the most important properties of soils and
Manual consequently involves the effective utilisation of gravels in respect of road construction purposes, which
available natural or modified soils, gravels and rock, to can all be determined by materials testing, are the
create a combination of pavement layers able to following:
withstand the traffic loading anticipated during the
design life of the road pavement structure, while at the Compaction of the material to the specified
same time providing a reasonable riding comfort. density to comply with minimum strength
requirements must be achieved;
The clay content and related properties must be
within acceptable limits;
3‐6 MATERIALS MANUAL
MATERIALS IN ROAD PAVEMENTS PAVEMENT BEHAVIOUR
The individual granular particles should not Solar radiation mainly influences bituminous products,
weather significantly and must not disintegrate where oxidation and hardening of the binder affect long‐
under traffic loading. term performance of the seal or asphalt surfacing.
The distribution of stresses in the pavement was studied
3.3 Pavement behaviour
inter alia by Boussinesq (1885), Westergaard (1925) and
The behaviour of a pavement under traffic axle loading is Burmeister (1943), which eventually led to the modern
dependent on the characteristics of the individual as well linear elastic layer theory used today in pavement design.
as the combined strength of all the layers of the Several other approaches to pavement design and
pavement, and is affected mainly by the traffic and materials specifications were developed, and it became
climatic factors described below: clear that plasticity, grading, shrinkage, swell,
permeability, and moisture sensitivity must be controlled
3.3.1 Traffic to enable satisfactory pavement performance. OJ Porter
Normal and shear stresses, as well as tangential forces (1930) developed the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test
result from moving tyres. The magnitude thereof to provide an indication of relative strength of fine‐
depends on vehicle mass, tyre pressure and dynamic grained materials under soaked conditions. This in turn
loading caused by road roughness and the response of resulted in the development of CBR cover curves and
the suspension of the vehicle. later more sophisticated pavement design and evaluation
methods.
Tyre pressure determines the size of the contact area
(footprint) of the tyre over which the vehicle load is Structural capacity of a pavement depends on the ability
spread, and has a significant effect in the upper region of of the different layers to spread loads, and this depends
the pavement. on the inherent engineering properties of the materials
in each individual pavement layer. In some cases the
The distribution of the wheel loads within and between
engineering properties can be modified by means of
lanes, as well as the configuration of axle loads per heavy
mechanical and chemical stabilisation to improve the
vehicle, are difficult to predict accurately and weigh‐
load spreading ability of a layer.
bridge data must be used for this purpose. These are
expressed in equivalent 80kN axle loads (E80s) for
pavement design purposes. 3.4 Pavement balance
The basic pavement design philosophy remains the
3.3.2 Climate
creation of adequate cover over the underlying roadbed
Three environmental components which have the
and road prism, which is able to absorb the traffic and
greatest effect on the performance of a pavement are
environmental stresses over the design life of the road
water, temperature and ultra‐violet radiation from the
pavement and which prevents over‐stressing of the
sun.
layers, soils or gravels supporting the road pavement
Water has the most significant influence on pavement structure.
structural capacity and it is important that the pavement
A balanced pavement structure is one in which the
be kept sealed against water ingress throughout its life.
design loading is carried by all the layers, each in relation
Temperature mainly affects bituminous materials in that to their strength contribution in the pavement. A shallow
higher temperatures initially softens but eventually pavement structure is one in which the upper layers are
hardens bitumen, which affects its stiffness, and requires used primarily to protect the weaker layers below, and in
that materials selection and pavement design consider a deep structure relatively more stresses are transferred
the likely temperature range which the pavement would to the lower layers. A deep structure would be less
be subject to. Temperature also affects moisture sensitive to overloading than in the case of a shallow
movement, shrinkage and expansion which must be structure.
considered.
The stresses in a pavement are very sensitive to layer
thickness. Therefore the specified composition of the
layers and thickness thereof must not be changed in any
MATERIALS MANUAL 3‐7
TESTING OF MATERIALS MATERIALS IN ROAD PAVEMENTS
way during construction without an understanding of the respect of the planning and design stages. The Sections
original objectives of the designed pavement structure. hereinafter include the procedures to be followed during
these stages, under the following main headings:
3.5 Testing of materials
Materials investigation
The ability of a pavement to spread traffic‐induced loads Pavement structural design
is mainly affected by its shear modulus and stiffness Materials standards
modulus. Since granular materials in a pavement tend to Materials design
fail in shear, resistance to shear is generally regarded as
the most important parameter. In the case of cemented It must be noted that it is inevitable that some overlap
materials the load‐spreading ability of a pavement will occur in respect of the procedures that must be
depends mainly on the stiffness modulus and flexural followed during the planning, design and construction
strength of the material. These moduli could be stages, which may require cross‐referencing between the
measured using sophisticated testing equipment, but Materials and the Construction Manuals.
simpler laboratory tests are normally used to measure
other material properties from which the load‐spreading
ability can be estimated.
3‐8 MATERIALS MANUAL
MATERIALS INVESTIGATION FOR ROADWORKS CENTRELINE MATERIALS SURVEY
MATERIALS MANUAL 4‐9
CENTRELINE MATERIALS SURVEY MATERIALS INVESTIGATION FOR ROADWORKS
4‐10 MATERIALS MANUAL
MATERIALS INVESTIGATION FOR ROADWORKS GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR BORROWPITS
MATERIALS MANUAL 4‐11
FILL AND SELECTED BORROWPITS MATERIALS INVESTIGATION FOR ROADWORKS
Any deviations from maximum spacings, number of test In certain uniform types of materials such as Kalahari
pits and tests, and the type of tests shall be cleared with sands, the Senior Materials Engineer may agree in writing
the Roads Authority as early as possible to a reduction in the minimum number of test holes
specified above.
4‐12 MATERIALS MANUAL
MATERIALS INVESTIGATION FOR ROADWORKS BASE BORROWPITS/QUARRIES
determined by means of indicator tests as described in of the suggested process. In the case of solid rock
§4.3.3 on both the material and proposed binder; and quarries, 1 out of every 3 cores drilled shall be crushed,
CBR and indicator tests on the mixture. In compliance screened and tested as indicated hereafter.
with §4.6 hereof, sufficient testing shall be carried out to
make a confident recommendation in respect of the The hardness and durability of the aggregate and base
mechanical stabilisation solution. material in all sources proposed for use in base shall be
proved by means of the 10% FACT (Fine Aggregate
4.4.5 Chemical stabilisation Crushing Test) and/or the Durability Mill Index (Texas Ball
In cases where chemical stabilisation (cement or lime) is Mill) test. These are specified in COLTO and include wet
proposed, additional tests such as ICS, ITS, UCS or others and dry testing for durability.
as may be required shall be carried out in order to
establish the type and quantity of stabilising agent. The testing requirements in the Clauses hereafter shall in
addition be followed where stabilisation of the Base
4.4.6 Testing for salt material is necessary, and to test for deleterious salt.
Tests shall be carried out on at least 4 holes to determine
the presence of deleterious salts in all borrow material to 4.5.4 Mechanical stabilisation
be used for Subbase. The provisions of §4.4.4 will apply to Base as well.
Where road shoulders are to be surfaced, this 4.5.5 Chemical stabilisation
requirement shall also be applicable to Shoulder The procedures described in §4.4.5 must also be followed
material. in the case of Base.
Mixing time that can be allowed and the effect thereof
4.5 Base borrowpits/quarries on post‐construction strength shall be analysed and
included in the construction specifications.
4.5.1 General
Suitable Base sources are to be located and proved by The long‐term suitability of the stabilisation process
core‐drilling in the case of solid materials, or as for recommended shall be determined in respect of the
subbase borrowpits in the case of natural deposits. effects and risks of minimum stabiliser demand,
carbonation, shrinkage cracking and recurring plasticity.
All likely Base sources are to be tested and proved except
This includes the durability of the chemically stabilised
that the spacing of quarry sites for crushed solid rock
base material using the wet/dry brush test.
need not be closer than 20 km, and borrowpit sites for
natural material ‐ whether processed or not ‐ shall not 4.5.6 Bitumen stabilisation
exceed a spacing of 10 km, unless no suitable sources are Where bitumen stabilisation is proposed, the normal
available within this range. tests for granular material such as Indicators, Mod
AASHTO maximum density, and CBR will be required in
4.5.2 Test holes
addition to tests relevant to stabilisation such as ICS, ITS,
For sources other than solid rock, all test holes shall be
UCS and others as may be necessary to determine the
excavated through the proposed gravel layer. The
most appropriate method of bitumen stabilisation, and
minimum number of holes shall be 12 per borrowpit. In
the type and quantity of the stabilising agent and
the case of solid rock quarries, core drilling shall be
additive.
carried out on a 50 m grid or as may be decided in
discussion with the Senior Materials Engineer. Durability tests shall, as for chemical stabilisation, include
the minimum stabiliser and additive demand, as well as
4.5.3 Testing
effects and risks of carbonation, shrinkage cracking, etc
For sources other than solid rock, the procedure and
on the mixture recommended.
tests shall be as set out for subbase in §4.4.3. If the
available material in a borrowpit requires crushing and 4.5.7 Testing for salt
screening, samples must be made up to simulate the Tests shall be carried out on at least 1 hole per borrowpit
anticipated end product. Sufficient CBR and indicator to determine the presence of deleterious salts in all
tests must be carried out on these to prove the feasibility borrow material to be used for natural Base. Where
MATERIALS MANUAL 4‐13
BINDER AND STABILISER SOURCES MATERIALS INVESTIGATION FOR ROADWORKS
4‐14 MATERIALS MANUAL
MATERIALS INVESTIGATION FOR ROADWORKS RECORDING OF TEST RESULTS OF MATERIALS INVESTIGATION
Where additional duplicate samples are required by the materials encountered in the centreline
Roads Authority, the cost to prepare and submit these, if materials survey.
any, is to be negotiated and agreed with the Roads 2 A detailed description of the materials
Authority. prospecting phase from which the borrowpit
locations were developed.
