South East Asian Institute of Technology, Inc. National Highway, Crossing Rubber, Tupi, South Cotabato

SOUTH EAST ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, INC.
National Highway, Crossing Rubber, Tupi, South Cotabato
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
____________________________________________________
LEARNING MODULE
FOR
ES 411: HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
_____________________________________________________
WEEK 1-2
September 7, 2020
COURSE OUTLINE
Math 21: Calculus 1/Differential Calculus
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COURSE CODE : ES 411
TITLE : HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
TARGET POPULATION : FOURTH YEAR ENGINEERING STUDENTS
INSTRUCTOR : ENGR. ROLLY S. MAGLUYAN
NUMBER OF UNITS : 3 Units (3 Hours Lecture)
Overview:
This course deals with the development of highways in the development of highway in the development highway
design, and the materials that are used in road contruction and maintenance. The course includes highway administration;
traffic, driver, pedestrian and vehicle characteristics; geometric design, roadside design, highway and related structures;
intersection, interchanges, terminals; drainage structures; traffic engineering; asphalt and concrete pavements, survey, plans
estimates, contracts and supervission, earthworks, base and sub-bases, highway maintenance and rehabilitaion. The Standard
Specification for Public Works and Highways will also be discussed and be given emphasis in the discussion.
Objectives:
At the end of the course, the students must be able to:
1. Discuss the development of early roads and highway in the Philippines from the early part of 1900 to the present era.
2. Recognise the importance of planning stage of a proposed road construction project and be familiar with the items
conforming to highway design standards.
3. Apply the methods of analysis and design relevant to highway engineering.
4. Define the factors that affects the performance of highway and related structures.
Instruction to the Learner

This module consists of chapters in sequence in relation to each other. Do not skip each lesson so you will be
guided in every step of your learning process. As you start opening your module, please take time to read the
principle of each topic carefully and analyze each situations accordingly. If you encounter problems regarding on
how you solve it or analyze it, please go back to its basic principle. You will find it easy to solve when you go back
to basic always. This module will be given once in a week, and you have to return back the next week along with
your outputs such as plates, documents or activities as what this subject requires you.
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Course Requirements
Class Standing Requirements (problem solving exercises, seatworks, assignments and oral presentations, group
participation and evaluation) – Problem solving exercises are scheduled. Seatworks are unannounced and are
usually given at the start or near the end of the lecture period. Problem set assignments (plates) are to be solved
through individual or team effort to maximize peer tutoring and cooperative learning. Outputs are to be collected at
the beginning of the next class session. Students will be required to do oral presentation of assignment solutions or
any special topics. Individual contribution to group work will be rated by the instructor and the co-group members.
Grade Requirement – Students must obtain a minimum final grade of 60% or 3.0 equivalent to pass the subject.
Grading System for all COE Subjects

Lecture and Laboratory Subjects
LECTURE LABORATORY
TERM GRADE=20%P+20%S+20%Q+40%E
TERM GRADE=Preliminary, Midterm, Or Final Term Grade

P = Plates
S = Seatwork
Q = Quiz
E = Examination
PRELIM GRADE (PG) = 100%(PRELIM GRADE)
MIDTERM GRADE (MG) = 30%(PRELIM GRADE) + 70%(MIDTERM

GRADE)
FINAL TERM GRADE (FG) = 100%(FINAL TERM GRADE)

