I.

Maps

Map

A map is a representation of the Earth’s surface on a piece of paper. It is a conventional drawing of the
Earth’s surface. It gives a lot of information at a glance in the limited space of paper at a reduced scale.

Topographical Maps

They are maps drawn on the actual survey done on the ground. These maps show both natural features of
the ground (topography, drainage, rainfall) and the manmade features (roads, rural and urban settlements,
etc). It depicts all the possible details found on the ground. Thus, the main objective of a topographical map
is to present in a miniature form a colourful, vivid picture of an area as it actually exists during a survey.

Types of Maps

On the basis of scale

1) Large Scale (Cadastral maps, Topographical maps)

Ex: 1 : 50,000

2) Small Scale (Atlas maps, Wall maps)

Ex: 1 : 8,50,000

On the basis of their function

1) Political Maps (World political map)

II. Scale

Maps are always drawn to scale. The scale of a map denotes the relationship that exists between a length
on the map and the actual distance on the ground.

Types of scales

There are 3 ways of representing this proportion. It can be represented by:

1) Statement Scale / Verbal Scale

The statement or verbal scale expresses the relationship of the map to the ground in words. Ex: 2
centimeters is equal to 1 kilometer.

2) Linear Scale / Graphical Scale

The linear or graphical scale represents the same relationship by the means of a straight line divided into
lengths, each of which represents a certain distance on the ground.

Ex: A straight line of 16 cm long is divided into 8 equal divisions of 2 cm each representing 1 km each from
1 to 7 cm. The left side division starts from 0 to 1000m.

3) Representative Fraction Scale

It expresses the proportion of the map to the ground numerically. It is usually abbreviated by RF. The
numerator of the fraction is always 1 and it represents a length on the map while the denominator
indicates the actual distance on the ground. Ex: 1 : 50,000

III. Colours & their Significance

Black ⬛
All names, river banks, dry tanks, broken grounds, dried streams, surveyed trees, railway lines, telephone
and telegraph lines, lines of latitude and longitude, international, national and state boundaries.

Blue 🟦
Water bodies like canals, lakes, wells, etc.

Green 🟩
Forested areas, scattered trees, etc.

Yellow 🟨
Cultivable land.

White ⬜
Uncultivable land, rocky area/bad land.

Brown 🟫
Contour lines, their numberings, form lines, sand features such as sand hills and dunes.

Red 🟥
Grid lines and their numberings, roads, cart tracks, settlements, huts and buildings.

IV. Drainage Patterns

A drainage system refers to the origin and development of streams through time, while a drainage pattern
means different forms of streams.

The types of drainage patterns are:

1. Trellis/Rectangular Pattern

In this pattern, the tributaries can be seen meeting the main stream at right angles.

2. Dendritic Pattern

In this pattern, the tributaries come from all directions to meet the main river. The pattern resembles veins
of a leaf or branches of a tree.

3. Radial/Centrifugal Pattern

This pattern is formed by the streams which diverge from the central higher point in all directions.

4. Disappearing Pattern

It is a nature of the stream. In this pattern, the streams and tributaries disappear into the soil of porous
nature before reaching the main river.

V. Settlements

Settlements mean a cluster of inhabited houses which maybe rural or urban.

The types of settlement patterns are:

1. Nucleated/Clustered Pattern

These are the settlements in which houses are very close to each other and are constructed in a compact
manner. Such settlements can be found close to a source of water, a railway station, an industrial site, etc.

2. Dispersed/Scattered Pattern

Scattered settlements are found in areas of sparse population, usually found on hill tops or desert areas.

3. Linear/Ribboned Pattern

These are settlements when houses or buildings are constructed along a road, canal, river or a railway line.
Sometimes, on either side of the road, services such as hotels, shops, or dhabas can also be seen.

VI. Directions

Direction is a very important tool while reading a topographical map. There are four directions: North,
South, East and West known as cardinal points/directions.

The simplest way in finding a direction is facing the rising sun in the East. Behind will be West, right will be
South and left will be North.

The four cardinal directions can be further subdivided into 8 directions. They are: North East (NE) between
North and East, North West (NW) between North and West, etc.

VII. Definitions

1. Ridge

The contours of a ridge are elliptical or elongated in shape.

2. Spot Height

It is the height of a particular point measured and is shown on the survey map as •240. It means that the
height of that particular point is 240 meters above sea level.

3. Relative Height

The 3r written besides a river bank, tank with an embankment or sand dune shows the relative height
between the top and bottom. Therefore, it should be explained as: “the relative height of the embankment
of the tank is 4m”.