More details of the requirements are given in Section 8 3 The trial pits and other relevant information
Part 3 of this Manual. shall be shown on a map of suitable scale and
accompanied by brief descriptions of the
4.10 Recording of test results of materials materials, test results, depths etc. The locality in
investigation terms of GPS‐based co‐ordinates of all trial pits
opened and not sampled due to poor quality on
All the test results obtained as a result of the
visual inspection shall be submitted separately
investigations into centreline materials, quarries and
in the report.
borrowpits shall be recorded on the Roads Authority's
4 A statement of the proposed sources of
standard materials survey and borrowpit sheets.
materials together with their proposed usage
It is required that the data be filled in on the sheets in and including relevant details such as expected
black ink, either by typing or by computer, clearly and quantities and depths of overburden.
consistently. The data on these sheets shall form the 5 The aspect of proposed usage of materials shall
basis of the pavement design. Completed master copies be covered in addition by Mass Haul Diagrams,
shall be submitted in draft format to the Roads Authority Material Distribution Tables and Materials Haul
as part of the Materials Report. Diagrams.
6 A detail overview of the materials sampled from
4.11 Structural design and materials usage test pits opened in existing pavement layers,
including in‐situ density, DCP and laboratory test
The structural design of the road pavement (see Section results of the natural and modified materials as
5) and proposed material usage based on the data may be appropriate, to support the
recorded on the materials survey and borrowpit sheets recommended re‐use thereof in the new road
shall be finalised in consultation with the Senior pavement.
Materials Engineer. 7 Details of possible commercial sources of supply
are to be included.
4.12 Reports on materials investigation 8 Major sources of water supply.
MATERIALS MANUAL 4‐15
INSPECTION OF QUARRIES AND BORROWPITS MATERIALS INVESTIGATION FOR ROADWORKS
Measures to deal with these problems must be comments received thereon from the Senior
stated. Materials Engineer;
2 The existence of deleterious minerals in all discussions during the joint materials inspection;
aggregates. If present, measures to deal with and to include the results of any additional
the problem must be proposed. testing or investigation which may be required
3 Deviations and Innovations of the Consultant.
4 Any deviation from the standards for materials
contained in this Manual which has been If no draft report is required by the Terms of Reference
approved in writing by the Senior Materials for a specific consultancy contract, only a final report will
Engineer, shall be reported on. be submitted.
5 Any suggestions for innovative approaches to
This modified version will constitute the final Materials
the solution of materials‐related problems shall
Report and three copies must be submitted to the Senior
be set out, even if such approaches have not, or
Materials Engineer at least 4 weeks before the tender
not yet, been approved in writing by the Senior
documentation is due to be finalised. The Final Materials
Materials Engineer.
Report will form part of the Design Report.
Environmental Aspects
4.12.5 Tender Materials Report
Environmental issues relating to materials shall be
A materials report for tender purposes must be prepared
reported on. Relevant information extracted from the
by the Consultant from the approved Final Materials
Environmental Impact Assessment shall be included and
Report. This version must be completely factual and
discussed. Further information in this regard can be
must therefore exclude discussions, opinions and
found in the Roads Authority's Environmental Manual.
contentious issues where these would be confusing or
Major Structures misleading or potentially so to the Contractor. Care must
Testing and investigations carried out in accordance with however be taken to ensure that all information which
the Procedures Manual for the foundations of bridges may be relevant to the Tender is disclosed for contractual
and other major structures shall be reported on. reasons.
The foundation conditions at each bridge and other A copy of the Tender Materials Report must be made
major structures, and the design philosophy proposed for available to all Tenderers.
the foundations of such structures must be given.
4.13 Inspection of quarries and borrowpits
4.12.3 Draft Materials Report
Five copies of a preliminary, or draft, materials report 4.13.1 General
covering at least the aspects detailed in 4.12.2 above, After the preliminary, or draft, materials report has been
plus the proposed pavement design, must be submitted submitted to the Senior Materials Engineer the
to the Senior Materials Engineer. The required time of Consultant must arrange with the former for a joint
submission of this draft report, which must include all inspection of borrowpits and quarries proposed for
borrowpit and soil survey sheets, drilling logs, and all construction, as well as areas along the route where
other pertinent information, in a fully completed form, specific geotechnical problems are expected to be
will vary from project to project and must be agreed encountered.
upon between the Roads Authority and the Consultant at
the project handover meeting. This inspection should be carried out at the earliest
possible date to allow time for any additional
The aim in setting this date is to allow sufficient time for investigation or testing which the Senior Materials
the Roads Authority to study the report prior to the Engineer may require to be carried out.
materials inspection.
4.13.2 Arrangements
4.12.4 Final Materials Report The Consultant must draw up a suitable programme for
The preliminary, or draft, materials report must be the inspection and submit this to the Senior Materials
modified in the light of
4‐16 MATERIALS MANUAL
MATERIALS INVESTIGATION FOR ROADWORKS WATER INVESTIGATIONS
In cases where water for construction and domestic use
is not readily available in the vicinity of a road project the
Consultant shall motivate the justification for and likely
financial implications of involving specialists such as a
hydrogeologist, drill contractor or other specialists as
may be necessary to provide enough information on
which contractors could base their tenders.
MATERIALS MANUAL 4‐17
INTRODUCTION STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF PAVEMENTS
5 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF It is however, recognised that there are other ways to
carry out the structural design of pavements. Special
PAVEMENTS circumstances or specific solutions to specific problems
may require the use of design philosophies other than
5.1 Introduction that specified.
In such cases, and bearing in mind the objective of
5.1.1 Objective
providing an adequate pavement at least cost, the Roads
The objective of pavement design is the provision of an
Authority will consider a well‐motivated submission
economically justifiable pavement structure to withstand
aimed at an alternative design approach
the expected traffic loading over the design life of the
pavement.
5.2 Design of flexible pavements
5.1.2 Achievement of objective
The objective is achieved by providing successive layers 5.2.1 Roads Authority's design policy
of granular materials, either natural or treated, which The Roads Authority requires that pavement design
have sufficient strength to resist the imposed stresses. follows the approach set out in the document "Structural
Often the uppermost layer of the pavement is a thin Design of Interurban and Rural Road Pavements" TRH 4 :
surface treatment which does not significantly contribute 1985, published by the National Institute for Transport
to the cover or pavement strength. Its purpose is merely and Road Research, CSIR, P O Box 395, Pretoria.
to seal off the pavement against the ingress of water and
For pavement rehabilitation investigation and design, the
to provide a safe and dust‐free contact between the
guidelines and approach followed in draft TRH12:
wheel and the pavement. Such a layer therefore does
“Flexible Pavement Rehabilitation Investigation and
not enter into the structural analysis but certainly does
Design” 1997 shall be followed.
enter into cost considerations.
In the case of the design of bitumen‐stabilised materials
5.1.3 Types of pavements
the guidelines of TG2: “Bitumen Stabilised Materials”
Pavements can be divided at the outset into flexible and
May 2009 shall be followed. This is available from the
rigid types. The latter would normally be considered only
Asphalt Academy in South Africa, c/o CSIR Built
for very high traffic counts or loads or for special
Environment, PO Box 395, Pretoria, 0001.
applications, for instance very steep grades such as may
be encountered in township development. 5.2.2 Design process
Only the TRH4 approach is covered hereafter. Where
Severe traffic conditions such as may warrant the use of a
mechanistic or other designs are specified in the Terms of
rigid pavement do not as yet occur in Namibia. The
Reference, the Consultant shall motivate the design
construction of township or other local roads where
procedures that he will follow and the computer
grades are so steep as to justify the consideration of a
software he envisages making use of.
rigid pavement is outside the scope of this manual.
Therefore at this stage, only flexible pavements are Rehabilitation and bitumen stabilisation design
considered. However, attention is drawn to 5.1.4 hereof. procedures still have to be added in future.
Should an occasion arise where the designer considers a
rigid pavement to be a viable solution, then he must
discuss the matter with the Senior Materials Engineer There are three phases to the design process, being:
and, where appropriate, obtain the Roads Authority's
gathering of inputs;
policy on the matter.
structural analysis;
5.1.4 Design Approach economic analysis of the road design options.
The Roads Authority's policy for structural design of
However, in order to obtain the most suitable design
pavements is given in the following section of this
both technically and economically, an iterative procedure
manual.
may be necessary.
5‐18 MATERIALS MANUAL
STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF PAVEMENTS DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
Road category Available traffic data on the Traffic Surveillance System
The designer must confer with the Senior Materials (TSS) includes hourly and daily counts per lane, classified
Engineer to arrive at an agreed category of road in terms into light and heavy vehicles. This information appears in
of Paragraph 1 of TRH 4. the Road Management System. Truck and bus axle
loading data are available from a weighbridge
Environment
management system maintained by the Roads Authority,
The principal environmental factors having an effect on
including daily statistics on average axle loading per type
the design are:
of truck and for the full heavy vehicle component of the
climate; traffic on a specific road served by the weighbridge.
subgrade quality;
Historical growth patterns, traffic levels and axle loads to
materials availability; determine the equivalent single axle loading over the
drainage. pavement design period may thus be available for the
road in question.
Climate: The basic climatic regime over large areas of
Namibia is characterised by high temperatures and
The designer is required to discuss the various aspects of
evaporation rates, and low precipitation. These factors
traffic and axle load determination for any particular
must be borne in mind during the design process, as
project with the Senior Materials Engineer and to reach
must the relatively high level of ultra‐violet radiation.
agreement on the approach to be used, growth rates,
These climatic factors present an opportunity in certain etc, before commencing with any detailed studies of
cases to make use, with the approval of the Roads traffic‐related matters.
Authority, of non‐standard approaches including the
possible use of materials of marginal quality. In any case, the Consultant will be instructed in the
Terms of Reference of the consultancy contract whether
Subgrade Quality: No expansion on the exposition in TRH
or not he must carry out additional short‐term traffic
4 is necessary.
counts or related traffic surveys, as may be necessary for
Materials Availability: In large areas of Namibia, the the purpose of the design process.
availability of roadbuilding gravels is limited. Pedogenic
Design strategy
materials, particularly calcrete, are common. Rock
The analysis period and structural design period must be
suitable for crushing for use in bituminous surfacing is
discussed and agreed upon with the Senior Materials
non‐existent or extremely limited in many areas. All
Engineer before proceeding with the pavement design.
these factors open the way for innovative solutions to
the twin problems of technical adequacy and cost
effectiveness. The design period will normally be 20 years, but there
may be sound reasons to depart from this norm.