FINAL GRADE = 15%PG + 35%MG + 50%FG
Learning Resources
Textbook:
References:
• Mannering Fred, Washbrn Scott, Kilaresky Walter. 2004. Principles of Highway Engineering & Traffic Analysis.
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Muze Inc
• Wright, Paul H. 2003. Highway Engineering. Wiley & Sons.
• Garber, Nicholas; & Hoel, lester. 2001. Highway & Traffic Engineering. Brookes/Cole Publishing.
• Fajardo, Max Jr. B., Elementsof Roads and Highway, Seconf Edition, 5138 Merchandising Publisher, Manila, 1998.
• Department of public Works and Highways. 1995, Standard Specification for Public Works and Highways(Volume
II- Standard Specification for Highways, Bridges and Airports), DPWH, Office of the Secretary, Bonifacio Drive,
Port Area, Manila
Online References and Journals
Class Policies
Attendance:
Attendance sheet will be passed around and the student is responsible to sign to prove his presence for
that session (whenever possible). This is to monitor whether absences incurred by the student is still within the
allowed number of absences for a course stipulated in the Student Handbook. The only valid excuse for missing
exam are illness requiring medical care or a personal/family emergency of a serious nature. For such, valid
medical certificate and parent’s/guardian’s letter will be required and subject to verification.
Cooperative Learning:
The goal is to have everyone learn more than they would have working alone. Nevertheless, individual work
provides the foundation for productive and synergistic group work. Teams will be formed, with three, four or as
many students per team as per the instructor dicession. These will be used in two ways. First, in-class
discussion and reporting on assignments will be by group (whenever possible). Second, problem set
assignments will be group activities but the submission of assignment outputs will be done individually.
Presentation of output will be done on a rotation basis. All students will evaluate themselves and their fellow
group members with respect to contributions to group function at least twice during the semester. This
evaluation will contribute to the class standing portion of the course grade.
Academic Honesty Policy:

It is a part of your education to learn responsibility and self-discipline, particularly with regards to academic
honesty. The most important issue of academic honesty is cheating. Cheating is defined to include an attempt
to defraud, deceive, or mislead the instructor in arriving at an honest grade assessment. Plagiarism is a form of
cheating that involves presenting as one’s own work the ideas or work of another.
All portions of any test, project, or final exam submitted by you for a grade must be your own work, unless
you are instructed to work collaboratively. Specific requirements will be described for collaborative projects, but
all work presented must be the work of members of that group. Research materials used must be properly cited.
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Cheating in a major course examination by a student will entail a failing mark of 5.0 for the given course.
Cheating, dishonesty or plagiarism in papers and other works will entail zero (0) score for the said requirement.
GETTING STARTED:
Seek Him first the GOD Almighty before reading this module because learning Transportation Engineering
is not an easy task but by putting GOD first is the only key to success. Be patient, persevere, ask questions, discuss
ideas and work with classmates, and seek help when you need it, right away. The rewards of learning this subject
will be very satisfying, both intellectually and professionally.
But, due to the health crisis, you need to double your effort in learning this subject since, this is more often a self-
taught or self-directed learning and will no longer have a face-to-face discussion. Research as much as you can,
and do not hesitate to consult to your instructor in any means of communication if any problems encountered in this
course. Good luck and God Bless Future Engineers!
We wish to know how interested you are of becoming a profound and well-taught CIVIL ENGINEER in the
future. Complete the statements stated below as honestly as you can. All answer is accepted.
MODULE 01:
THE HIGHWAY AND ITS DEVELOPMENT
1.1 Brief History
Early roads with hard surfaces were found in the land of Mesopotamia. These roads were constructed as early as
3,500 B.C. Another stone surface roads were also found in the Mediterranean island of Crete, similarly constructed as those
in the Western Hemisphere by the Mayans, Aztecs and the Incas of Central South America.
The early road systems were constructed primarily for the following purposes:
1. For the movement of armies in their conquest and for defense against invasion.
2. For transport of food and trade of goods between neighboring towns and cities.
The Romans, who discovered cement, expanded their vast empire through extensive road networks radiating in many
directions from the capital city of Rome. Many of the roads built by the Romans still exist even after 2,000 years.
Roman Roads were laid on three courses:
1. A layer of small broken stones.

