VECTOR FUNCTIONS

VECTOR FUNCTIONS

10.3
Arc Length
and Curvature
In this section, we will learn how to find:
The arc length of a curve and its curvature.
PLANE CURVE LENGTH

In Section 10.2, we defined the length

of a plane curve with parametric equations
x= y= a s ts
f( t), g( t), b
as the limit of lengths of inscribed polygons.
PLANE CURVE LENGTH Formula 1

For the case where f' and g' are continuous,

we arrived at the following formula:

2 2
dx + dy dt
dt dt
SPACE CURVE LENGTH

The length of a space curve is defined

in exactly the same way.

y
X
•-.....--
SPACE CURVE LENGTH

Suppose that the curve has the vector

equation
r(t) = <f(t), g( t), a s ts
h( t)>, b
■ Equivalently, it could have the parametric
equations
x = f(t), y = g(t), z = h(t)

where f', g' and h' are continuous.

SPACE CURVE LENGTH Formula 2

If the curve is traversed exactly once as t

increases from a to b, then it can be
shown that its length is:

L= b 2 2
2
[J'(t)] +[g'(t)] +[h'(t)] dt

f 2 2 2
a dx dy + dz dt
+
dt dt
dt
ARC LENGTH Formula 3

Notice that both the arc length formulas

1 and 2 can be put into the more
compact form
b
L == r '(t) dt
ARC LENGTH

That is because:

■ For plane curves r( t) = f( t) i + g( t) j

r'(t) = f'(t)i + g ' (t)j = [f '(t)]2 +

[g'(t)]2

■ For space curves r( t) = f( t) i + g( t) j + h( t) k

r '(t) f '(t)i + g '(t)j + h
== '(t)k
= [f'(t) ] 2 +[g'(t)]2 +
[h'(t)]2
ARC LENGTH Example 1

Find the length of the arc of the circular helix

with vector equation
r( t) = cos t i + sin t j + t k
from the point (1, 0, 0) to the point (1, 0,
2rr).
ARC LENGTH Example 1

Since r'(t) = -sin ti+ cos tj + k,

we have:

r '(t) = (-sin t) + cos t

2 2

+l
==2
ARC LENGTH Example 1

The arc from (1, 0, 0) to (1, 0, 2rr)

is described by the parameter interval
0 t 2TT.

•
So, from Formula 3, we have: L= J:" r
'(t) dt

= J:"2
dt
== 2
ARC LENGTH

A single curve C can be

represented by more than
one vector function.
ARC LENGTH Equations 4 &
5

For instance, the twisted cubic

r1 ( t) = <t, t 2 , t 3 > 1
t 2
could also be represented by the function
0 u In 2

■ The connection between the parameters

t and u is given by t = eu.
PARAMETRIZATION

We say that Equations 4 and 5 are

parametrizations of the curve C.
PARAMETRIZATION

If we were to use Equation 3 to compute

the length of C using Equations 4 and
5, we would get the same answer.

• In general, it can be shown that, when Equation 3

is used to compute arc length, the answer is
independent of the parametrization that is used.
ARC LENGTH

Now, we suppose that C is a curve given by

a vector function
r(t) = f( t) i + g( t) j + h( t) k

where:
• r' is continuous.
• C is traversed exactly once as t increases
from a to b.
ARC LENGTH FUNCTION Equation 6

We define its arc length function s

by:

s(t) = J r'(u ) du
2
dx
2
dy
2
d
+ - + du
du du z
du
ARC LENGTH FUNCTION

Thus, s(t) is the length of the part of C

between r(a) and r(t).

y
ARC LENGTH FUNCTION Equation 7

If we differentiate both sides of Equation 6

using Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus (FTC1), we obtain:

- ds = r ' t ( )
dt
PARAMETRIZATION

It is often useful to parametrize a

curve with respect to arc length.

