SIM1003 (2021/ 22 Semester 1)

Chapter 12 Vector-Valued Functions (Vector Function)

Section 12.1 Curve in Space and their tangents

In general, a function is a rule that assigns to each element of its domain D exactly one element of its
range R. A function f is a real-valued function or scalar function if its value is a scalar.

Definition: Vector-valued function (vector function)

A vector-valued function or vector function r on a domain set D is a rule that assigns a vector in space
to each element in D. That is, it is simply a function whose domain is a set of real numbers and whose
range is a set of vectors.

For every number t in the domain of r there is a unique vector in space denoted by r(t).

Example:
r(t) = 2i + t j+ t k , t ≥ 0, is a vector-valued function with domain [0, ∞).
r(0) = 2i , r(1) = 2i + j+ k and r(4) = 2i + 4j+ 2k are some vectors in its range.

Remark: If f(t), g(t) and h(t) are components of the vector r(t) , then f, g and h are scalar functions called
the component functions (or components) of r and we write r(t) = f(t)i + g(t)j + h(t)k .
The vector function’s domain is assumed to be the common domain of the components.

Example:
If r(t) = t3i + ln(3 − t) j + √t k , then the component functions are
~ ~ ~ ~
f (t ) = t 3 , g (t ) = ln(3 − t ) and h(t ) = t .
The domain D of r consists of all values of t for which the expression for r(t) is defined.
The functions f, g and h are all defined when 3 − t > 0 and t ≥ 0.
∴ D = [0, 3).

Definition: Limit of vector function (page 718)

Definition: Continuous vector function (page 718)

There is a close connection between continuous vector functions and space curves.
Suppose that f, g and h are continuous scalar functions on an interval I.
Then the set C of all points (x , y, z) in space, where x = f (t ) , y = g (t ) , z = h(t ) ----------------- (1)
and t varies throughout I, is called a space curve.
The equations in (1) are called parametric equations of C and t is called a parameter.
We can think of C (the particle’s path) as the curve being traced out by a moving !!!" particle whose position
at time t is the point P(f(t), g(t), h(t)) and r(t) = f (t) i + g(t) j + h(t) k = OP is the particle’s position
vector. (see Figure 12.1 Page 716)

Example 1 (page 717)

Graph the vector function r(t) = (cost) i + (sin t) j + t k .
Solution:
The parametric equations for this curve are x = cos t , y = sin t , z = t , t ∈ R.
Since x 2 + y 2 = cos 2 t + sin 2 t = 1, the curve must lie on the circular cylinder x 2 + y 2 = 1.
Since z = t, the curve spirals upward around the cylinder counterclockwise as t increases. The curve,
shown in Figure 12.3 (page 717), is called a helix.

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Definition: Derivative and Tangent Vector
Let the point P has position vector r(t) = f (t) i + g(t) j + h(t) k , where f, g and h are differentiable at t.
Then r has a derivative (or is differentiable) at t and
dr r(t + h) − r(t)
rʹ(t) = = lim = f ʹ(t) i + g ʹ(t) j + hʹ(t) k . (see Figure 12.5).
dt h→0 h
The vector rʹ(t) is called the tangent vector to the curve defined by r at P, provided rʹ(t) exists and
rʹ(t) ≠ 0 . The vector rʹ(t) points in the direction of the curve at P.
The tangent line to the curve at P is defined to be the line through P parallel to the tangent vector rʹ(t) .

Remark:
1. A vector function r is differentiable if it is differentiable at every point of its domain.
2. The curve traced by r is smooth if rʹ(t) is continuous and rʹ(t) ≠ 0 , that is f ʹ(t ) , g ʹ(t ) and hʹ(t ) are
continuous that are not simultaneously zero.

Example: Find parametric equations for the line tangent to the curve determined by
r(t) = (e −t cost) i +(e −t sin t)j+e −t k at time t = 0.
Solution:
r(0) = i + k ⇒ P(1, 0, 1) is the point at t = 0.
rʹ(t) = (−e −t cost − e −t sin t) i +(−e −t sin t + e −t cost) j−e −t k
⇒ rʹ(0) = − i + j− k is a vector parallel to the tangent line at P.
Parametric equations for the line tangent to the curve at P are x = 1 − t , y = t , z = 1 − t , t ∈ R.

