Republic of the Philippines

PALAWAN STATE UNIVERSITY

Puerto Princesa City

College of Engineering, Architecture and Technology

Department of Civil Engineering

CE 41- Highway and Railroad Engineering

IV. Design Criteria for Highways and Railways

The goal in Highway Design is to provide safe roads for all road users, and not just those
in motor vehicles. The principle that ‘man is the reference standard’ implies that roads must be
adapted to the limitations of human capacity. This leads to what is called the ‘safe systems
approach’ which encourages:
● Simpler, self-explaining roads (with less reliance on traffic signs).
● Designing roads that encourage / enforce safe speeds (the safe speed being the one that
guarantees the safety of the most vulnerable road user).
● Forgiving roadsides (the ‘Clear Zone’ idea about unobstructed, traversable space
beyond the edge of the travelled way for recovery of errant vehicles).
● The World Bank’s Sustainable safe Road Design Manual also discusses.
● Functionality – implies that road sections and intersections have only one
function for all modes of transport (mono-functionality) – a traffic flow
function or an exchange function (e.g. truck, distributor and access).
● Homogeneity – avoiding differences in speed, direction of travel, and mass
of vehicles (with segregation of incompatible road users).
● Predictability – ensuring that roads are easy to understand and there are not
nasty surprises (as for ‘self-explaining’ roads).

The characteristics listed below are controls in optimizing or improving the design of the
various highway and street functional classes.

1. Human Factors and Driver Performance

The suitability of a design rests as much on how effectively drivers are able to use the
highway as on any other criteria. Considerations include;
● Driver tasks that include vehicle control (such as simultaneous multiple tasks and
reaction time), guidance (such as road following, lane placement, car following,
passing maneuvers and response to traffic control devices) and navigation.
● Use of the facility by older drivers and older pedestrians.
● Errors due to driver deficiencies and situational demands.
● Speed.

In the Philippines, as of 2018 data, there are a total of 116,906 incidents of road traffic crashes
in Metro Manila alone. On average there were 334 reported accidents per day with one resulting
in fatality, 56 being non-fatal and 276 leading to damages to property (topgear.com). This leads
to the Philippine Road Safety Action Plan 2017-2022, a program developed by the Department
of Transportation adopting a vision of zero road traffic death, with an interim target to reduce
road death rate by at least 20% by 2022. The interventions are organized according to the
Action Plan of the Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011-2020, focusing on the following: (1)
road safety management, (2) safe roads and mobility; (3) safe vehicles; (4) safe road users; and
(5) post-crash care.

2. Vehicles
Four general classes of design vehicles are (1) passenger cars, (2) buses, (3) trucks, and (4)
recreational vehicles. In the design of any highway facility, the designer should consider the
largest design vehicle that is likely to use that facility with considerable frequency or a design
vehicle with special characteristics appropriate to a particular location in determining the
design of such critical features as radii at intersections and radii of turning roadways (refer to
Table 2.3.1 and Table 2.3.2). As a general rule;
● A passenger car may be selected when the main traffic generator is a parking lot.
● A two-axle single unit truck may be used for intersection design of residential streets
and park roads.
● A three-axle single-unit truck may be used for the design of collector
streets and other facilities where larger single-unit trucks are likely.
● A bus may be used in the design of highway intersections that are
designated bus routes and that have relatively few large trucks using them.

Table 2.3.1. Design Vehicle Dimension

 Table 2.3.2. Minimum Turning Radii of Design Vehicles

3. Traffic Characteristics
The design of a highway and its features should explicitly cover traffic volumes and traffic
characteristics. Traffic volumes obtained from field studies (such as hourly and daily traffic
volumes, type and weight of vehicles and traffic trends) can indicate the need for improvement
and directly influence the selection of geometric design features, such as number of lanes,
widths, alignments and grades. Relevant studies include average daily traffic (ADT), peak
hour traffic, directional distribution, composition of traffic, projection of future traffic
demands, speed and traffic flow relationships characterized by the volume flow rate in vehicles
per hour, the average speed in kilometers per hour, and the traffic density in vehicles per
kilometer.