■ This is because arc length arises naturally from

the shape of the curve and does not depend
on
a particular coordinate system.
PARAMETRIZATION

If a curve r(t) is already given in terms of

a parameter t and s(t) is the arc length
function given by Equation 6, then we may
be able to solve for t as a function of s:

t=
t(s)
REPARAMETRIZATION

Then, the curve can be reparametrized

in terms of s by substituting for t:

r=
r(t(s))
REPARAMETRIZATION

Thus, if s = 3 for instance, r( t(3)) is

the position vector of the point 3 units
of length along the curve from its starting
point.
REPARAMETRIZATION Example 2

Reparametrize the helix

r( t) = cos t i + sin t j + t k

with respect to arc length measured from

(1, 0, 0) in the direction of increasing t.
REPARAMETRIZATION Example 2

The initial point (1, 0, 0) corresponds

to the parameter value t = 0.

From Example 1, we have: ds = r '(t)

=2
dt
■ So,
s = s(t) = J; r'(u ) d u = J2; d u
=2 t
REPARAMETRIZATION Example 2

Therefore, t == s / .Ji and the

required
reparametrization is obtained by substituting
for t:

r(t(s))

= cos( 2 )i+sin( s2I

s I

) j + (s2I ) k
SMOOTH PARAMETRIZATION

A parametrization r(t) is called smooth

on an interval I if:

• r' is continuous.

• r '( t) "# 0 on I.
SMOOTH CURVE

A curve is called smooth if it has

a smooth parametrization.

■ A smooth curve has no sharp corners or cusps.

■ When the tangent vector turns, it does

so continuously.
SMOOTH CURVES

If C is a smooth curve defined by the vector

function r, recall that the unit tangent
vector T(t) is given by:
T (t=) '(t)
r r
'(t)
■ This indicates the direction of the curve.
SMOOTH CURVES

You can see that T(t) changes direction:

• Very slowly when C is fairly straight.

■ More quickly when C bends or twists more sharply.

0 C
y
X
CURVATUR
E
The curvature of Cat a given point
is a measure of how quickly the curve
changes direction at that point.
CURVATURE
Specifically, we define it to be the magnitude
of the rate of change of the unit tangent vector
with respect to arc length.

■ We use arc length so that the curvature will

be independent of the parametrization.
CURVATURE-DEFINITION Definition 8
The curvature of a curve is:

dT
K==
- ds

where T is the unit

tangent vector.
CURVATUR
E
The curvature is easier to compute if
it is expressed in terms of the parameter
t instead of s.
CURVATUR
E we use the Chain Rule (Theorem 3
So,
in Section 10.2, Formula 6) to write:

dT dT ds dT dT/dt
-- and K = = - - - -
dt ds ds ds/ dt
dt
CURVATUR Equation/Formula 9
E
However, ds!dt = lr'(t)I from Equation
7.

So,
T'(t)
K(t) = = - ­
r '(t)
CURVATUR Example 3
E
Show that the curvature of a circle
of radius a is 1/a.

■ We can take the circle to have center the origin.

■ Then, a parametrization is:

r( t) = a cos t i + a sin t j
 CURVATURE Example 3

• Therefore, r'(t) = -a sin ti + a cos t

j
and Ir'( t)/ =
a

■ So, T(t)= r'(t) = - s i n t i + c o s t j

r '(t)

and
T'(t) == - c o s t i - s i n t
j
CURVATURE Example 3
■ This gives IT'( t)I =
1.
■ So, using Equation 9,
we have:

T '( t) 1
K(t)=--=­
r '(t) a
CURVATURE
The result of Example 3 shows-in
accordance with our intuition-
that:
• Small circles have large curvature.

• Large circles have small curvature.

CURVATURE
We can see directly from the definition of
curvature that the curvature of a straight line
is always 0-because the tangent vector is
constant.
CURVATURE
Formula 9 can be used in all cases
to compute the curvature.

Nevertheless, the formula given by

the following theorem is often more
convenient to apply.
CURVATUR Theorem 10
E
The curvature of the curve given by
the vector function r is:

r '(t) x r
K(t) "(t) 3
== r
'(t)
CURVATUR Proof
E
T= r'/lr'I and lr'I = dsldt.

So, we have:

r'=

r'T=dsT
dt
CURVATUR Proof
E
Hence, the Product Rule (Theorem 3
in Section 10.2, Formula 3) gives:

r" = d= -s-T + d-s

dt2 dt
T'
CURVATURE Proof

Using the fact that T x T = 0 (Example

2 in Section 12.4), we have:

2
r 'x r " ds (T x T
= ')
dt
CURVATUR Proof
E
Now, IT(t)I = 1 for all t.