4. Fire Line

A clearing made in the forest at a gap of 5 meters to prevent the spread of fire.

5. Causeway

A raised road or platform across a stream. A stream having a causeway is motorable during the dry season.
Thus, too many causeways indicate scanty/seasonal rainfall.

6. Contours

These are imaginary lines drawn in brown colour, joining places having the same height above sea level.

7. Brackish

Brackish written besides a perennial lined well indicates that the water if the well is salty, and not fit for
irrigation or drinking.

8. Depression

Found in sandy regions at the top of a mound or dune where the wind easily blows the sand away leaving a
hollow.

9. Stony Waste

The land covered with rock boulders and stones, where cultivation is not possible. It is printed on the
survey sheet and shown as a white patch.

10. Sheet Rock

A region covered by a sheet of rock, shown in white. It is printed on the survey sheet.

11. Rock out-crop

Sub-soil is exposed in such areas and cultivation is not possible. It is printed on the survey sheet.

12. Surveyed Tree

Serves as a prominent survey point, shown in black. Ex: 𐃉452 (It is the height of the area in meters where
the tree is located)

13. Embankment

A bank or mound constructed along a tank or artificial lake to prevent flooding

14. Stone Quarry

Its presence indicates the occupation of the people in the region (Mining and Quarrying). It is printed on
the survey sheet.

15. Meander

It is a bend in the river flowing through a flat land or plain during its middle stage.

16. Diggi

It is a tank which is used for the collection of water. It is printed on the survey sheet.

17. Lime Kiln

A kiln used for calcination of limestone to produce the form of lime.

18. Brick Kiln

A kiln in which bricks are baked or burnt. Its trade is also an important source.

19. Sand Dunes

Sand features shown in brown on the map, formed due to wind deposition in the desert region.

20. Aqueduct

It is an artificial channel, usually elevated and built of masonry, for conveying water, typically in the form of
a bridge across a valley.

21. Dams (Masonry)

It is a manmade structure built across a river to control the overflow of water. It serves to irrigate, control
flood, and produce hydroelectricity. It may be masonry or rock-filled.

22. Unlined Well

It is a kuchcha well and shown as a blue circle if it contains water.

23. Perennial Lined Well

It a bore in the ground. A pucca well lined with bricks and cement with water is called a perennial lined well.
It is shown as a blue dot on the map.

24. Tanks

Tanks are the main source for irrigation, especially in rocky regions during the dry season. The water is
stored and used for various purposes. An embankment is built to keep the water from flowing out or
flooding. A perennial tank having water throughout the year is shown in blue. Dry tanks are speckled with
black dots indication the area of seasonal rainfall. If a tank is shown on the map with embankment, it is
manmade, otherwise it is considered as a natural feature.

25. Benchmark

It is a surveyor’s mark, cut on a rock, stone, wall, or a building showing the height of that mark above sea
level.

26. Triangulated Height

The height of a point surveyed by the triangulation method. It is indicated by a small triangle besides a
number showing the height. Ex: ▲264

27. Siphon

It is one of the canal structures used for irrigating farmland. It is an irrigation facility used for conveying
water that passes through waterways such as creeks, ditches, rivers or in any form of the bodies of water.

28. Contour Interval (C.I)

The gap between two consecutive contour lines is known as contour interval. It is always written in
meters. It may vary from 20m to 1000m.

29. Steep Slope

When the contour lines are placed close to each other, it depicts the steep slope of the physical feature.

30. Gentle Slope

When the contours are placed far away from each other, it depicts the gentle slope of the physical feature.

31. Sluice

It is a water channel controlled at its head by a gate. It is a movable gate, allowing water to flow under it. It
is printed on the survey sheet in black.

32. Pylons

Pylons are very tall metal structures which hold electric cables high above the ground so that electricity can
be transmitted over long distances.

VIII. Land Use & Occupation

1. Agriculture

Levelled land with yellow colour/wash and presence of irrigation like perennial lined wells, tanks, etc.

2. Forestry/Lumbering

Area covered with thick forest in green colour.

3. Cattle Rearing

Presence of pastures, meadows, grasslands, open scrub, etc.

4. Mining

Presence of stony wastes, number of quarries, mines, limestone beds, kilns, etc.

5. Trade and Commerce

Presence of various means of transport, communication, annual/monthly fair.

6. Tourism

Presence of hotel, inns, tourist sites/spots and places of public interest.

7. Trade

Dense settlements near roads. (annual fair, monthly fair)

8. Industry

Large settlements near roads and railways, presence of raw materials.