Definition: Velocity, Direction, Speed and Acceleration (Page 720)

Example:
Let r(t) = (ln(t 2 +1)) i +(tan −1 t) j+ t 2 +1k . Find the angle between the velocity and acceleration at t = 0.

Solution:
The velocity v(t) = rʹ(t) = 2t i + 1 j+ t
k,
2 2
t +1 1+ t 1+ t 2

2
the acceleration a(t) = rʹ (t) = 2 − 2t i − 2t 1
j+ 2 3/2 k .
2 2 2 2
(t +1) (t +1) (t +1)
v(0) = j and a(0) = 2 i +k .
v(0) ⋅ a(0) 0 π
The angle between v(0) and a(0) = θ = cos−1 = cos−1 = .
v(0) a(0) 1 5 2
( )
Definition: Differentiation Rules for Vector Functions (Page 721)

Vector Functions of Constant Length (Page 722)

12.2 Integrals of Vector Functions

Definition: Indefinite Integral (Page 723)

Definition: Definite integral (Page 726)

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12.3 Arc Length in Space

Definition: The Length of a Smooth Curve (Page 734)

Arc Length Formula and Arc Length Parameter with Base Point (Page 735)

Speed on a Smooth Curve (Page 736)

Unit Tangent Vector (Page 736 - 737)

Exercise 12.3:
Find the curves unit tangent vector. Also, find the length of the indicated portion of the curve.
5. r(t) = (cos3 t ) j+ (sin 3 t)k, 0 ≤ t ≤ π/2.
v(t) = (−3cos2 t sin t) j+ (3sin 2 t cos t)k
( )( )
⇒ | v(t ) |= (−3cos2 t sin t )2 + (3sin 2 t cos t )2 = 9 cos2 t sin 2 t cos2 t + sin 2t = 3 | cos t sin t | .
The unit tangent vector = T(t) = v(t)
v(t)

(−3cos 2 t sin t) (3sin 2 t cos t) π

= j+ k = −(cos t) j+ (sin t)k , 0 ≤ t ≤ 2 .
3| cos t sin t | 3| cos t sin t |
π /2 π /2 π /2
3 π /2
Length = ∫ 3 | cos t sin t | dt = ∫ 3 cos t sin t dt = ∫ sin 2t dt = − 3 cos 2t ⎤⎥ = 3 .
0 0 0
2 4 ⎦0 2

13. r(t) = (e t cost) i +(e t sin t) j+e t k , -ln4 ≤ t ≤ 0.

v(t) = (e t cost − e t sin t) i +(e t sin t + e t cost) j+e t k
⇒ | v(t ) |= (et cos t − et sin t ) 2 + (et sin t + et cos t ) 2 + e 2t = 3 e 2t = 3 et , -ln4 ≤ t ≤ 0.
t
Arc Length = s(t ) = ∫ 3 eτ dτ = 3 eτ ]t
0 = 3 ( et − 1) .
0

Length = s(0) − s(−ln4) = 0 − 3 ( e− ln 4 − 1) = 3 (14 − 1) = 3 3 / 4 .

13.4 Curvature and Normal Vectors of a Curve

If C is a smooth curve in space defined by the vector function r, then r ʹ ≠ 0 .
The unit tangent vector T(t) = rʹ(t) = v(t) indicates the direction of the curve.
rʹ(t) v(t)
The curvature of C at a point is to measure the rate at which (how quickly) C changes the direction at
that point. The traditional symbol for the curvature function is the Greek letter κ (“kappa”).
A large value of κ at a point indicates a smooth curve changes direction quickly. If κ is small, then the
curve is relatively flat and its direction changes slowly.
T(s) T(s) T(s + Δs)
s Δs T(s + Δs) T(s) Δs T(s) small
s=0 T(s + Δs) large curvature s=0 T(s + Δs) curvature

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Definition: Curvature (Page 738)
If T is the unit vector of a smooth curve, the curvature function of the curve is κ (s) = dT .
ds

Remark:
(1) κ is a nonnegative scalar function. The minimum curvature (zero) occurs on a straight line where
the tangent never changes direction along the curve.

(2) In order to evaluate dT / ds, a description of the curve in terms of the arc length s is needed, but it
may be difficult to obtain. A short calculation leads to the next formula.