So, T and T' are orthogonal

by Example 4 in Section 10.2
CURVATUR Proof
E
Hence, by Theorem 6 in Section 12.4,

2
ds
r 'x r" - TxT'
dt
ds 2

- T
dt
T'
ds 2

-
dt T
'
CURVATUR Proof
E
Thus, r 'x r 'x
T ' - -r"- - - - -r"- 2 -
- ( ds I dt )-2 r
'
and
T' r 'x
K = = - -
r r" '
r3
'
CURVATUR Example 4
E
Find the curvature of the twisted cubic
r( t) = <t, f2-, t3>
at:
■ A general point

■ (0, 0, 0)
CURVATUR Example 4
E
First, we compute the required
ingredients:

r'(t) = (1,2t,3t 2 ) r"(t) = (0,2,6t)

CURVATUR Example 4
E i j k
r '(t) x r "(t) == 1 2t
3t 2

6t
== 6t 2 i - 6t
j + 2k
CURVATURE Example 4

Then, Theorem 1O gives:

r '(t) x r 2 1+ 9t + 9t
2 4

K(t) "(t)
(1+4t +9t )3
3 12
== r 2 4

'(t)
• At the origin, where t = 0, the curvature is:

K(O) =2
CURVATURE
For the special case of a plane curve
with equation y = f(x), we choose x
as the parameter and write:

r(x) = x i + f( x)
j
CURVATURE
Then,
r'(x) = i + f'(x) j
and
r''(x) = f''(x) j
CURVATUR
E
Since i x j = k and j x j =
0, have:
we
r'(x) x r''(x) = f''(x)
k
CURVATURE
We also
have:

r'(x) l+[f '(x)]2

=
CURVATURE Formula 11

So, by Theorem 10,

f "(x)
K(X) 3/2
== 1 + (f
'(x))2
CURVATUR Example 5
E
Find the curvature of the parabola y =
x2 at the points
(0, 0), (1, 1), (2,
4)
CURVATUR Example 5
E
Since y' = 2x and y'' = 2, Formula
11 gi ves:
•

y
K(X) " 312
= [ 1+ (y
')2]
-
2
2 )3 /2
( l+4x
CURVATUR Example 5
E (0, 0), the curvature is K(O) =
At
2.

At (1, 1), it is K(1) = 0.18

2/5312

At (2, 4), it is K(2) = 0.03

2/17312
CURVATUR Example 5
E
Observe from the expression for K(x)
or the graph of K here that:
K(X) 0 as ± 00
X
y
■ This corresponds
y=x2
to the fact that
the parabola appears
to become flatter
as X
+ 00

0 1 X
NORMAL AND BINORMAL VECTORS

At a given point on a smooth space curve

r(t), there are many vectors that are
orthogonal to the unit tangent vector T(t).
NORMAL VECTORS

We single out one by observing that,

because IT( t)I = 1 for all t, we have T( t) •
T'( t)
by Example 4 in Section 10.2.

So, T'( t) is orthagonal to T(t).

• Note that T'(t) is itself not a unit vector.

NORMAL VECTOR

However, if r' is also smooth, we can

define the principal unit normal vector
N( t) (simply unit normal) as:

N (t)= T'(t)
T'(t)
NORMAL VECTORS

We can think of the normal vector as

indicating the direction in which the curve
is turning at each point.

B(t)

N(t)

· ........
BINORMAL VECTOR

The vector
B(t) = T(t) x
N(t)
is called the binormal vector.
BINORMAL VECTORS

It is perpendicular to both T and N

and is also a unit vector.