4. Physical Elements
These elements include highway capacity, access control and management, pedestrians,
bicycle facilities, safety and environment.

Knowledge of highway capacity is essential to properly fit a planned highway to traffic

demands. Access control to manage interference with through traffic is achieved through the
regulation of public access rights to and from properties abutting the highway facilities, and
can comprise full control, partial control, access management or driveway/entrance
regulations.

Pedestrian facilities including sidewalks, crosswalks, traffic control features, curb cuts, ramps,
bus stops, loading areas, stairs, escalators and elevators warrant due attention in both rural and
urban areas.

Existing streets and highways provide most of the network used by bicycle travel, making
bicycle traffic an important element for consideration in highway design.
Because the number of crashes increases with the number of decisions that need to be made by
the driver, it is in the interest of safety that roadways should be designed to reduce the need for
driver decisions and to reduce unexpected situations.

5. Economic Factors
Highway economics is concerned with the cost of a proposed improvement and the benefits
resulting from it.

The following are the design controls of highway construction:

1. Anticipated Traffic Volume

The design of a highway or any part thereof should consider jointly all data relating to traffic
such as traffic volume, character of traffic and axle loading. Financing, quality of foundations,
availability of materials, cost of right-of-way, and other factors have important bearing on the
design. However, traffic volume indicates the service for which the improvement is being
made and directly affects the geometric features of design such as width, alignment, grades,
etc. It is no more rational to design a highway without traffic information than it is to design a
bridge without the knowledge of weights and numbers of vehicles it is intended to support.
Traffic information serves to establish the ‘loads’ for geometric highway design.

A road should be designed so that it will accommodate or can be readily changed to

accommodate the number of vehicles which is estimated to pass it towards the end of its life.
This number is called the design volume. In estimating the design volume, the minimum life is
commonly assumed to be 10 to 15 years for a flexible pavement, and 20 years for a rigid
pavement. Traffic volumes are usually the annual average daily traffic (AADT).

The design hourly volume (DHV) should be representative of the future year chosen for
design. A period of 20 years is widely used as a basis for design, for which the usual traffic
increase on a highway improvement is in the range of 50 to 150%. Where the highway is to be
an expressway, traffic increase is likely to be higher, in the range of 80 to 200%.

On minor, low volume roads, average daily traffic (ADT) normally is sufficient. On most
highways a DHV equal to the 30th highest hourly volume (abbreviated as ‘30 HV’) is usually
used for design. On highways with unusual or highly seasonal fluctuation in traffic flow, it
may be necessary to use a design hourly volume other than the 30 HV.

The design traffic data should include the following elements:

● ADT – current average daily traffic, year specified.
● ADT – future average daily traffic, year specified.
● DHV – future design hourly volume, two-way unless otherwise specified (DHV
usually equals 30 HV).
● K – Ratio of DHV to ADT; generally, 12% to 18% for Rural and 8 to 12% for Urban.
● D – Directional distribution of DHV, one-way volume in predominant direction of
travel
 expressed as percentage of total. D normally varies from about 50 to 80% of two-way
DHV, with an average of 67%.
● T – Trucks, exclusive of light delivery trucks, expressed as a percentage of DHV. As
an average on main rural highways, T is 7 to 9% of DHV and 13% of ADT; where
weekend peaks govern, the average may be 5% to 8% of DHV.

For important intersections, data should be obtained to show simultaneous traffic movement
during both the morning and evening peak hours.

2. Character of Traffic
All roads should be designed to accommodate trucks, buses, passenger vehicles, handcarts,
cyclists and pedestrians with safety and convenience. A thorough knowledge of the design
vehicle’s weight, dimensions, mobility and other characteristics is essential for good design.