Drainage: Even in the light of the dry conditions existing
over most of Namibia, drainage of the pavement layers Stage construction is an option which must receive
remains an important factor which cannot be consideration in the design phase.
overlooked. The requirements of the Drainage Manual
5.2.4 Structural analysis
shall be followed.
The approach set out in TRH 4 is based on a catalogue of
design solutions which have been checked by a
MATERIALS MANUAL 5‐19
DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENTS STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF PAVEMENTS
5‐20 MATERIALS MANUAL
MATERIALS STANDARDS INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS MANUAL 6‐21
SUBBASE MATERIALS STANDARDS
6‐22 MATERIALS MANUAL
MATERIALS STANDARDS BASE
In the case of G2 and G3 Base, the crushed stone will be Where a natural pedogenic source is used for G4 Base,
derived from a source with adequate strength and the material must comply with the grading requirements
yielding insufficient fines (either due to hardness of marked ** (after compaction).
aggregate or inadequacy of the crusher set‐up) to which
a binder may be added in order to achieve the desired Where a natural source of pedogenic material for use in a
grading. G4 Base does not comply with the grading requirements
marked ** (after compaction), and the pavement design
The source may, however, also be naturally occurring justifies the use of a material at “Relaxed” standards, the
gravel which will require processing by means of crushing grading shall comply with grading in the table marked
in order to obtain a satisfactory product. It will usually be ***.
necessary to pre‐screen the material before crushing and
discarded or added back in strictly controlled quantities, % PASSING
SIEVE G4* G4** G4***
as may be relevant. For the fines to be usable in the G3 SIZE (NON‐PEDOGENIC, (PEDOGENIC, PEDOGENIC,
Base, it should be of suitable uniformity and quality, and (MM) UNCRUSHED) UNCRUSHED) UNCRUSHED)
the quantity must not be excessive. 53,0 100 100 100
37,5 85 ‐ 100 85 ‐ 100
If the available material source does not meet the criteria 26,5 ‐ 72 ‐ 95
for crushing strength, the Senior Materials Engineer shall 19,0 60 ‐ 90 60 ‐ 90
be consulted to obtain approval for the use of a reduced 13,2 ‐ 52 ‐ 83 max 95
standard where sources of better material either do not 4,75 30 ‐ 65 30 ‐ 65 max 80
exist or are uneconomic to import. The Consultant shall 2,00 20 ‐ 50 20 ‐ 50 max 65
inter alia evaluate and motivate the risk of crushing of 0,475 10 ‐ 30 10 ‐ 35 max 40
the material under traffic. 0,075 5 ‐ 15 5 ‐ 15 max 20
* COLTO Standard Specifications; ** RA Specifications for Pedogenic
Materials; *** RA Relaxed Standard
Deleterious Minerals Table 6‐1 : Natural Base grading requirements
Sulphide Minerals: Crushed rock containing sulphide
minerals shall be investigated for deleterious effects. In all cases where the use of a Relaxed standard G4
pedogenic Base is proposed, for whatever reason, the
Mica: Base material containing easily visible mica,
matter must first be discussed with the Materials
especially in the form of muscovite, should be
Engineer and his approval obtained. Permission to use
investigated for compaction problems before use and, if
such material will normally only be granted where traffic
possible, should be avoided.
is very low, and sources of better material either do not
Soluble Salts: The occurrence of soluble salts in the exist or are uneconomic to import.
material shall be governed by the electrical conductivity
of the material, which shall not exceed 0,15 Sm‐1 Atterberg constants
The Maximum Plasticity Index for the RA Relaxed
If this limit is exceeded, then special measures must be standard for pedogenic materials is 10 (refer to previous
adopted consistent with the requirements of COLTO sub‐clause).
clause 3602, and the Materials Engineer must be
consulted in this regard. Deleterious Minerals
The provisions of §6.5.2 on Deleterious Minerals will
apply.
6.5.2 Untreated Natural Base (G4 Type)
Durability
Grading
A G4 Base material shall comply with the durability
Two additional grading standards of the Roads Authority
requirements of COLTO Table 3402/3, ie the Durability
are included in the table below in respect of uncrushed
Mill Index (DMI).
pedogenic Base material, marked ** and ***. The latter
is called the “Relaxed” grading specification.
MATERIALS MANUAL 6‐23
WEARING COURSE GRAVEL MATERIALS STANDARDS
The requirements for bitumen stabilised materials (BSM)
6.5.3 Treated Base
shall comply with the recommendations of Manual TG2
General of the Asphalt Academy.
It is highly unlikely that treated G1, G2 and G3 Bases will
Side Slopes
be used in new road construction at the present stage of
For reasons related to road safety the road side slopes
the development of the Namibian road system. The
outside the shoulder breakpoints are considered part of
treatment of a G4 Base material on the other hand
the vehicle recovery area, and require a compacted
should only be considered as a last resort, in cases where
surface. Consultants must specify that side slopes shall be
material suitable for untreated Base is either
trimmed by cutting into approved compacted layerworks
unobtainable or is uneconomical to import.
to specified cross‐section dimensions.
The use of foam and emulsion‐treated Base has a place in
the rehabilitation of existing roads, in which case the 6.6 Wearing Course Gravel
Senior Materials Engineer shall be consulted to ascertain
the Roads Authority's current policy in respect of any 6.6.1 General
These standards apply to gravel for use as a wearing
preference.
course on unsurfaced roads. Generally any material
which is readily available and has been found to be
satisfactory by experience may be used. These standards
The requirements for bitumen‐stabilised base (BSM) should therefore be regarded only as a guide to the
must still be formalised. selection of suitable material.
6‐24 MATERIALS MANUAL
MATERIALS STANDARDS WEARING COURSE GRAVEL
fixed grading envelope can be given as essential for good Fresh gravels after laboratory processing and mixing with
performance. brine should meet the criteria in the table below:
MATERIALS MANUAL 6‐25
AGGREGATE FOR SEALS AND ASPHALT MATERIALS STANDARDS
In all cases where the use of such a sand is proposed,
samples thereof shall be submitted to the Roads
Authority's Central Laboratory in Windhoek for approval,
together with a cost analysis of the alternatives.
The use of friable sands will not be permitted.
6‐26 MATERIALS MANUAL
MATERIALS STANDARDS BITUMINOUS BINDERS FOR SEALS, ASPHALT SURFACING AND CRACK SEALING
Enrichment emulsions:
MSP3 Inverted bitumen emulsion Colas Notes 65°C
Table 6‐4 : Bitumen spray and mix temperatures
MATERIALS MANUAL 6‐27
AGGREGATES FOR CONCRETE MATERIALS STANDARDS
AGGREGATE It shall comply with the requirements of section 3.3.1 of
BINDER TYPE NON‐ SANS 1083. The requirements are given in Table 6‐7.
SILICEOUS
SILICEOUS
Penetration grade bitumen No Yes GRADING
MC3000 cutback bitumen No* Yes
sieve
Cationic bitumen emulsion nominal size of stone (mm)
Spray Yes Yes 75,0 53,0 37,5 26,5 19,0 13,2 9,5 6,7
Premix Yes Yes
75,0 100 100
Stable Yes No
Anionic bitumen emulsion 85‐
Spray No Yes** 53,0 0‐50 100
100
Premix No Yes** 85‐
Stable Yes Yes 37,5 0‐25 0‐50 100
100
* For sand surface dressing specifications MC 3000 cutback may
85‐
be used with silica sands 26,5 0‐5 0‐25 0‐50 100
** For practical considerations, cationic spray and premium 100
emulsions are used instead of anionic emulsions. 85‐
19,0 0‐5 0‐25 0‐50 100
Table 6‐5 : Bitumen ‐ aggregate combinations 100
85‐
13,2 0‐5 0‐25 0‐50 100
100
85‐
6.9 Aggregates for Concrete 9,5 0‐5 0‐25 0‐50
100
100
85‐
6,7 0‐5 0‐25 0‐50
6.9.1 Fine and Coarse Aggregate 100
The fine aggregate shall consist of natural sand or crusher 4,75 0‐10 0‐10 0‐10
dust and shall comply with the requirements of section
DUST CONTENT (0,075mm) ‐ MAX 1,5
3.2.1 of SANS 1083. Those requirements are given below
in Table 6‐6. AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE ‐ MAX 29
10% FACT (‐13,2 +9,5mm fraction, dry)
SAND DERIVED SAND DERIVED Stone subject to surface abrasion 110
FROM NATURAL FROM CRUSHING
Stone not subject to surface abrasion 70
DISINTEGRATION OR MILLING OF
OF ROCK ROCK Table 6‐7 : Basic concrete stone requirements
Grading: % of material
passing the following sieves (mm)
4,750 90 ‐ 100 90 ‐ 100 In addition the drying‐shrinkage characteristics in
0,150 0 ‐ 15 0 ‐ 20 accordance with SANS Method 836 of both aggregates
Dust content shall be such that:
5 10
(<0,075 mm) max
Fineness Modulus 1,6 ‐ 3,5 concrete for prestressed concrete and slender
Chloride content elements shall not exceed 130% of the shrinkage
Sand for concrete for prestressing: 0,01
expressed as
Sand for other classes of concrete: 0,03 of the reference aggregate;
Cl % (m/m) max
The colour of the liquid above the sand for other reinforced concrete the shrinkage of
shall not be darker than the colour of the the fine aggregate shall not exceed 175%, and
Organic Impurities reference solution, except if the sand
complies with the requirements for
for the coarse aggregate not 150%, of the
soluble deleterious impurities. shrinkage of the reference aggregate;
To be free from sugar unless the sand for mass and unreinforced concrete the
Presence of sugar complies with the requirement for
soluble deleterious impurities. shrinkage of both aggregates shall not exceed
The strength of the mortar made with the 200% of that of the reference aggregate;
Soluble deleterious sand shall not be less than 85% of that of concrete made with these aggregates shall
impurities mortar made with the same sand after it
has been washed. exhibit shrinkage less than 0.04% (SANS Method
Table 6‐6 : Concrete aggregate properties 1085);
The coarse aggregate shall consist of clean crushed or The flakiness Index shall not exceed 35 (TMH1 Method
processed rock or clean natural gravel, suitably screened. B3), aggregates shall not contain any deleterious
amounts of organic materials such as grass and timber,
6‐28 MATERIALS MANUAL
MATERIALS STANDARDS AGGREGATES FOR CONCRETE
6.9.2 Cement
The cement used shall comply with following
specifications.