2. Followed by layer of small stones mixed with mortar and then compacted firmly.
3. Wearing course of massive stone blocks properly set and bedded with cement mortar.
During the 17th century, under the reign of Napoleon the Great, France made a great progress on road buildings. Jerome
Tresaguet "Father of modern road building” (1716-1796) the famous French Engineer introduced new methods of
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construction and maintenance of stone roads. He improved the crown, the drainage, and the grade of the road, including the
stone foundation by reducing the depth of broken stones to 25 centimeters. Tresaguet made it possible for Napoleon to build
the massive highways of France.
Thirty years later, a Scottish Engineer born in Westminster Abbey, Thomas Telford (1757-1834), president and founder
of the lnstitute of Civil Engineer, introduced some improvements in the construction methods of Jerome Tresaguet. The road
foundation course of Telford was made of stones having 3 inches minimum thickness, 5 inches width, and 7 inches height.
Smaller stones were driven by mauls on top voids and trued the surfaces by breaking the projecting points. Telford employed
a flat sub-grade, providing slight crown using stones of varying sizes.
England followed the ongoing highway development started by France. The Macadam road concept named after John
Louden Mac Adam (1755-1836) another famous Scottish Engineer road builder and contemporary of Telford, was developed
and widely accepted. The invention of road building equipment enhances the development of roads in Europe. In 1858, Eli
Blake invented the first stone crusher and at the same period, a steam road roller weighing 30 tons was introduced in France
by its inventor, Aveling and Porter.
1.2 Highway in the Philippines
In the early part of 1900, transportations in this country depended largely on trails, waterways, railroad, earth roads
and partially graveled roads. Highway in the Philippines at that time is nothing more than a dream to most Filipinos. The
American government initiated the development of roadways in the Philippines, connecting towns, cities and provinces. The
popular Macadam road type was introduced. It gained wide acceptance because of the abundant supply of stones and gravel.
After the World War II, the new independent Philippine government continued the rehabilitation and construction of
roads and bridges, through the reparations and war damages paid by the Japanese government. Other financial grants and
aids received from the U.S. government were used in the construction and rehabilitation of roads and bridges.
Fifty years later, major highways and expressways were constructed through the financial assistance and loans from
foreign banks. Alongside with the industrialization program of the governrnent, vehicles of various types and sizes started
flooding the roadways. Recent Land transportation records revealed that, more than 80,000 brand new vehicles were added
to their lists every year. At an average of 5.00 meters road occupancy by these vehicles, the DPWH must open 400 kilometers
new roads every year. This data did not include yet the roadway for second hand or surplus assembled cars. With this statistical
report, solution to traffic problems is nowhere insight. Traffic problems are expected to worsen year after year.
The year 1960 to early part of 1980 was considered an automobile age. Cars were no longer regarded as luxury item
but a necessity in transporting people and goods, a necessity for survival. Government new concept of development is to get
the farmers out of the mud. It was during this decade that road construction becornes a matter of priority of the government
under the slogan: " This nation is on Wheels”.
1.3 Planning Difficulties
Development and maintenance of roads and highways is a continuing process alongside with the technological
advancement. New equipment and management techniques revolutionized, the construction and maintenance methods.
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Advance knowledge in the field of soils, highway materials, and designs were adopted for reliability and economic
considerations.
Engineers are conscious of the need for roadways to be safe, useful, and attractive. This needs include improvement of
the roadside, erosion control, and noise reduction. They are aware of the fact that highways are vital to the country's
development. Unfortunately, highway planners are confronted with problems categorized as follows:
1. Financial
2. Political and ,
3. Technical
1.4 Highway Programming
There are three inseparable sets of inputs involved in highway programming, they are:
1. Economic - Deals with the questions of resources.