B(t)

N(t)

· ........
NORMAL & BINORMAL VECTORS Example 6

Find the unit normal and binormal vectors

for the circular helix

r(t) = cost i + sin t j + t

k
NORMAL & BINORMAL VECTORS Example 6

First, we compute the ingredients

needed for the unit normal vector:

r '( t ) = - s i n ti+ cost j+ k r ' ( t ) =2

T(t)= r'(t) = } i ( - s i n t i + c o s t j + k )
r '( t ) 2
NORMAL & BINORMAL VECTORS Example 6

T'(t) ...
N (t ) == == - cost l -
-- T'(t) Slll t j

== cos t, - sin t,
(- 0)
NORMAL & BINORMAL VECTORS Example 6

This shows that the normal vector

at a point on the helix is horizontal and
points toward the z-axis.
NORMAL & BINORMAL VECTORS Example 6

The binormal vector is:

• •
I J k
1
B (t)= T (t)xN(t)= 2 -sint cost 1
-cost -sint 0

= }i(sin t, -
c o s t , 1)
NORMAL & BINORMAL VECTORS

The figure illustrates

z
Example 6 by showing
the vectors T, N, and B
at two locations on the helix. N

y
X
Cl ThomaonHigher E c t u
-
TNB FRAME

In general, the vectors T, N, and B, starting

at the various points on a curve, form a set
of orthogonal vectors-called the TNB
frame-that moves along the curve as
t varies.
TNB FRAME

This TNB frame plays an important

role in:

• The branch of mathematics known as

differential geometry.

• Its applications to the motion of

spacecraft.
NORMAL PLANE

The plane determined by the normal and

binormal vectors N and B at a point Pon a
curve C is called the normal plane of Cat
P.
■ It consists of all lines that are orthogonal
to the tangent vector T.
OSCULATING PLANE

The plane determined by the vectors

T and N is called the osculating
plane of Cat P.

■ The name comes from the Latin osculum,

meaning 'kiss.'
OSCULATING PLANE

It is the plane that comes closest to

containing the part of the curve near P.

■ For a plane curve, the osculating plane is

simply the plane that contains the curve.
OSCULATING CIRCLE

The osculating circle (the circle of

curvature) of Cat Pis the circle that:

• Lies in the osculating plane of Cat P.

• Has the same tangent as Cat P.

• Lies on the concave side of C (toward which N

points).

• Has radius p = 1/K (the reciprocal of the curvature).

OSCULATING CIRCLE

It is the circle that best describes how

C behaves near P.

• It shares the same tangent, normal,

and curvature at P.
NORMAL & OSCULATING PLANES Example 7

Find the equations of the normal

plane and osculating plane of the helix
in Example 6 at the point
P(O, 1, rr/2)
NORMAL & OSCULATING PLANES Example 7

The normal plane at P has normal

vector r'(rr/2) = <-1, 0, 1>.
■ So, an equation is:

-l(x-O)+O(y-1)+1 z-;
=0
or 1[

z==x+-
2
NORMAL & OSCULATING PLANES Example 7

The osculating plane at P contains

the vectors T and N.

■ So, its normal vector is:

TxN=B
NORMAL & OSCULATING PLANES Example
7

From Example 6, we have:

B(t) = }i (sint,-
cost,1)

tr 1
1
B 2-
.Ji,O,.Ji
NORMAL & OSCULATING PLANES Example 7

A simpler normal vector is <1, 0,

1>.
• So, an equation of the osculating plane
•
IS:
1[
l( x - O ) + O ( y - 1 ) + 1 z-- ==
2 0

or 1[
z == -
x+-
2
NORMAL & OSCULATING PLANES

The figure shows the helix and

the osculating plane in Example 7.

z=-x+ - 1 T

\ 2

X
y
OSCULATING CIRCLES Example 8

Find and graph the osculating circle

of the parabola y = x2 at the origin.

• From Example 5, the curvature of the parabola

at the origin is K(O) = 2.

• So, the radius of the osculating circle at

the origin is 1/K = ½ a n d its center is (0, ½).
OSCULATING CIRCLES Example 8

Therefore, its equation is:

OSCULATING CIRCLES Example 8

For the graph, we use parametric

equations of this circle:

X = 1/2 COS t y = 1/2

+ 1/2 sin t
OSCULATING CIRCLES Example 8

The graph is
displayed.
y
y=x2
osculating
circle

l
2

0 1 X
SUMMARY

We summarize the formulas for unit tangent,

unit normal and binormal vectors, and
curvature.

r
N (t)= T'(t) B (t) == T (t) X
'(t)
r '(t) T'(t N(t)
T(t) == )
dT T'(t r '(t) x r
K== - - "(t)
ds )
r '(t) r '(t)
3