MATERIALS MANUAL 6‐29
INTRODUCTION MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES
7 MATERIALS DESIGN In no case do these guidelines absolve a Consulting
Engineer from his responsibility to produce a technically
GUIDELINES sound and economical design.
The purpose of this section of the Manual is to provide 7.2.1 Type of Surfacing
some practical, basic background for use during materials Dense graded premix (continuous or gap graded) would
design and tender documentation by personnel who may normally only be considered in the following
at times be out of contact with their technical support circumstances :
structures. It is not intended to be a definitive exposition
on the subjects touched upon, nor a substitute for proper on major works where initial traffic exceeds 400
design and sound engineering judgement related to the heavy vehicles in both directions per day i.e. an
specific circumstances. AADT of about 4000 EVU's;
in urban areas for practical reasons related to
Aspects that are covered in the COLTO Standard surfacing between kerbs and channels, for
Specifications and in the Construction Manual are not minimising disruption to traffic or to resist
repeated. horizontal shear forces at roundabouts or
approaches to robot controlled intersections of
Although some guidance is provided under this Section in
main arterials; or
respect of bitumen and stone application rates, these
in rehabilitation projects, in order to provide a
must be considered only as basic guidelines, for example
levelling course or additional strength.
for planning and budget purposes. All final seal designs
must however be carried out in accordance with the The choice of a surface treatment, on the other hand, is
guidelines of TRH 3. The reason for this is that there are influenced by the following factors :
just too many variables to allow for from the texture,
fattiness and porosity of the surface to be sealed, traffic;
embedment to allow for in the design, temperature, the climate;
ALD, flakiness, porosity and application rate of the stone, turning actions;
to the more important traffic and heavy component gradient;
thereof, amount of construction traffic, steep grades with cost;
slow speeds or areas with severe deceleration, etc. logistics.
Spread rates must generally be such that a shoulder‐to‐ However, there are other considerations affecting the
shoulder aggregate layer with no double chipping is seal type to be adopted, and the matter must be
achieved. In certain cases the stone application may be discussed with the Senior Materials Engineer before the
opened up slightly to allow adequate space for choice is finalised.
subsequent stone or seal layer(s), if considered necessary
by the designer. Bitumen spray rate guidelines given in
The following table, which is based on traffic and climatic
this Section are based on cold penetration grade bitumen
considerations, serves as a starting point for the selection
and need to be adjusted when other types of bitumen
of a surface treatment.
are specified. Gross spray rates must always be adjusted
in accordance with actual materials and road conditions.
7‐30 MATERIALS MANUAL
MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES BITUMINOUS SURFACING ‐ GENERAL
MATERIALS MANUAL 7‐31
SAND SEAL MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES
7.3 Sand seal 7.4 Single application, single coat seal using
6mm aggregate
7.3.1 Description
This specification consists of a spray of binder followed 7.4.1 Description
by the application of a coarse, clean sand. It is a This specification consists of a spray of emulsion covered
surfacing specification normally used for new with 6 mm aggregate. It is commonly used for resealing
construction but can also be used for resealing or for existing surfaced roads. It is occasionally also used for
temporary by‐passes. Usually two layers are specified for surfacing very lightly trafficked roads and for temporary
new construction, but good durability can be expected by‐passes.
from one layer. The second layer can always be applied
at a later stage when this is found to be necessary ‐ this 7.4.2 Bituminous binder
could be several years later. The binder will normally consist of a spray grade
emulsion, either cationic 65% or anionic 60%, complying
7.3.2 Bituminous binder with SANS 548 or SANS 309 respectively. Cationic
The binder will normally be MC 3000 cutback bitumen or emulsion should be used with aggregates with a high
cationic 65% spray grade emulsion, complying with SANS silica content because of its better adhesion properties.
308 or SANS 548 respectively, although penetration Under favourable conditions the use of anionic emulsion,
grade bitumens have also been used effectively. MC 3000 in conjunction with basic aggregate types such as
is normally preferred on account of cost and also its dolerite, could well be advantageous.
resistance to flow on steep grades and superelevations.
On the other hand, consideration should be given to the Modified binders have been used successfully where
use of emulsion as this would result in a reduction in higher temperatures occur or where more flexibility in
petroleum volatiles. Cationic emulsion is to be used with the completed seal is required. Penetration grade
aggregates with high silica content because of its better bitumen could be used successfully with precoated
adhesion properties, but precoating could also be aggregate. All modified binders require precoating of the
considered. aggregate. The procedures hereinafter refer only to
emulsion as binder, but could also be applied to other
7.3.3 Aggregate binders as appropriate.
This has been described in Section 6.7.
7.4.3 Aggregate
7.3.4 Application rates The aggregate must comply with the requirements for 6
Hot spray rates for the binder will typically be the mm stone set out in Section 6.7 hereof.
following :
7.4.4 Application Rates
MC 3000 cutback bitumen 1,20 ℓ/m² The ALD of 6 mm aggregate does not normally exceed 3,5
Cationic 65% spray 1,60 ℓ/m² mm. If it does, an increased spray rate must be used.
Pen Bitumen and precoated sand 0,80 ℓ/m² Spray rates must be designed in accordance with TRH 3.
Typical spray rates for two categories of ALD and for
various applications of this seal type are given below:
Note: The design of all seals shall follow the guidelines
provided in TRH3. The lateral overlap between
distributor nozzle and bar sprays must be determined in
accordance with calibrated spray bar settings and nozzle
distribution.
The approximate spread rate of sand 180 m²/m³
7‐32 MATERIALS MANUAL
MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES SPLIT APPLICATION, TWO COATS SEAL WITH SAND BLINDING
MATERIALS MANUAL 7‐33
13/6MM DOUBLE SEAL MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES
160
150 Sufficient time must elapse prior to applying the second
140
spray to ensure that volatiles contained in the binder
130
120 used for the first spray have escaped and are not trapped
110 by the second spray as this could result in richness or
100 bleeding of the surfacing.
90
80 Precoated stone must be used where penetration grade
70 bitumen or modified bitumen is used as binder.
60
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 7.6.3 Aggregate
ALD OF STONE (mm) The aggregate must comply with the requirements for 13
and 6 mm stone set out in Section 6.7 of this Manual.
Table 7‐4 : Stone spread rate
7.6.4 Spray Rates
The seal design shall follow the recommendations of TRH
7.6 13/6mm Double Seal 3, but the following method could be used for a quick
estimate of the bitumen spray rate required:
7.6.1 Description
This type of seal consists of a spray of binder, followed by Total Application
13mm aggregate spread in a single layer shoulder‐to‐ As an indication, the total nett cold rate must be:
shoulder; then a second spray of binder covered with 6
mm aggregate generally followed by a fogspray of diluted 13 6
emulsion. It is primarily used for new construction and
sometimes for resealing where warranted by higher Where the ALDs are expressed in millimetres and “P” is
traffic and risk of bleeding when compared to a Cape selected from Table 7‐5 below:
Seal.
HEAVY VEHICLES PER DAY
(IN BOTH DIRECTIONS) P
7.6.2 Bituminous binder
Up to 200 0,17
Usually, the binder for this specification consists of two
sprays of either cationic 65% or anionic 60% spray grade Above 200 0,15
7‐34 MATERIALS MANUAL
MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES 19/9 OR 19/6 DOUBLE SEAL
The resultant sprays must then be rounded off to the Typical application rates of the precoating fluid are
nearest 0,01 ℓ/m². included in Table 7‐6 below:
The spread rate of the 6 mm stone will normally be found The 9 or 6mm aggregate is to be spread in a single layer.
to be in the range of 180 ‐ 200 m²/m³. It is essential that the aggregate is not over‐applied.
While the spread rate of the 9mm stone will normally be
7.7 19/9 or 19/6 Double Seal found to be in the range of 140 ‐ 165 m²/m³, that of the
6mm stone will likely lie in the range of 170 ‐ 200 m²/m³.
7.7.1 Description
This seal specification consists of a spray of binder,
followed by 19 mm aggregate spread in a single layer 7.8 Cape Seal
shoulder‐to‐shoulder; then a second spray of binder
7.8.1 Description
covered with 9 or 6 mm aggregate followed by a fogspray
This type of seal consists of a split application of binder
of diluted emulsion. It is primarily used for new
with 19 (or 13)mm aggregate followed by two
construction and sometimes for resealing where
applications of slurry. The aggregate is spread onto the
warranted by circumstances.
first application of binder.
7.7.2 Bituminous binder
The requirements of Section 7.6.2 are equally applicable The Senior Materials Engineer may in certain
here. circumstances authorise the use of 13 mm chips followed
by a single application of slurry instead of the standard
7.7.3 Aggregate 19 mm Specification.
The aggregate must comply with the requirements for
19, 13 and 6 mm stone set out in Section 6.7 of this Whereas the 19mm Cape Seal is only used for new
Manual. construction, the 13mm Cape Seal can also be used for
resealing of existing bitumen roads.
Precoated stone must be used where penetration grade
bitumen or modified bitumen is used as binder.
MATERIALS MANUAL 7‐35
CAPE SEAL MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES
7.8.2 Bituminous Binder durable surface is the one containing the most
Any one or a combination of the binders listed below bituminous binder, the aim is to spray as much binder as
may be used, subject to compatibility with the aggregate possible without producing a bleeding surface. For this
(and water) to be used. Economics as well as the type of reason the spray rate in the calculation below is varied
aggregate to be used must always be considered. A according to the number of heavy vehicles making use of
further consideration is the minimum spray application the road in both directions per day. Heavy vehicles are
required for good transverse distribution which in the defined for this purpose as trucks and trailers of 3 ton
case of a 13 mm aggregate specification virtually always carrying capacity and over. Passenger cars, caravans and
necessitates the use of an emulsion in the penetration vans are to be disregarded in arriving at the number of
spray, or even in both sprays: heavy vehicles.