The vehicle which should be used in design for normal operation is the largest one which
represents a significant percentage of the traffic for the design year. For design of most
highways accommodating truck traffic, one of the design semitrailer combinations should be
used – refer to Table 2.3.1 and Table 2.3.2. A design check should be made for the largest
vehicle expected to ensure that such a vehicle can negotiate the designated turns, particularly if
pavements are curbed. This is done using a swept path analysis using either turning circle
templates or software.

Knowing the predominant character of traffic to use the highway, the required width of lane
could be determined. The total width of a highway is the sum of the widths of traffic lanes
required, dividing islands, curbs and gutter, shoulders and/or walkways, ditches or gutters,
drains and other special features.

3. Design Speed
The design speed is the speed determined for design and correlation of the physical features of
a highway that influence vehicle operation. It is the maximum safe speed that can be
maintained over a specified section of the highway when conditions are so favorable that the
design features of the highway govern. The choice of design is influenced principally by the
character of terrain, the extent of man-made features and economic considerations. Once
selected, it sets the limits for curvature, sight distance and other geometric features. In the
design of a substantial length of highway it is desirable, although it may not be feasible, to
assume a constant design speed on certain sections. Changes in terrain and other physical
controls may dictate a change in design speed on certain sections. If so, the introduction of a
lower or higher design speed should not be affected abruptly but over a sufficient distance to
permit drivers to change speed gradually before reaching the section of highway with the
different design speed.
When available funds are limited, it is impractical to reduce design speed just to save
construction cost; rather the savings should be on other features.

4. Design Traffic (vehicles)

The operating characteristics of motor vehicles should be considered in analyzing a facility. The
major considerations are vehicle types and dimensions, turning radii and off-tracking, resistance
to motion, power requirements, acceleration performance, and deceleration performance. Motor
vehicles include passenger cars, trucks, vans, buses, recreational vehicles, and motorcycles.
These vehicles have unique weight, length, size, and operational characteristics. The forces that
must be overcome by motor vehicles if they are to move are rolling, air, grade, curve, and
inertial resistance. The weight/power ratios are useful for indicating the overall performance in
overcoming these forces.

5. Highway Capacity
Roadway conditions include geometric and other elements. In some cases, these influence the
capacity of a road; in others, they can affect a performance measure such as speed, but not the
capacity or maximum flow rate of the facility.

Roadway factors include the following:

● Number of lanes
● The type of facility and its development environment
● Lane widths
● Shoulder widths and lateral clearances
● Design speed
● Horizontal and vertical alignments
● Axle loads
● Availability of exclusive turn lanes at intersections

The horizontal and vertical alignment of a highway depends on the design speed and the
topography of the land on which it is constructed.

6. Classification of Highway
The first step in the design process is to define the function that the facility is to serve. The two
major considerations in functionally classifying a roadway are access and mobility.

Highway Classification based on Movements and Components

 Freeway–main movement is uninterrupted
 Freeway Ramps–acts as transition roadways
 Arterials–Moderate speed distributor facility
 Collector Roads–to penetrate neighborhood.
 Local Access Road–to individual residence.

Highway Classification based on Movements and Components (Functional Classification)

Access Roads
 Single lane
 provided where there is a small probability of vehicles meeting (AADT < 20).
 Very few passing maneuvers can be undertaken at very reduced speed using shoulders.
 Vehicle flow from access roads will be aggregated in the collector road network.
Two lanes
 Provided for higher traffic flows (AADT 20 – 100). Safe overtaking insured.
  Provide access to rural agriculture and cities.

Collector Roads
 Collectors link access roads to Arteries (Distributor).
 For medium volume of traffic (100 to 1000 vehicles/day)
 Width may be 5 to 5.5 m (when heavy vehicles are less)
 Width may be 5.5 to 6.0 m (when heavy vehicles are >40%)

Principal arteries (for main movement)

 For high traffic flows (> 1000 vehicles/day).
 Minimum width required is 6.5 m
 Width of vehicle is 2.5 m
 Heavy vehicles can pass safely without moving laterally or slowing down.