2. Financial - The question of who pays and who spends, how much, and where?
3. Political and Administration - This involves decision making.
1.5 Community Involvement
In a democratic government, the public has the right to hear and be heard. Much more to participate in public hearing
where planning and decision making will be conducted before major decisions are made.
It is a common practice to call public hearing after all major decisions were rnade and approved. Indeed, public hearing
is no more than information forum for the public to know what the administration wants for them, rather than, what the
people wants from them. Public hearing should involved the public from the start of planning to give them a chance to
participate in the discussions and involved them in:
1. Solicit the cooperation and support of public officials, non-government organizations, influential persons and
conservative group of the community.
2. Create special staff to carry out this function.
3. Comrnunity leadership opportunity to participate continuously in the planning stage.
4. Organize and develop skilled persons to conduct group meeting, workshops, hearing and other related activities.
1.6 Highway Economy
A Country who will not avail of loans or grant from foreign financing institutions will not feel the great impact of their
infrastructure projects, if domestic income through taxes alone will be depended on. Financing institution such as the World
Bank insists that projects to which they make grants or loans be justified primarily on the economic basis. According to W.
Gillespe, professor of Civil Engineering at the Union College:
"A minimum of expenses is of course, highly desirable; but the road which is truly the cheapest is not the one which
has cost the least money, but the one which makes the mast profitable returns in proportion to the amount expended upon
it. "
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1.7 Location of the Proposed Highway
Early roads started from trails. Movements of people and the use of motor vehicles prompted road agencies to improve
road alignment minimizing sharp curves. Road width was standardized and grades were flattened.
New highway locations are blended with curvature grades and other roadway elements to offer; comfortable easy driving,
free flowing traffic arteries, comply with the rules on safety standards.
To improve the highways, there should be tentative plan as to the control, and minimum design speed, roadway cross
sections, and maximum slope with the following considerations:
1. Reliable cost estimate.

2. Character and hourly distribution of traffic.
3. Economic and community benefit factor.
4. Availability of funds.
1.8 highway plans and Specifications
Plans and specifications are set of documents of instructions and conditions under which highways and bridges are
built. The plan contains engineering drawings of the prolect, whereas, the specifications is a written instructions and
conditions considered as integral part ofthe contract between the contractor and highway agency classified as legal
documents.
The complete detailed scheme for the road which are incorporated in the geometric designs are:
1. Traffic
2. Drainage
1. Erosion control
3. Roadside development
4. Structure
5. Soils
6. Pavement
Presentation of a Road Plan
1. The upper sheet is allocated for the plan, top view showing the horizontal alignment, right of way takings, drainage
arrangement and other features.
2. The lower half is allotted to the profile where the original elevation of the ground surface is plotted. The roadway
centerline and the vertical alignment or grade line for the road is indicated.
3. The vertical scale of the profile is usually exaggeratedly enlarged from five to ten times for precise detail.
4. The profile and other details of the drainage, channels or connecting roads including ramps are also presented.
5. The estimated earthwork quantities for every 50 meters station or other intervals are indicated along the bottom of
each sheet along with the estimated overhead. This will serve the engineer and the contractor.
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6. The railroad cross sections for every situation in the whole project stretch is indicated on another sheet of the plan.
7. Another sheet of drawings showing all structures and roadway appurtenances is included.
8. The standard size of ther drawing sheet is 55 cm x 90 cm.
Partial list of subjects covered by the standard drawing:
1. Pipe culverts.
2. Concrete box culverts.
3. Guard rail and parapet.
4. Curbs
5. Gutters
6. Curd Structures
7. Sidewalks
8. Drainage inlet and outlet structures of numerous types.
9. Manholes.
10. Rip-rap and other devices used for bank protection.
11. Fences and right of way.
12. Other survey rnarkers.
The Specifications
Specifications writing is generally different and a delicate work requiring knowledge of the law of contracts as well as highway
practices and experiences. Specifications that are carelessly written and loosely worded may result in the use of substandard
materials and poor workmanship. Mostly, it involves extra cost to the owner or the contractor and sometimes landed in court
litigations. On the other hand, specifications that are too restrictive are very costly.
Flighway Specifications is Divided into Two:
1. Stondard Specifications applies to project implemented by administration which treat the subject that repeatedly
occurs in the agency work.
2. Special Provisions covers peculiar item of the project in question that include additional modification to standard
specifications. This includes copies of all documents required in securing competitive bids and contracts.
Specifications are also subdivided into two:
a) The general clause that deals with the bidding procedures and award execution and control of work and other
legal matters.
b) Specifying detail regarding the materials, manner of work execution and how pay quantities are to be measured.
Assignment:
1. Explain the three problems confronted by planners highway planners.
2. Elaborate the phrase W. Gillespe, professor of Civil Engineering at the Union College.
3. Provide an example of a detailed design and specification of any structure mentioned above.
MODULE 02:
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DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY
2.1 Consistency
Consistency is the most important single rule in highway design. That is, by making every element of the roadway
conforms to the expectation of every driver.
Drivers expect the highway agency to provide them with:
1. Clear information and guidance through a variety of road signs.