Penetration grade – 80/100; 150/200 The number of heavy vehicles upon which the spray rate
MC 3000 cutback bitumen below is to be determined is to be decided upon in
Modified bitumen (mostly tack only): conjunction with the Senior Materials Engineer.
o Polymer hot : S‐E1 or S‐E2
o Polymer cold : SC‐E1 or SC‐E2
The final spray rate will be based on the
o Rubber : S‐R1
recommendations of TRH3, but the calculation method
Anionic (60%) emulsion below must also be considered.
Cationic (65%) emulsion
Total Spray
Only the stable grade version of both emulsions can be The total cold nett binder application rate in terms of
used in the manufacturing of slurry. ℓ/m² is obtained by multiplying the Spray Factor “P”
obtained from the table below by the ALD value of the
7.8.3 Aggregate
aggregate in millimetres:
All aggregate must comply with the requirements for
crusher fines, 19 and 13mm stone set out in Section 6.7 / "P"
of this Manual. Unless otherwise specified by the Roads
Authority, a Medium Grade Fine slurry shall be used to HEAVY VEHICLES PER DAY
manufacture slurry for a Cape Seal. (BOTH DIRECTIONS) SPRAY FACTOR “P”
Up to 50 0,145
7.8.4 Spray rates 51 ‐ 100 0,140
101 ‐ 150 0,135
General
151 ‐ 200 0,130
The spray rates are determined mainly by traffic, but also
stone characteristics, climate, season and traffic speed 201 ‐ 250 0,125
7‐36 MATERIALS MANUAL
MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES CAPE SEAL
However, in no case may the spray reduction exceed a Penetration spray : Shall consist of a mixture of
total of 10%. equal parts of emulsion and water applied at a
rate of 1,0 ℓ/m² (See notes below).
The impact of heavy construction traffic must be
evaluated by considering the ratio of construction to NOTES:
design traffic, the prevailing ambient temperature and
the age of the seal when subjected to the effects of 1 For compatibility and dilution of emulsion refer
construction traffic. to Sections 6.8.2 and 7.2.1 respectively.
2 Stable mix grade emulsion for use in the slurry
As a guideline, a reduction in the case of construction seal can also be used for the cover spray. If
traffic will only be warranted where the total of heavy available this may be the most feasible.
construction traffic and normal heavy traffic, at the time, 3 Where emulsion is used for the tack coat, it is
exceeds the design traffic of the next or any higher possible that the calculated spray rate will
category within the first 3 weeks of the completion of the exceed the maximum permissible spray rate of
surfacing. 1,75 ℓ/m² (1.5 ℓ/m² for emulsion) if the
penetration spray remains at 1,0 ℓ/m² using 1
Increase in Spray Rates part emulsion to 1 part water, but such a
Where for any reason the prime coat has been omitted in situation should rather be avoided. If no other
the case of a new seal, the cold nett binder of the first option exists, the tack coat shall be limited to
spray only shall be increased by 0,15 ℓ/m². 1,75 ℓ/m² (1.5 ℓ/m² for emulsion) and the rest
of the binder shall be sprayed in the penetration
Unless approval has been obtained from the Senior
coat in the ratio 2 parts emulsion to 1 part
materials Engineer to the contrary, prime will always be
water.
applied to the Base layer.
4 Modified bitumen must only be used in the tack
coat and will require higher spray rates than will
Application Limits penetration bitumen (refer to TRH3).
For the tack coat the permissible maximum hot gross
spray rate to avoid run‐off of the binder, especially on Where, in exceptional cases, diluted emulsion cannot be
steep grades or high superelevations, is 1,75 ℓ/m², but a used for the penetration spray, undiluted emulsion may
lower application of around 1.50 ℓ/m² will be the be used provided prior authority is obtained from the
maximum in the case of an emulsion. Senior Materials Engineer.
Tack Coat : Shall consist of hot binder (i.e. 7.8.6 Slurry mixture
bitumen) or emulsion. Hot binder is preferred The nett bitumen content of the stable grade emulsion
as this will normally be the most economical. (60%) in the slurry mix shall be determined by a Marshall
Where modified bitumen is used for the tack mix design, or thin slurry briquettes prepared and
coat the minimum spray rate will be related to compacted at comparative road temperatures to
the type of product selected. evaluate the bitumen content where bleeding is likely to
occur.
MATERIALS MANUAL 7‐37
MODIFIED CAPE SEAL MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES
Nett bitumen contents generally between 8% and 10% by Fine aggregate for the hot‐mix seal must comply with the
mass, but up to 12%, will likely produce the best results requirements set out in Table 7‐8.
for slurry aggregate from rock with a specific gravity
around 2600 kg/m3, which ratio must be reduced PERCENTAGE PASSING
SIEVE SIZE SIEVE BY MASS (%)
proportionally for heavier rock irrespective of traffic
4,75 100
density. Only in exceptional circumstances must
2,36 80 ‐ 100
consideration be given to a reduction in the emulsion
1,18 50 ‐ 80
content.
0,600 25 ‐ 65
Weigh batching rather than volume batching should be 0,300 15 ‐ 48
used when the moisture content in the crusher fines 0,150 7 ‐ 30
cannot be controlled or determined accurately for each 0,075 2 ‐ 7
mix operation. Table 7‐8 : Grading for crusher sand for asphalt mix
7‐38 MATERIALS MANUAL
MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES ASPHALT MIXTURES FOR PAVEMENT AND SURFACING LAYERS
7.9.7 Construction The rate of application of asphalt to be aimed for is
This type of seal is not specified in the COLTO Standard between 11,0 and 12,0 kg/m².
Specifications and construction aspects are included
here. No traffic shall be allowed over the seal before
completion of the final rolling.
Hot-mix Asphalt
While the mix is still hot it is to be distributed from the Rolling of the Seal
mixer to the road using wheelbarrows, and evenly spread As soon as possible, but not before the final trimming of
over the road surface using wooden squeegees. Under no the asphalt, the seal is to be rolled with a pneumatic‐tyre
circumstances may the mix be stored in heaps. No roller, with particular attention being given to the
vehicle, wheelbarrow or person shall traverse the spread triangular fillet outside the surfacing. Rolling shall
asphalt seal prior to rolling. continue until all the gaps between the chips have been
filled with the asphalt. The material must not be
The mix shall be worked from side to side and criss‐cross displaced in a longitudinal or transverse direction
with the aid of the squeegees so as to fill all gaps until a especially when changing gears or stopping or starting of
uniform surface is obtained, approximately 5 mm proud the roller. If necessary, fresh asphalt seal shall be added
of the general road surface before rolling. to lean spots. Rolling shall continue until the hot‐mix has
been thoroughly pressed into the interstices between the
It may be necessary to avoid applying the hot mix seal aggregate and the surface is dense and smooth, with no
during hot weather because the aggregate may be lean spots visible. It is important to note that the
dislodged to an excessive degree during hot weather. objective is to roll the asphalt seal while it is still hot, and
therefore the spreading and finishing of the material
The mix shall be applied over the full width of the road
must proceed expeditiously. Short, completed sections
surface and not in partial widths. The road edges shall be
must be rolled to avoid excessive cooling of the seal.
trimmed neatly in a straight line and parallel to the road
centreline. The asphalt mix shall also be placed to form a 7.9.8 Opening to traffic
triangular fillet outside the edge of the surfacing stone. As soon as the viscosity of the bituminous binder is such
The thickness of this fillet shall be equal to that of the as to allow the traffic to pass over the road without
finished surfacing after compaction at the edge of the picking up or otherwise damaging the surfacing, the road
surfacing and shall diminish to zero on a line 50 mm shall, where practicable, be opened to traffic.
outside the edges of the surfacing. Care shall be taken to
achieve a straight finish to this fillet, by using a suitable Areas, for example at intersections, where traffic will
edge guide. have to turn on the completed surfacing, should not be
opened to traffic for as long a period as practically
After applying the mix evenly over the full width of the possible, since the freshly‐sealed surfacing is very tender
road surface, it shall be finished by using a steel channel and susceptible to damage.
with a length of at least four metres (4 m). The channel
shall be dragged in the longitudinal direction of the road
7.10 Asphalt Mixtures for Pavement and
until the mix is spread evenly over the full width of the
Surfacing Layers
road surface and finished off approximately 5 mm above
the general surface of the top of the surfacing stone. The Asphalt layers in the pavement, such as asphalt base, and
channel shall be heavy enough to remove all humps in for use in surfacing, will normally only be used in
the asphalt and leave a smooth surface. To prevent the circumstances of heavy traffic as discussed in Section 7.2
removal of too much asphalt from the road surface, skids of this Manual.
must be welded to the underside of the channel. The
thickness of these skids shall be determined by the 7.10.1 Bituminous binder
required rate of application of the asphalt. All The binder shall consist of penetration grade bitumen
irregularities caused by the channel shall be filled and conforming to SANS 307.
finished with the aid of the squeegees.
MATERIALS MANUAL 7‐39
ASPHALT MIXTURES FOR BRIDGE DECKS MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES
The grading and maximum size may be varied in certain CONTINUOUS
PROPERTY CRITERIA GAP‐GRADED
circumstances provided that the agreement of the Senior GRADED
In the case of siliceous aggregates such as quartzite, Stability/flow ratio 2,0 ‐ 3,5 2,0 min
granite etc, which show poor adhesion with bitumen, 1,5 % Voids filled with bitumen 70 ‐ 80 70 ‐ 80
parts by mass of lime or limestone dust per 100 parts of % Voids in the mix at 100%
3 ‐ 5 2 ‐ 8
aggregate must be added to promote adhesion. of 75 blow marshall density
Immersion index (minimum) 75% 75%
No other adhesive agent may be added without prior
Filler/bitumen ratio ‐ 1,0 ‐ 1,5
approval by the Senior Materials Engineer.
Table 7‐9 : Marshall criteria for hot‐mix asphalt
7.10.3 Mineral filler If these criteria cannot be met, it will be necessary to
Mineral filler shall consist of one or more of the alter the aggregate grading and redesign the mix.
following:
7.10.5 Mix approval
Portland cement conforming to SABS 471; The proposed mix design must be submitted to the
milled granulated blast furnace slag conforming Senior Materials Engineer for approval together with
to SABS 626; samples of all components of the mix, representative of
lime conforming to SABS 824; the materials which will actually be used during
production. If required by the Senior Materials Engineer
rock flour.
after carrying out check designs, the mix design shall be
7.10.4 Design Criteria altered before production commences
The following design criteria should be met :
7.10.6 Changes in materials
Dense ‐ (continuous and gap) graded asphalt Should any material in the mix change in any way after
mixtures shall be designed by the Marshall the mix has been designed and approved, it will be
method. necessary to redesign the mix.