Formula for Calculating Curvature (Page 739)

Tʹ
If r(t) is a smooth curve, the curvature is κ = 1 dT = where T is the unit tangent vector.
| v | dt |v|

dT
dt
To show this, dT dT dt 1 dT Tʹ .
κ (s) = = = ds = =
ds dt ds dt | v | dt |v|

Example 1:
Show that the curvature for the line r(t) = (x0 + at)i + ( y0 + bt)j+ (z0 + ct)k is zero at all points on the line.

Solution:
v(t) = rʹ(t) = ai + bj + ck and v(t) = a 2 + b2 + c 2 .

∴ T(t) = v(t) = ai + bj + ck is a constant vector function.

v(t) a 2 + b2 + c 2

∴ dT = 0 . Hence, κ = 1 dT = 1 (0) = 0 at all points of the line.

dt | v | dt | v |

Vector Formula for Curvature: | v × a | , | v |≠ 0. (Page 748)

κ=
| v |3
Example 2:
Find the curvature for the space curve r(t) = t i + 1 cosh(2t) j + 5k .
( )
2

Solution:
v(t) = rʹ(t) = i + (sinh 2t) j and
a(t) = vʹ(t) =2(cosh 2t) j .
i j k
|v×a | 1 | (2cosh 2t) k | 2 .
κ= = 1 sinh 2t 0 = = = 2sec h 2 2t
| v |3 3 3 2
cosh 2t
( 1+ sinh 2t )
2
0 2cosh 2t 0 ( cosh 2 2t )

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Principal Unit Normal Vector N
The curvature tells us how fast a curve turn. The principal unit normal vector determines the direction in
which a curve turns.
The magnitude of the vector is the curvature κ . What about the direction of ?
The unit vector points in the direction of is the principal unit normal vector N .
The vector N points toward the right if T turns clockwise and toward the left if T turns counterclockwise.
That is, N will point toward the concave side of the curve (see Figure 12.19).
Definition: Principal Unit Normal Vector N (Page 740)
At a point where κ ≠ 0 , the principal unit normal vector for a smooth curve is N = 1 dT .
κ ds
Formula for Calculating N (Page 740)
If r(t) is a smooth curve, the principal unit normal vector is N = dT / dt = Tʹ where T is the unit vector.
dT / dt Tʹ
dT ⎛ dt ⎞
⎜ ⎟
dT / dt ⎛⎜∵ dt = dt > 0 ⎞⎟ .
dt ⎝ ds ⎠
To show this, 1 dT dT / ds =
N= = dT dt = . ⎜ ⎟
κ ds dT / ds dt ds dT / dt ⎝ ds ds ⎠

This formula enables us to find N without having to find κ and s first.

Example 3:
The unit tangent vector for the space curve in Example 2 is T = v(t) = i + (sinh 2t)j = (sec h2t)i + (tanh2t)j .
v(t) cosh 2t
dT
= −2(sec h2t)(tanh 2t)i + 2(sech 2 2t)j and dT = 4(sech 2 2t)(tanh 2 2t + sech 2 2t) = 2(sech 2t) .
dt dt
The principal unit normal vector dT / dt = −(tanh 2t) i + (sec h2t)j .
=N=
dT / dt

Circle of Curvature for Plane Curves (Page 741)

12.5 Tangential and Normal Components od Acceleration
Definition: unit binormal vector and torsion (Page 747)
The unit binormal vector of a curve in space is B = T × N, a unit vector orthogonal to both T and N.
x! y! z!
!!
x !!
y !!
z
!!!
x !!!
y !!!
z
The torsion function of a smooth curve is τ = − dB ⋅N = if | v × a |≠ 0 . ( x! means dx .)
ds |v×a | 2 dt

In general, these 3 mutually orthogonal vectors T, N and B define a right-handed vector frame, called
TNB frame (or Frenet frame). (See Figure 12.23, 12.24 and 12.25.)
If we think of the curve of the path of a moving particle, then the torsion tells how much a particle’s path
rotates or twists out of its plane of motion as the object moves along. (See Figure 12.29.)
When we study the motion of a particle, it is often useful to resolve the acceleration into two components,
one in the direction of the tangent and the other in the direction of the normal.
2 2
Definition (Page 745): a = aTT + aNN where a = d s = d | v | and a = κ ⎛ ds ⎞ = κ | v |2 are the
T 2 ⎜ ⎟
dt N
dt ⎝ dt ⎠
tangential and normal scalar components of acceleration.
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Formula for Calculating normal components of acceleration (Page 746): aN = | a |2 −aT
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