2. Avoiding abrupt changes in the traffic as well as the road standards.
If these guides and directions could be planned properly to convey one single message at a time, and if these directions
will be followed smoothly and easily without undue haste, or changes in speed, then, the roadway facilities are considered
satisfactory. Experienced highway Engineers recommended that highway signs and directions should be integrated as early
as the preliminary layout studies.
2.2 Design Speed
There is no single set of Geometric Standards that will apply to all highways. For every highway segment, decisions
regarding appropriate control for each of the many details or requirements must be addressed individually or separately.
AASHTO defined Design Speed as:
"The speed determined for design and correlation of the physical feature of a highway that influence vehicles operation.
It is the marimum speed that can be maintained over a specified section of the highway when weather and traffc conditions
are so favorable that the design features af the highway govern.”
Basic Design Features refers to the tightness and super elevation of curves, the sight distance, and grade. The design
speed is basically higher than the anticipated average speed. AASHTO recommend that:
"The design speed be set to the greatest degree possible, to satisfy the needs of nearly all drivers bath today and
throughout the road anticipated life."
Table 2.1 MINIMUM RECOMMENDED DESIGN SPEED
FACILITY Design Speed

URBAN kph RURAL kph
Freeway 80-95 preferred 110-95 mountainous
Arterial 64-95 but 48 in built up araes 80-110
Collectors 48 km/hr See Table 2.2
Local 32-24 km/hr See Table 2.2
Table 2.2 AASHTO MINIMUM DESIGN SPEED KPH FOR RURAL COLLECTORS AND LOCAL ROADS BASED ON CURRENT ADT
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Class Average Daily traffic
Terrain
Collectors 0-400 400-750 750-2000 2000-4000 Over 4000
Level 60 75 75 75 90
Rolling 45 60 60 75 75
Mountainous 30 45 45 60 60
Local 0-50 50-250 250-400 Over 400
Level 35 45 60 75
Rolling 30 45 45 60
Mountainous 30 30 30 45
2.3 Cross-section of typical highway.
The cross section of a typical highway has latitude of variables to consider such as:
1. The volume of traffic.