Open‐graded mixtures shall be constituted of
aggregate complying with a specified grading. 7.11 Asphalt mixtures for bridge decks
The binder content shall be such that there will
be adequate coating of the aggregate particles 7.11.1 Description
while complying with the requirements below. The asphalt carpet on bridge decks shall consist of a
For continuously‐graded mixes, the binder dense graded premix, designed in compliance with
content should be based on the average of the Section 7.10 above.
binder contents for :
Where this is not a viable proposition, the carpet may, by
o maximum Marshall density;
agreement with the Senior Materials Engineer, consist of
o maximum Marshall stability;
an open‐graded asphalt (composed of various stone sizes
o the percentage air voids in the mix
and crusher dust), sealed with a slurry seal as described
required by the Senior Materials
below.
Engineer for the project (normally in
the range of 4% ‐ 5%);
o to fill 75% of the voids in the mineral 7.11.2 Bituminous Binder for Open-Graded
aggregate; Asphalt and Slurry Seal
The binder shall consist of a stable grade anionic or
cationic bitumen emulsion complying with SANS 309 or
7‐40 MATERIALS MANUAL
MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES ASPHALT MIXTURES FOR SIDEWALKS
548 respectively. The type of binder to be used will asphalt in one or more layers, and finishing with a single
depend on its compatibility with the crusher dust used in layer over the entire deck surface.
the mix.
In general, layers of asphalt should after compaction be
The tack coat shall consist of a mixture of 2 parts stable not less than 20 mm nor more than 50 mm in thickness.
grade emulsion and 1 part water.
7.12 Asphalt mixtures for sidewalks
7.11.3 Aggregate for Open-Graded Asphalt and
Slurry Seal 7.12.1 Description
The stone shall comply with the requirements set out in The asphalt carpet for sidewalks will be a dense‐graded
Table 6‐7 of this Manual. Fine aggregate for slurry shall or continuous‐graded hot asphalt of nominal thickness of
comply with the requirements set out in Section 6.7.3. 20 mm.
Nominal 19mm chips 15 % Where facilities for a hot mix are not available, a stable
Nominal 13mm chips 50 % grade anionic or cationic emulsion conforming to SANS
Nominal 6mm chips 20 %
309 or SANS 548 respectively should be used. The choice
Crusher dust 15 %
100 % between these two binders will be governed by the
compatibility of the binder with the aggregate used in the
The nett bitumen content shall be between 4,5 and 5,5% mix.
by mass of the dry aggregate. The most effective
7.12.3 Aggregate
proportions are to be established by making up
The stone must comply with the requirements set out in
laboratory trial mixes.
Table 6‐7 of this Manual. The crusher dust must comply
7.11.5 Composition of the slurry seal with the requirements set out in Section 6.7.2.
Slurry seal shall comply with the requirements of Section
7.12.4 Composition of the Asphalt
7.8.6 of this Manual.
The asphalt shall be composed of 6 mm stone chips and
7.11.6 Application rates crusher dust mixed in equal parts by mass, plus binder at
a nett bitumen content of 6% by mass of the dry
Tack coat aggregate.
An emulsion tack coat shall be applied at a diluted
emulsion rate of 0,6 ℓ/m², and construction of the 7.13 Asphalt for Patching Bituminous Surfaces
asphalt is to proceed after it has broken.
7.13.1 Description
Slurry seal An asphalt design suitable for use in patching bituminous
This is to be applied at a rate of approximately 7 kg of
surfaces is given hereunder.
fine aggregate/m² as soon as possible after the open‐
graded asphalt has been placed and compacted. 7.13.2 Bituminous Binder
The binder may be any one of the following :
Layer thicknesses
Bridge decks may be found to have been constructed out Cationic stable grade emulsion (SANS 548)
of tolerance insofar as levels are concerned. This will Anionic stable grade emulsion (SANS 309)
necessitate asphalt carpets to be laid at variable
thicknesses. The binder chosen must be compatible with the
aggregates used in the mix, with the fine aggregate the
In order to avoid differential compaction, slacks in the more important of the two aggregate components.
deck must be taken out first by laying and compacting
MATERIALS MANUAL 7‐41
SOIL STABILISATION MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES
7.13.3 Aggregate Where edge breakage is being repaired, the shoulder
The stone and fine aggregate (crusher dust) shall comply edge of the patch must be suitably supported during
with the requirements set out in Table 6‐7 of this compaction to avoid lateral displacement of the material.
Manual. Shoulder material should be brought in and compacted
to make up level differences between the blacktop and
7.13.4 Composition of the Mix the shoulder.
Various stone sizes and crusher dust are to be mixed
together in the following proportions by mass :
7.14 Soil Stabilisation
13 mm 25
6 mm 25 7.14.1 Introduction
Fine Aggregate 50 For the purposes of this discussion, stabilisation is
100 defined as the process of improving the engineering
properties of a material generally by means of the
Binder: Emulsion at 9,0% addition of one of the following :
(Approximately 5,0 parts nett bitumen).
Calcium, magnesium or dolomitic lime
Should this mix prove to be unsatisfactory for some conforming to SABS 824
reason, e.g. permeability or fattiness, the proportions Type Cem II ( generally Class 32.5N) cement
may be adjusted with the approval of the Senior conforming to SABS 471 (now SANS 50197‐1)
Materials Engineer. A mixture in equal mass proportions of Cem I
(Class 42.5N or Portland) cement and milled
granulated blast furnace slag
7.13.5 Mixing A mixture of Portland cement and bitumen, the
The aggregate and binder can be mixed at air
latter as foamed bitumen or emulsion.
temperature but during cold weather it may be desirable
to heat the binder. 7.14.2 Stabilisation Processes
The processes whereby stabilisation is achieved, by using
When using emulsion, the aggregate must be moistened
either lime, cement, cement/slag, other pozzolanic
prior to mixing in order to facilitate the mixing. The
material, bitumen or another granular material source,
amount of water to give the required workability will
are briefly discussed hereafter.
normally be about one third to one half of the quantity of
emulsion used. Crusher dust will normally require more If the stabiliser requirement is very high stabilisation may
water than natural sand. not be a cost‐effective option, in which case alternative
sources of material will have to be found. The latter will
7.13.6 Preparation also be applicable if the material is very variable, since it
Potholes and other depressions must be prepared by
may be difficult to produce a layer that is consistently
chopping the periphery of the hole to give an
complying with specifications.
approximately vertical face for at least 25 mm from the
final road surface downwards in order to combat Cementation
ravelling of the patch. The surface to receive the patch When using cement, cement/slag mixtures or other
must be cleaned and tacked with emulsion diluted with 2 pozzolanic materials cementation occurs due to the
parts of water by volume to 1 part of emulsion. This tack formation of strongly cementitious hydrates which bond
coat must be allowed to break before the patch is soil particles together. The hydration proceeds largely
applied. independently of the aggregate and does not rely on
chemical interaction between cement and aggregate for
7.13.7 Placing the development of strength. Some lime is produced
It is most important that the asphalt is well compacted
during the hydration which may react with clay particles
on the road ‐ preferably with vibratory equipment.
present in the manner described below.
When emulsion is used, it should be allowed to "break"
partially before the mix is placed. It may be useful to add
some cement to trigger the breaking of the emulsion.
7‐42 MATERIALS MANUAL
MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES SOIL STABILISATION
7.14.3 Objectives of Stabilisation For reasons of economy, raw materials for stabilisation
Apart from instances where it is desirable to stabilise the shall comply with the specifications for at least a G6
Roadbed or Fill in order to expedite construction material (CBR > 25) unless otherwise authorised in
progress, the objectives of stabilisation of pavement writing by the Senior Materials Engineer.
layers are :
Reduction of construction costs by improving Since cementation is required to meet the strength
the properties of substandard, readily available objective, tests shall be performed on cured material.
material where such stabilisation is a cheaper The stabiliser will generally be a cement product,
alternative than the procurement of materials although it should be borne in mind that cementation
MATERIALS MANUAL 7‐43
SOIL STABILISATION MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES
may, as described above, be achieved by the addition of contents, e.g. 1, 2 and 3%. The reason for this is the low
lime. However, since the development of tensile Relative Density of Lime which may result in an excessive
strength with respect to time of lime‐soil mixtures volume of lime if 4% by mass were to be used. The
remains somewhat indeterminate, preference is given to laboratory design UCS and ITS values at 7 days and 100%
cement. Mod AASHTO density, as well as 97% Mod AASHTO
density, must be as in Table 7‐10. Accelerated 24‐hour
Design Procedure tests could be carried out at 70 to 75°C, and the results
The objective is to determine the correct content of the calibrated with 28‐day results, to estimate 28‐day results.
appropriate stabiliser for use during construction. Since
it is well‐known that materials react differently to the The maximum UCS value is a guide only and may have to
addition of various types of lime (calcium‐, magnesium ‐ be exceeded where compliance therewith would result in
or dolomitic type) all the options should be investigated impractically low stabiliser content, or where the
in order to optimise costs. requirements for ICS are not met.
Should there be any doubt as to the uniformity of the When the hydration of the stabiliser is likely to start
material from a particular source, then tests should be within the allowed mixing time, the effect thereof must
carried out on at least 3 representative samples from the be determined and allowed for, relative to the likely
source and the mean of the data obtained from these prevailing air temperatures during construction. Mixing
tests should be used for the design. time should generally be limited to 6 hours. The stabiliser
content yielding satisfactory strength of the mixture after
It should be noted that, where lime stabilisation is mixing and compaction is the content specified.
proposed, all types of road lime which are readily and
economically available shall be included in the For material from the basic crystalline rock types, also
investigation to find a suitable mix proportion complying Ethylene Glycol soak tests will be required, for visual
with minimum strength requirements. inspection and in combination with the specified
durability tests in COLTO.