Express ways
 Divided Arterial highways for through traffic with full or partial control of access and
generally with grade separator at major intersections.
 Full control of access means that authority to control access is exercised to give
preference to through traffic by providing access connections with selected public roads
only and by prohibiting cross section at grade or direct private driving connection.
 Partial control of access means that authority to control access is exercised to give
preference to through traffic to a degree that is added to access connections with selected
public roads, there may be some crossing at grade and some private driving connection.

Freeway and Motorway

Freeways/Motorway–Expressway with full control of access.

Motorway–High-volume, high-speed highways.
 At least 4 lanes (3.5 m) divided
 Physical separators between confronting streams of traffic (median, concrete walls)
 Access control (complete)
 Grade separated intersections (interchange/fly over)
 Fencing, underpasses for pedestrians/ cattle passes

7. Accident information
On all proposed projects, the accident history should be analyzed and potentially hazardous
features and locations identified to determine appropriate safety enhancement. A study of
accidents by location, type, severity, contributing circumstances, environmental conditions,
and time periods may suggest possible safety deficiencies.

Table 2.3.3 and Table 2.3.4 contain the minimum design standards for Philippine highways
and for tourism roads respectively.
Table 2.3.3. Minimum Design Standards for Highways except Tourism Roads

Table 2.3.4. Minimum Design Standards for Tourism Roads

V. Geometric Design foor Highways and Railways
 Geometric design for transportation includes the design of geometric cross sections,
horizontal alignment, vertical alignment, intersections and various design details.
 These basic elements are common to all linear facilities, such as roadways, railways, and
airport runways and taxiways.
 The primary consideration in the design of geometric cross section for highways,
runways and taxiway is drainage. Details vary depending on the type of facility and
agency.
 Highway cross sections consist of traveled way, shoulders (or parking lanes), and
drainage channels.
 Shoulders are intended primarily as a safety feature. They provide for accommodation of
stopped vehicles, emergency use, and lateral support of the pavement. Shoulders may be
either paved or unpaved.
 Drainage channels may consist of ditches (usually grassed wales or paved shoulders with
berms or curbs and gutters.
For high-type roadways (such as freeways), cross-slopes are normally 1.5 % to 2 %.

 Shoulders or parking lanes slope away from the centerline at 2% to 6%.

 As general rule, superelevated sections will be constructed in a single plane (including
shoulders) if the rate of superelevation exceeds the normal cross-slope of the shoulder.
 Standard lane widths are normally 3.6m (12 ft), although narrower lanes are common on
older roadways, and may still be provided in cases where the standard lane width is not
economical.
 Shoulders or parking lanes for heavily traveled roads are normally 2.4 to 3.6 m (8 – 12 ft)
in width; narrower shoulders are sometimes used on lightly traveled roads.

HIGHWAY MEDIAN

Median in various form, becomes absolute requirement for highways because of these following
advantages:
1. It is an effective means of reducing headlight glares, conflicts, and accident between
opposing streams of traffic.
2. It offers refuge between opposing traffic stream of cross traffic, and pedestrian could
traverse each stream at separate maneuvers.
3. It provides available space for left turn lanes.
4. It makes turning of vehicles smooth and safe operation.

HIGHWAY MEDIAN STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS

Where space and cost permit, wide medians is highly recommended. For rural sections of
freeway, the 18 to 27 meters wide median is being adopted.
 The policy on Geometric Design states that; 3.00 to 9.00 meters median width is
appropriate in suburban or mountainous situations.
 For rural and urban arterials, 18.00 meters median/wider is preferred because it allows
the use of independent profiles and at the same time minimized cross over accident.
 Median with 6 to 18 meters allow drivers to cross each roadway separately. A 4.20 to
6.60 meters median width provides protection for turning vehicles.
 Curved median with 1.20 to 1.80 meters width serves as partition-separation of opposite
traffic control devices.
 Cross slope of the median should not be greater than 6:1 but preferably

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
 The vertical alignment of a transportation facility such as highway, consists of tangent
grades (straight lines in the vertical plane) and vertical curves.
Tangent Grades
 Tangent grades are designated according to their slopes and grades.
 The effect of a steep grade is to slow down the heavier vehicles (which typically have the
lowest power/weight ratios) and increase operating costs. Furthermore, the extent to
which any vehicle is slowed depends on both the steepness and length of the grade.