2. Character of the traffic.
3. Speed of the traffic.
4. Characteristics of motor vehicles and of the driver
Highway design usually adopted cross section that is uniform in thickness from end to end of the improvement. This is
acceptable on high volume traffic road facilities. For a low volume traffic facilities, modification of the features like the
shoulders width in rough areas are usually employed to reduce costs. A cross section design generally offers the expected
level of service for safety and a recent study showed that:
1. A 7.20 meters wide pavement has 18% less accident compared with pavement narrower than 5.50 m. wide.
2. A 7.20 meters wide pavement ha 4% fewer accidents than the 6.00 meters wide roadway.
3. Accident records showed no difference between the 6.60 meters and the 7.20 meters wide pavement.
4. For the 6.00 m., 6.60 m., And 7.20 meters wide pavement with 2.70 to 3.00 m. wide shoulder, recorded accident
decreases by 30% compared to 0 to .60 m. wide shoulder. And 20%o compared with a .90 to 1.20 meters wide
shoulder.
It appears that, the above difference in accident potentials may not justify higher standard, particularly, when traffic
volume is low. A driver's instinct when overtaking or allowing other cars to overtake or meting oncoming vehicles is to look at
the surface width of the highway, and see the kind of surface where to position his car.
Originally, the total surface width of the roadway was only 4.50 meters, but due to the increased number of vehicles using
the roadway, the width was adjusted to 4.80 to 5.40 meters. Lately, the width of the road was standardized to 3.00 m. for
first class paved one lane highway, and now 3.60 meters wide surface was adopted standard for freeways and other major
traffic roadways, although tlere are strong demand to increase it further from 3.60 to 4.20 meters.
For Two Lane Rural Highways, a 7.20 meters wide surface is required for safe clearance between commercial vehicles
and is recornmended for main highways. For Collector Roadway, 6.00 meters wide surface is acceptable only for low volume
traffic including few trucks traveling thereon. For Local Rural Roadway, the minimum surface width is 4.80 meters for a 30
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km/hr. design speed. For Urban Roadway, the minimum design width is 3.60 meters although 3.00 meters is allowed where
space is limited.
Where there are heavy meetings or overtaking between cars and trucks, air disturbances sometimes cause side collision
between passing vehicles when swerved within or out of their lanes. Motorists are requesting for wider lanes.
Assignment: Draw the different kind of cross-section of a pavement in a short bond paper (a) Typical teo lane
highway, (b) Multi-lane highways and freeways (half sectton), (c) Divided highways & (d) Undivided highways
2.4 Road Shoulder.
Road shoulder or verge is defined as that portion of the roadway between the edge of the traffic lane and the edge
of the ditch, gutter, curb or side slope. AASHTO requires that its usable pavement width shall be strong enough to support
vehicles.
Importance of Road Shoulder
1. Road shoulder serves as a place for vehicles to stop when disabled or for some other purposes. Road shoulder
considerably reduces road accidents.
2. The road capacity is decreased and accident opportunity increases if the shoulder is too narrow or omitted in the
design.
3. Shoulder should be continuous along the full length of the roadway. It also adds structural strength to the road
pavement.
4. Shoulder increases the horizontal sight distance on curves. It reduces accident potential when vehicle stop during
emergencies.
Most of the road shoulders in rural areas are unpaved having a width of 60 to 120 centimeters wide either earth filled or
graveled surface that during rainy days, drivers are hesitant to occupy. The Uniform Traffic Control Device Manual provides
that:
" All inter-town or city highways shall be provided with edge line and may be used on other classes of roads."
A continuous narrow white line strip at the edge of the roadway that separates the shoulder, serves as guide to drivers
during bad weather and poor visibility conditions. The white strips tend the driver to stay in the traffrc lane and the vehicles
seldom infringe on the shoulder.
Policy on Geometric Design Recommended that:
1. Outside shoulder should be paved for at least 3.00 or 3.60 meters wide if truck volume is more than 250 in the design
hour (ADT).
2. The recommended width of left (median) shoulder is 1.20 to 2.40 meters with at least 1.20 meters paved.
3. If there are 6 or more lanes, the median shoulder should be 3.00 meters wide or 3.60 meters if truck volume in the
design hour exceeds 250.
4. For arterials with ADT less than 400 the usable shoulder width is fixed at 1.20 meters minimum, although 2.40 meters
wide is much preferred.
5. When the design hour volume ADT exceeds 400, the usable minimum shoulder width is 2.40 meters although 3.60
meters is recommended.
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6. For Urban Arterial Road, similar shoulder without curb is suggested unless needed for proposed drainage.
7. The width of median shoulder on four lanes divided arterials is fixed at 90 centimeters as minimum.
8. For six or more lanes, 2.40 to 3.00 meters shoulder width is recommended.
9. For Rural Collectors Roadway, 60 centimeters wide graded shoulder is required for ADT's less than 400"
10. For ADT's over 2000, 2.40 meters wide shoulder is recommended.
TABLE 2.3 WIDTH OF ROADWAY FOR UNDIVIDED HIGHWAY
Total Travelway Shoulder Width Roadway Width Speed of Resistance