9. Built up Area

Shown in red colour. (occupation related to a settlement region)

10. Fishing

Plenty of water. (rarely found)

11. Barren Land

Represented in white colour and no occupation.

IX. Interpretation

Important Pointers

Chhatri - A symbol used to show house of royal people.

Antiquities - The ancient past, especially the period of classical and other human civilization.

Rocky Knob - A protruding part of rock overlooking a valley.

Reserved Forest [RF] - Hunting, grazing/forestry is prohibited.

Protected Forest [PF] - Hunting, grazing/forestry is allowed with special permission.

Meaning of FC and DH (in red) - Represents 100cm² of map area.

Contours, survey trees, benchmarks, spot heights and triangulated heights show the height above sea
level.

Questions & Answers

i. What does the word “annual or monthly fair” signify and what occupation is present in these regions
(with fair)?
Ans. It is a place of social activity, trade, and entertainment. The occupation is trade and commerce.

ii. What does the thin blue line in the middle of a dry river indicate?
Ans. It indicates a water channel or stream which has water only during the monsoon season. This means
the region is arid or semi-arid and hence dry climate.

iii. What do you mean by “fall 25r” on the topographical map?

Natural Features

Rivers, streams, sand features, broken grounds, depressions, islands, hills, waterfalls, cliffs, etc.

Manmade Features

Surveyed tree, permanent huts, causeways, mines, metalled roads, unmetalled roads, cart track, pack track,
footpath, PTO (Post and Telegraph Office), IB (Inspection Bungalow), DB (Dak Bungalow), other
settlements, etc.

NOTE: Trees and forests are not to be identified as natural features or manmade features. Only surveyed
trees are considered as manmade features.

Relative Height and Depth

‘r’ written in blue beside a feature will be relative depth.

Direction of River Flow

It can be understood by either an arrow drawn on the river, or by spot heights, contours, or relative heights.

Reasons/Symbols for Seasonal Rainfall

Presence of dry streams, exposed river beds, broken grounds, dry tanks (all in black), causeways (in
red) show that the area gets seasonal or scanty rainfall.
The settlements are generally found on either side of the river or wherever irrigation by canals or
perennial lined wells are available.

Forests

Various kinds of forests are shown in the topographical sheet. Some of them are: dense mixed jungle, fairly
dense mixed jungle, dense mixed jungle with bamboo, open mixed jungle, open scrub, etc. Dense forest
written on the map indicates a region of heavy rainfall, whereas an open jungle indicates a region of
moderate rainfall.

Means of Transport & Communication

The size of a prominent village is to be identified by the type of town, type of connectivity, facilities
offered, communication facilities (post office, telephone lines, telegraph lines, power lines, etc.)

Means of transport and communication are depicted on the topo sheet. Each and every settlement is
connected by some mode of transport. The presence of a close network of means of transport and
communication is an index of economic prosperity of the area.

Means of transport always depend on/are directly related to the type of relief and drainage of a given area.

Ex: Very high altitude and mountainous regions will have roads but no railway tracks. Metalled roads and
main railway lines join large settlements and main towns only, and indicates trade being carried on, while
footpaths and cart tracks join small and remote settlements.

Means of Transport: Footpath, cart track, camel track, mule track, roads of different types and varying
importance, and railways. (They are depicted on the topo sheet)

Means of Communication: Post Office, Telegraph Office, Telegraph and Telephone Lines, and Power Lines.
(They are also depicted on the topo sheet)

Means of Irrigation

The agricultural prosperity of any area largely depends on irrigation as depicted on the topo sheet by
conventional signs such as wells (lined and unlined), springs, tanks (dry and perennial) and canals. The
nature and source of irrigation depends upon the relief of land.

Means of irrigation: Wells (lined and unlined), tanks (dry and perennial), canals, ponds, springs, artificial
lakes with embankments, rivers (if perennial), diggis, siphons, aqueducts and sluices.

In hilly regions, there is no cultivation possible, hence there is no need for irrigation. Sometimes, irrigation
can also be very less and is provided by springs or small canals.

In plateau areas, tank irrigation is more common.

On the flat lands, which are coloured yellow, one can see blue round spots which represent perennial lined
wells. Therefore, one can say that the main source of irrigation in such areas are wells and the occupation is
farming. In plain areas, canals and wells are the main source of irrigation. In the areas where irrigation is
available from wells, canals and tanks, the type of agriculture is intensive.

Presence of artificial manmade lakes with embankments show the water is being stored in the off season
and is used for irrigation through canals.