This table shows the maximum grades recommended for various classes of road by AASHTO.

Vertical Curves
 Vertical tangents with different grades are joined by vertical curves such as the one
shown in figure 4.7. Vertical curves are normally parabolas centered about the point of
intersection (P.I.) of the vertical tangents they join.

 Design standards for vertical curves establish their minimum length for specific
circumstances. For highways, minimum length of vertical curve may be based on sight
distance, on comfort standards involving vertical acceleration, or appearance criteria.
 For crest vertical curves, the minimum length depends on the sight distance, the height of
the driver’s eye, and the height of the object to be seen over the crest of the curve, as
illustrated in Figure 4.8.
For sag vertical curves, stopping sight distance is based on the illuminated by the headlights at
night. Design standards are based on an assumed headlight height of 600 mm and an upward
divergence of the headlight beam of 1˚.

HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
 Horizontal alignment for linear transportation facilities such
as highways and railways consist of horizontal tangents,
circular curves, and possibly transition curves.
 In the case of highways, transition curves are not always
used. Figure 4.11 illustrates horizontal alignments with and without transition curves.
 Horizontal tangents are described in terms of their lengths and their directions. Directions
may be either expressed as bearing or as azimuths and are always in the direction of
increasing station.
Circular Curves
 Horizontal curves are normally circular. Figure 4.13 illustrates several of their important
features. Horizontal curves are also described by radius, central angle (is equal to the
deflection angle between the tangents) lengths, semitangent distance, middle ordinate,
external distance and chord.
Transition Curves
 Transition curves are used to connect tangents to circular curves.
 Spirals are used both for esthetic reasons and because they provide a “rational”
superelevation transition.
 In the case of highways, spirals are used primarily for esthetic purposes. They are most
appropriate for roadways with relatively high design standards, where large radius curves
are used.

SUPERELEVATION
 The purpose of superelevation or banking of
curves is to counteract the centripetal
acceleration produced as a vehicle rounds a
curve.
 In the case of highways, somewhat more
complicated modifications of the cross sections
are required, and, because widths vary,
superelevation is expressed as a slope.
COORDINATION OF HORIZONTAL AND
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

 Transportation facilities such as highways and

railways are three-dimensional objects. Although many aspects of their design can be
determined by considering horizontal and vertical alignment separately from one another,
it is important to understand the relationship between them. Proper coordination of
horizontal and vertical alignment is important for reasons related to the esthetics,
economics, and safety of the facility.

 As general rule, horizontal curvature and grades should be kept in balance. That is, the
designer should avoid both the provision of minimal curvature at the expense of long,
steep grades and the provision of level critical alignment at the expense of excessive
 horizontal curvature.

RIGHT OF WAY
 the privilege to use the road by the traffic. The distance between the boundary of the road
on either side of the road.
 Set of rules that determines who goes first or to cross in front of another.

INTERSECTION AND INTERCHANGES

TRAFFIC CONFLICTS

Merging Conflicts – occur when vehicles enter a traffic stream

Diverging Conflicts – occur when vehicles leave the traffic stream

Weaving Conflicts – occur when vehicles cross paths by first merging and then diverging
Crossing Conflicts – occur when vehicles cross paths directly

Example:

THREE BASIC WAYS OF RESOLVING

1. Time-sharing solutions – involves the assignment of the right of way to particular
movements for particular times.
2. Space-sharing solutions – convert crossing conflicts into weaving conflicts.

3. Grade separation solutions – eliminate the crossing conflict by placing the conflict traffic
stream at different elevations at their point of intersections.
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