Soil‐stabiliser mixtures should be prepared as described
in paragraph 3.1.1 of Method A9 of TMH 1 and then For durability, accelerated carbonation tests must be
tested in the normal manner as for uncured material. carried out, including the “brush test” in 12 wet/dry
The stabiliser content expressed as a proportion by mass cycles as specified in TMH1, in addition to the tests
of material at specified density yielding satisfactory specified in COLTO. The percentage loss in material under
improvement1 thereof is the content to be specified, the wet/dry brush test, as well as the minimum and
provided it is not less than the following amounts which maximum UCS and the minimum ITS values for the
are considered to be practical minima: different classes of chemical stabilised material shall be
in accordance with the requirements of Table 7‐10.
Lime: 1,0% (by mass) Where test results are not consistent, compliance with
Cement: 2,0% (by mass)
the specified ITS values shall govern.
The development of tensile (cohesive) strength is gauged
by means of the cured Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS) and Stabilisation will likely become uneconomical at stabiliser
the Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) as described contents exceeding 3,5 to 4%.
in Methods A16T and A14 respectively of TMH1. As
stated in the method given for the determination of
optimum moisture content and maximum dry density of
stabilised material, when cement is used only one
maximum density test with 4% cement by mass need be
carried out. However, when lime is used a slightly
different procedure should be followed, i.e. moisture
density tests should be carried out at varying stabiliser
1
In the case of cementation where stabilisation is required mainly to
improve strength, the stabiliser content must also comply with the
requirements of the Initial Consumption of Stabiliser (ICS) test.
7‐44 MATERIALS MANUAL
MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES CONCRETE MIXES
MATERIALS MANUAL 7‐45
CONCRETE MIXES MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES
The amount of stone in the mix depends on the MINIMUM
CHARACTERISTIC MAXIMUM
maximum size of stone, the fineness modulus of STRENGTH OF
STRENGTH OF MIX WATER/CEMENT
WORK CUBES
the sand and the required workability of the (MPa) RATIO
(MPa at 28 Days)
concrete. 20 20 0,66
The larger the maximum size of stone, the lower the 25 25 0,59
water requirement of the mix. 30 30 0,52
35 35 0,47
If the sand is coarse, less stone can be accommodated
and conversely, with a fine sand of low fineness modulus 40 40 0,43
more stone will be needed. 45 45 0,40
Table 7‐11 : Maximum water/cement ratios
A bigger quantity of stone can be used where a lower
workability of the concrete mix is required.
Water content
The amount of water required per unit volume The amount of water required to produce concrete of the
of concrete for a given consistency and given desired workability with the aggregates to be used, is to
aggregates is substantially constant regardless be estimated. This may be done by visual examination or
of the cement content, w/c ratio or the relative from previous experience of the aggregates concerned.
proportions of aggregate and cement.
With any specified aggregates the quantity of The following average figures for various aggregate sizes
water required to produce one cubic metre of and using typical medium graded sands are given as a
concrete of the desired workability, is known as guide for trial mix purposes:
the water requirement of the mix. In the
AVERAGE WATER CONTENT
particular case where the nominal size of the MAXIMUM SIZE OF COARSE 3
(ℓ/m ) OF CONCRETE TO
stone is 19 mm and the slump is 35 mm, the AGGREGATE (mm)
PRODUCE 35mm SLUMP
quantity of water required for one cubic metre 9,5 225
of concrete is known as the water demand of
13,2 215
the mix.
19,0 200
The sum of the absolute volumes of water,
cement, stone and sand making up one cubic 26,5 190
metre of concrete must equal one cubic meter. 37,5 180
This implies that the concrete is fully compacted
75 160
and that there are no air voids in the mass. In
150 140
fact, some entrapped air remains in the mix
after compaction but this usually amounts to Table 7‐12 : Maximum size of coarse aggregate
NOTE:
less than 1% and for practical purposes it may 1 For poorly shaped materials add up to 15 ℓ/m3
3
be ignored. 2 For better shaped materials subtract up to 10 ℓ/m
3
3 For 100 mm slump add up to 15 ℓ/m
7.15.6 Mix Design Procedure
7‐46 MATERIALS MANUAL
MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES CONCRETE MIXES
stone has a different CBD the mass of stone required The following is a rough indication of the order of slump
must be adjusted as follows : and Vebe seconds for different degrees of workability as
measured by the slump test and the vibro‐consistometer:
7.1 DEGREE OF SLUMP VEBE
/1520 WORKABILITY (mm) (seconds)
Very low 0 ‐ 20 10 ‐ 20
Low 20 ‐ 35 5 ‐ 10
Medium 35 ‐ 70 3 ‐ 5
High 70 ‐ 120 1 ‐ 3
Table 7‐13 : Workability of concrete mixes
MATERIALS MANUAL 7‐47
GUIDELINES FOR DESIGN OF DEVIATIONS MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES
in concrete strength due to this factor will be TYPE OF CEMENT RELATIVE DENSITY (RD)
relatively small. Ordinary Portland Cement 3,14
7 The sand controls the consistency of the mix.
High early strength cement 3,14
8 Poorly graded sand contributes to segregation
and bleeding and results in a harsh mix lacking in Slagment 2,90
cohesion. If a well‐graded sand is not available, Portland blast furnace cement 3,02
the use of a blending sand should be considered.
TYPE OF AGGREGATE
The addition of a fine pit sand to a river sand
lacking fines is a common example of blending Felsite 2,65
of concrete sands. Tillite 2,60 ‐ 2,75
9 The stone controls the sandiness of the mix.
Quartzite 2,70
10 Harsh concrete may often be improved by
increasing the ratio of sand to stone, i.e. by Dolomite 2,85
increasing the sand content and/or reducing the Dolerite 2,90 ‐ 3,10
stone content.
Norite 3,00
11 For nominal size aggregates of up to 26,5 mm it
is usually best to use a single‐sized stone. Andesite 2,85
12 When working with stone sizes of 37,5 mm, a Natural (quartz) sand 2,65
blend of approximately 2 parts of the large
depends on RD
stone with one part of single sized 19 mm or 13 Crusher sand
of parent rock
mm stone should be used. Table 7‐14 : Relative densities
13 For concrete to be pumped satisfactorily, the
mix must be more cohesive and plastic than
normally considered desirable for conventional 7.16 Guidelines for Design of Deviations
mixes. In order to achieve this it is important
that the correct type and quantity of sand is 7.16.1 General
used in the mix. The sand must be well‐graded Deviations will under normal conditions be unsurfaced.
with a good particle shape. The sand content Only in exceptional cases will a deviation be given a
will normally be about 3 to 8% higher than for a bituminous surface, and then only after approval has
conventional mix and should be between 38 and been given by the Senior Materials Engineer.
55% by mass of total aggregate.
14 A high degree of workability is required and a 7.16.2 Gravel deviations
slump range of between 60 mm and 90 mm is A single 150 mm thick layer of gravel will normally
regarded as the optimum for piston pumps and suffice. On thick sands, such as those prevailing in the
100 mm to 125 mm for pneumatic pumps. Kavango Region, this should be increased to 200 mm.
15 Approximate Bulk Relative Densities (RD) for the
most commonly used materials are as follows : The necessity for roadbed compaction will depend on the
nature of the material. The roadbed should always be
compacted on sand subgrades.
7‐48 MATERIALS MANUAL
MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES GUIDELINES FOR DESIGN OF DEVIATIONS
Layer works
As stated previously, a bitumen‐surfaced deviation will
not normally be used.
However, the following is given as a guide should such a
facility be required, and is based on the traffic volume
and composition specified in Table 7.16‐1:
ROADBED TRAFFIC AADT
QUALITY HIGH > 1000 EVU’s LOW <1000 EVU’s
Normal 150mm base 100mm base
(CBR > 5) 100mm subbase 100mm subbase
150mm base 100mm base
Poor (e.g. clay)
100mm subbase 100mm subbase
(CBR < 5)
150mm selected 150mm selected
Table 7‐15 : Bitumen deviation pavement design
Minimum Deviation CBR values required are :
base 45% (i.e. Subbase quality)
subbase 10% (i.e. Selected layer quality)
roadbed 5% (imported if not complying)
Surfacing
The optimum utilization of available materials, traffic
composition, environmental conditions expected during
the required life of the deviation and the length of time
the deviation is required to carry traffic will govern the
selection of surface treatment.
MATERIALS MANUAL 7‐49
FIELD LABORATORY LABORATORY PROCEDURES
Office
1 boarded floor;
2 1 desk with 4 drawers and 3 chairs;
3 1 fluorescent light unit of 80 watt;
4 2 x 15 amp single phase power point;
5 shelving for files etc (minimum 3 m x 1,5 m x 0,5
Figure 8‐1 : Typical field laboratory layout m);
6 air conditioning unit with 9000 BTU
cooling/heating capacity .
8.1.2 Minimum Requirements
The minimum requirements for the various sections of PI Room
the laboratory complex are as set out below. 1 concrete floor;
2 3,2 m long work bench 0,8 m wide with concrete
Main Laboratory top;
1 concrete floor; 3 1 fluorescent light unit of 80 watt;
2 10 m length of work bench, 0,8 m wide; 4 1 Anglepoise ‐ type reading lamp;
5 2 x 15 amp single phase power points;
8‐50 MATERIALS MANUAL
LABORATORY PROCEDURES TESTING AND SAMPLING METHODS
MATERIALS MANUAL 8‐51
DUPLICATE TESTING LABORATORY PROCEDURES
Destination For the sake of simplicity, the mean of the probability
All duplicate samples shall be delivered free of charge distribution is tested:
and without delay to the Roads Authority's Control
Laboratory in Windhoek. ∶ :| |
On submission of the duplicate samples, the field The statistic ”t” as in the following formula has a
laboratory must also submit the results of testing on its STUDENT distribution,
half of the duplicate sample. Any samples submitted to
the Control Laboratory without the required │ │ √
documentation; or where the bags are unsuitable,
damaged or open, will not be accepted for testing by the
where
Control Laboratory and will be discarded. In the case of
field laboratories controlled by the Consultant, the latter the mean, and
is encouraged to carry out internal control by arranging the standard deviation of the set (A‐B)
duplicate testing between the field laboratory and the of difference with sample size N
Consulting Engineer's own central laboratory. Inter‐
laboratory testing must nevertheless be carried out The levels of significance to be adopted in testing the Ho
regularly between the site laboratory of the Consultant hypothesis are < 1 per cent for "not significant" and > 5
and that of the Contractor. per cent for "highly significant". Intermediate levels of
significance are considered to be "probably significant".