14.00 m 3.25 20.50 100-80-60-40
12.00 m 3.25 18.50 60-40
7.00 m 2.75 12.50 100-80-60-40
7.00 m 2.00 11.00 80-60-40
6.70 m 2.75 12.20 100-80-60-40
6.70 m 2.00 10.70 80-60-40
6.00 m 2.75 11.50 80-60-40
6.00 m 1.50 9.00 80-60-40
Assignment:
2.5 Cross slope.
The cross slope is provided in all tangent sections of the roadway. Slope usually falls in both directions from the
centerline of the two lane highway except where super elevation of curves directs all water towards the inside.
For high type pavement the crown or slope is often 1% to 2%. However, steeter slopes are strongly recommended
because rain water, flow away more rapidly reducing the water thickness on the road pavement. A cross slope in one direction
of multi lane highways makes driving comfortable, but with heavy rainfall, the water depth increases on the roadway.
FIGURE 2-11 PAVED AND GRAVEL SHOULDER CROSS SLOPE.
The paved shoulder cross slope ranges from 3% to 6% although 4% is the most common. For a gravel shoulder, 4% to 6% slope
is satisfactory and 7% slope is effective drainage for turf (grass) surfaces.
These types of cross sections allow the inner lane to accommodate high speed traffic because it is flatter than the
outer lanes.
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On a very wide street, the parabolic crown surface makes the centerline almost flat unless gutters are sufficiently
deep enough to convey water. A combination of uniform slope with parabolic curve is used instead of the parabolic sections.
2.6 Cut and fill slope.
Earth fill of normal height is safe on a slope of 1:2 ratios. Meaning, the first number represents the horizontal distance
while the second number is the vertical distance.
Slope of cuts through an ordinary undisturbed earthfill remain in place with a ratio of 1:1 slope. On the other hand,
rock cuts could be as steep as l:2 and sometimes 1:4 proven to be stable. Recently, slopes had been generally lowered for
safer operations and to facilitate plant growth. Plants reduced erosion and decreases maintenance costs.
Advantages of Flat Side or Back Slope
1. With back slope of 3:l or even flatter, cars could be directed to back into the road and will come to stop or continue
down the slope with no risk of over turning.
2. Flat fill slopes are visible from the vehicles at full extent grirng the roadway safer appearance.
3. With visible slope for being low and fla! vehicles could be positioned or parked closer to the edge, and on two lane
roadway facilities parkmg would be farttrer from the opposlng traffic
Recommended Policy on Geometric Design
1. The 6:1 slope ratio could be adopted on embankment less than 1.20 meters high, and 4:1 ratio on a higher fill.
2. The 2:1 slope is allowed to heights greater than 6.00 m.
3. Cut slope should not be steeper than 2:1 ratio except on solid rock or special kind of soil.
The AASHTO policy stipulated that where cut or fill slopes intersect the original ground surface, cross section must be
rounded to blend the slope with the natural ground surface. When the side slope requires embankment with suitable retaining
wall, any of the following materials could be used depending upon the natural conditions.
1. Hand placed stones.