8.3.4 Duplicate testing between two laboratories
The value of E in Table 8‐1 : E‐values for statistical
Comparison of multiple samples analysis must be used for analysis of comparison test
To ensure that the test results obtained on works that results.
are financed in full or in part by the Roads Authority are
accurate and reliable, the test results obtained by the If the difference between two sets of results is
two laboratories are assessed on a statistical approach, considered to be "highly significant" the effects of such a
based on paired observations. difference must be investigated by the Consulting
Engineer in the case of projects where the field
The minimum number of samples shall not be less than laboratory is controlled by him, and by the Senior
six. Materials Engineer in other cases.
8‐52 MATERIALS MANUAL
LABORATORY PROCEDURES DUPLICATE TESTING
LAYER PROPERTY E‐VALUE comparison tests should be performed in order to
Asphalt Densification resolve the matter.
Continuous Marshall: Compaction % 2,5
and gap
Density (kg/m3) 5,0
8.3.5 Comparison of Duplicate Samples
graded
Rice: Compaction (%) 1,7 Maximum Dry Density (MDD) Comparison
Density (kg/m ) 3
3,5 The absolute difference between duplicate MDD value
(kg/m³) should not exceed the following maximum
Grading: 9,5 mm 2,5
systematic error:
(% passing) 2,36 mm 1,5
0,30 mm 1,0 TYPE OF MATERIAL MAXIMUM STATISTICAL
(TRH 14: 1985 classification) ERROR (kg/m3)
0,075 mm 0,5
G1, G2 and G3 20
Binder content (%) 0,15
G4, G5 and G6 25
Voids in mix (%) 0,75
G7 and G8 30
Base Densification Compaction % 2,5
G9 and G10 35
Density (kg/m3) 40 Table 8‐2 : Maximum statistical error
Grading: 26,5 mm 2,5
If the absolute difference is greater than the maximum
(% passing) 19,0 mm 2,5 systematic error, then the test cannot be regarded as a
13,2 mm 2,0 duplicate with respect to MDD.
4,75 2,0
Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) Comparison
2,0 2,0 The absolute difference between duplicate OMC values
0,475 mm 1,5 (per cent) should not exceed the following maximum
0,075 mm 1,0 systematic error:
Base & Atterberg: Liquid limit 1,0
Subbase 0,15
Plasticity limit 1,0
Plasticity index 2,0 where: OMC = value obtained by the Control Laboratory
Lin Shrinkage 0,5
Atterberg: If the absolute difference is greater than the maximum
systematic error, then the test cannot be regarded as a
Selected, & Lin shrinkage 1,0
Liquid limit 1,5 duplicate with respect to OMC. In this case the test must
Wearing
course Plasticity index 2,5 be repeated, using the remainder of the sample. The CBR
test cannot, in this case, be carried out.
Table 8‐1 : E‐values for statistical analysis
Firstly, the laboratory procedures and apparatus should California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
be checked in order to ascertain the cause of the The test may be regarded as acceptable with respect to
differing results and the matter rectified. duplicate CBR only if the minimum CBR conforms to the
specification and the absolute difference is less than the
Secondly, the effect on the quality of the material should
maximum systematic error.
be considered. Depending upon the order of magnitude
of the discrepancy, it may in some cases be necessary to 3 /65
re‐assess the quality of previously approved material.
Conversely, a re‐assessment of the material may be Where
necessary where the material has been assessed as "not
2,72
approved".
value obtained by Control Laboratory
If the difference between two sets of results is
considered to be "probably significant", additional
If the minimum CBR does not conform to the
specification, then the test cannot be regarded as
MATERIALS MANUAL 8‐53
LABORATORY EQUIPMENT LABORATORY PROCEDURES
Equipment such as proving rings, load cells and presses These readings must be taken with the reference block
shall be verified by the South African Bureau of Standards on the same spot every time. This data must be
(SABS). All equipment shall be recalibrated at least once submitted at the end of every month to the Senior
per year, at the site where the equipment is used. Material Engineer.
8‐54 MATERIALS MANUAL
LABORATORY PROCEDURES LABORATORY PERSONNEL
provision for extra credit when the tester can also do the TRAINING
CATEGORY REMARKS
computational part of that test, ie the tester must be VALUE “V”
General worker To qualify as Grade II 1
able to do the calculations, graphs, etc without the help
(labourer)
of a supervisor or computer program. A standard form To qualify as Grade III 2
shall be filled in by the training officer for each level. The Qualified as Grade III 4
explanation of and how to fill in columns is as follows: Technical Semi‐qualified 2
Assistant
Column A: The tester shall have carried out at least Fully qualified 5
the number of tests indicated in this Pupil Technician nd
Start with 2 year training 2
column to qualify for Level I.
rd
Column B: This column shows the values to be Start with 3 year training 5
entered in column C when the tester can
Fully trained 6
perform the test without any supervision.
Materials
No pro‐rata mark awards are allowed. Training sufficient 8
Technician
The numeric value depends on the
Chief Materials Registered, registerable or
complexity of the test. N/A
Technician well experienced
Column D: The value in this column is carried forward Table 8‐3 : Training value "V"
to column E when the tester can also
complete the computational aspect of the On the basis of the above paragraph a Chief Materials
test including graphs (where necessary) Technician should qualify to be registered, or be
without the help of a supervisor or
registered, with the Engineering Council of Namibia as at
computer program. No pro‐rata mark
awards are allowed. least an Engineering Technician, and/or must have
Total: The total equals the sum of the subtotals substantial experience in materials testing and
of columns C and E. This value is not construction supervision in the field of road construction,
transferable to other levels. in the opinion of the Senior Materials Engineer.
Training The training value (V) is based on a scale
Value: from 0 to 10. The V‐value depends on the 8.5.4 Standard evaluation forms
total scored for each level and, in the case Forms suitable for evaluating laboratory staff at various
of Level II or III, on that scored on the training levels are included in Annexure B of this Manual.
previous levels as well.
The symbols “t”, “o”, “d”, “m and “r”, as well as the
The total given minimum for Levels I and II as given is a
evaluation criteria and point system are explained on the
precondition for commencement of training on the next
standard evaluation forms in Annexure B.
level.
8.5.3 Minimum training level
The degree of training is measured on a training value
scale, 0 to 10. The minimum training values are given in
Table 8‐3 for the various staff categories.
If the registration of Materials Technicians is allowed by
the Engineering Council of Namibia, technicians should
be registered professionally with the said Council, or be
registered as in training, or should meet the
requirements of the Council for registration, and/or must
have sufficient materials testing experience in the field of
road construction, in the opinion of the Senior Materials
Engineer.
MATERIALS MANUAL 8‐55
INSPECTING AND REPORTING LABORATORY PROCEDURES
Testing
8.6 Inspecting and Reporting
methods
8.6.1 Inspections
equipment
Field laboratories will, whenever possible, be inspected
equipment calibration certificates
by the Senior Materials Engineer or his representative at
the beginning of the contract or project and at least once sample register
per year thereafter. This inspection will cover testing
Quarries and Borrow Pits
facilities, equipment, procedures and personnel.
roadbed and fills
Where a Consultant is involved in a project, he is
selected layer
encouraged to be represented at such inspections by a
subbase
senior staff member from his own central laboratory. In
base
any event, he is required to conduct a similar inspection
asphalt and seal aggregates
himself at least once per year, six months after the date
concrete aggregates
of each inspection or intended inspection by the Senior
Materials Engineer. The Consultant remains responsible Miscellaneous Sources
for the correct and efficient operation of laboratories
under his control, irrespective of any inspections which water
may be carried out by the Roads Authority's staff; and cement
must plan the frequency of his inspections accordingly.
Control of Pavement Layers Including Design
8.6.2 Reporting
Following an inspection by the Roads Authority or the roadbed and fills
Consultant’s staff, the findings of the inspection must be selected layer
reported to the Resident Engineer and the deficiencies, if subbase
any, must be corrected, all within 21 days of the base
inspection. asphalt and seals
gravel wearing course
A copy of the inspection report must be sent to the
Senior Materials Engineer and the Resident Engineer Control of Concrete Works Including Design
must notify that official in writing as soon as the required
remedial measures have been completed. No sub‐divisions
Pavement Special Tests
8.7 Administrative procedures deflections
permeabilities
8.7.1 Filing system
An orderly filing system must be created in the field rut measurements
laboratory for each project. Although the Roads
8.7.2 Reporting
Authority does not lay down a mandatory subdivision
system for filing, the system adopted must be logical and Covering Letters
easily followed. The following suggested set of files has A covering letter relating to the submission of data or
been found to work adequately : duplicate samples must always be submitted and be
addressed to the Control Laboratory for the attention of
Admimistration the Senior Materials Engineer.
general In the case of data submission, these covering letters
correspondence shall state whether the results reflected on the sheets
laboratory inspections comply with the specifications (standard and/or project)
laboratory personnel or not. Any deviations from the specifications shall be
listed and acceptance of such work shall be motivated. If
8‐56 MATERIALS MANUAL
LABORATORY PROCEDURES LABORATORY STATIONARY
MATERIALS MANUAL 8‐57
GENERAL CONTROL
9 CONTROL forms as required for the design stage. Remarks have
been added which form part of the procedures.
9.1 General The control test references for design verification and
control of constructed layers are provided in Annexure F
9.1.1 Specifications of the Construction Manual.
Prior to assessing the qualities of constituent materials
and/or structural components, it is imperative that the
qualities described under Materials Standards in Section
6 of this Manual, the Standard Specifications and Project
Specifications where applicable, be thoroughly studied.
9.1.2 Inspection
Geotechnical Aspects
Geotechnical aspects which would have been identified
during the initial phases of design or which may be
encountered during construction include:
stability of cuttings
stability of fills
settlement of fills
poor subgrades:
o collapsing soils
o expansive soils
o settlement of soft or loose materials
high ground water tables
subsurface drainage problems.
Control Requirements
In general, sufficient quality control shall be exercised
during the design stage so as to avoid substandard
materials being used during construction. As a guide, the
references for the control tests of various material
components are given in the test data tables in Annexure
D of this Manual. The tables include reference numbers
of test methods, bench sheets, bench books and report
9‐58 MATERIALS MANUAL