2. Cement rubbles masonry.
3. Concrete Blocks.
4. Conventional reinforced concrete.
5. T or counter forted design.
6. Cribs assembled from timber.
7. Precast concrete.
8. Metal Elements.
9. Tied back piling.
10. Earth reinforced with metal or plastic bands.
2.7 Highway median.
Recently, median in various forms, becomes absolute requirement for highways because, it offers the following advantages:
1. It is an effective means of reducing headlight glares, conflicts, and accident between opposing streams of traffic.
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2. The Median offers refuge between opposing traffic stream of cross traffic, and pedestrian could traverse each strearn
at separate maneuvers.
3. Median provides available space for left turn lanes
4. It makes turning of vehicles smooth and safe operation.
5. Where space and cost permit, wide median is highly recommended. For rural sections of freeway, the 18 to 27 meters
wide median is being adopted.
6. The Policy on Geometric Design states that, 3.00 to 9.00 meters median width is appropriate in suburban or
mountainous situations.
7. For rural and urban arterials, 18.00 meters median or wider is preferred because it allows the use of independent
profiles and at the same time minimizes cross over accident.
8. Medians with 6 to 18 meters wide allow drivers to cross each roadway separately. A 4.20 to 6.60 meters median width
provides protection for turning vehicles'
9. Curved median with 1.20 to 1.80 meters width serves as partition - separation of opposite traffic control devices.
10. The width of a traversable median should be wide enough to prevent vehicles running out of control from reaching
the opposite traffic.
11. The 15 to 24 meters distance between landed edges is favored, but specific value is not-stipulated.
12. Cross slope of the median should not be greater than 6:1 but preferably 10:1
13. Dense planting of rose hedges serves as safety crash barriers.
For Narrow Median, there are four means of reducing cross median accidents:
1. Provide determing devices.

2. Provide non-traversable energy absorbing barriers.
3. Provide non-traversable rigid barriers.
4. Provide G.M. barriers
Deterring Devices. Two sets of double strip painted on the existing pavement, raised diagonal bars, low curbing and shallow
ditches.
Non-Traversable Energy Absorbing Devices. The line chain link fence 1 meter high supported by steel post augmented by
cables at the bottom and midpoint. Non-traversable rigid barriers are metal guard rail.
G.M. Barriers. A high non-mountain sloped face concrete barriers called New Jersey. It is cast or extruded in place or precast
in section and set in position by crane.
2.8 The grade line.
Grade line is defined as the longitudinal profile of the highway as a measure how the centerline of the highway rises
and fall.
The grade line appears on a profile taken along the road centerline. It is a series of straight lines connected by
parabolic vertical curves to which straight grades are tangent.
In laying the grade line, the designer must consider the following:
Page - 15 - of 17
1. Where earthwork is minimal and consistently meeting sigtrt distances in relation to grade line, economy is one main
consideration.
2. In mountainous areas, fte grade line must be considered balanced excavation against embankrnents to get the
minimum overall cost.
3. In flat are4 the grade line is set almost parallel to the ground surface but sufficiently above the ground for drainage
purposes.
4. Undesirable native soil should be provided with sufficient covering.
5. Grade line elevations along the river or stream, is governed by the expected level of water flood
2.9 Rigth of way.
Acquisition of land for the right of way is very costly. Based on experience from the past, highway agency now consider it
a good practice to acquire right of way wide enough to sufficiently provide for the ultimate expected development.
A successful freeway and expressway operations, closes the roadway from direct access to adjoining property and some
1ocal roads or streets. If local traffic and land use are to be opened, it must be served by service roads originally planned
as part of the main freeway. Frontage road shall be permitted m enter coruresfing cross streets only at a distance of at
least 100 meters for rural road and 50 meters f,or urban conditions.
Table 2-5 MINIMuM RIGHT OF WAY WIDTHS FOR RuRAL AND URBAN FreEWAYS AT GRADE IN METER
Number Width Rural Urban

of Lanes Frontage No frontage Road Restricted No Normal with Normal No
Road Frontage Rd. Frontage Rd. Frontage Rd
2 60 45 - - -
4 68 53 41 - -
6 75 60 51 89 53
8 83 68 59 96 60
Page - 16 - of 17
Page - 17 - of 17

South East Asian Institute of Technology, Inc. National Highway, Crossing Rubber, Tupi, South Cotabato

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SOUTH EAST ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, INC.

National Highway, Crossing Rubber, Tupi, South Cotabato

Math 21: Calculus 1/Differential Calculus