Discipline: Geography (Special Paper: Cartography) 2022

CONICAL EQUAL-AREA PROJECTION WITH TWO STANDARD PARALLELS

Principles: German cartographer Heinrich C. Albers developed this non-perspective conical group of
projection in 1805 (Snyder, 1987). Thus it is also known as Albers Equal-Area Conic projection. A right
circular cone, independent of the globe, is supposed to intersect the generating globe along two standard
parallels. Parallels are concentric circles, with varying radii, drawn from the vertex of the cone.
Meridians are straight lines radiating from the vertex of the cone. Parallels are variably spaced to
maintain the equal area property whereas meridians are equally spaced along all the parallels. Inter-
parallel distance is larger between the standard parallels and decreases outwards. Being an equal-area
projection, area of a segment on globe is kept equal to the same area on projection.

Fig. 1: Development of Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection

Derivation: A right circular cone VAB, independent of the globe, intersects the generating globe with
centre at C along parallels PQ (θ1) and XY (θ2). When the conical developable surface VAB is
transformed into a two-dimensional projection plane, angle α is generated at its vertex V.

Now, CN= CS= CE= CW= CP= CX= R (Radius of the generating globe)
So, lengths of parallels PQ and XY on generating globe are 2πR cos θ1 and 2πR cos θ2 respectively.

Let lengths VP and VX on projection plane be r1 and r2 respectively.

Given ∠𝑉= α, arc lengths PQ and XY, on projection plane, become α. r1 and α. r2 respectively. Whereas
α α
area VPQ and VXY become (2. r1²) and (2. r2²) respectively.

Therefore, PQ= α. r1= 2πR cos θ1 and XY= α. r2= 2πR cos θ2

So, r1= 2πR cos θ₁ ⁄α and r2= 2πR cos θ₂⁄α

Now the surface area enclosed by PQ (θ1) and XY (θ2) is 2πR². (sin θ2 – sin θ1)

Partha Das, Assistant Professor in Geography, A B N Seal College, Cooch Behar, W.B., India Page 1
 Discipline: Geography (Special Paper: Cartography) 2022

As it is an equal-area projection, area of the segment PQYX is equal to the area of same segment PQYX
on globe.
α
So, . (r1² - r2²)= 2πR². (sin θ2 – sin θ1)
2
or, α. (r1² - r2²)= 4πR². (sin θ2 – sin θ1)
or, α. (4𝜋²𝑅²𝑐𝑜𝑠² θ₁⁄ - 4𝜋²𝑅²𝑐𝑜𝑠² θ₂⁄ ) = 4πR². (sin θ2 – sin θ1)
𝛼² 𝛼²
or, 4𝜋²𝑅² ⁄ . (𝑐𝑜𝑠² θ₁ − 𝑐𝑜𝑠² θ₂) = 4𝜋𝑅²⁄𝛼 . (sin θ2 – sin θ1)
𝛼²
or, 𝜋⁄ . (𝑐𝑜𝑠² θ₁ − 𝑐𝑜𝑠² θ₂) = (sin θ2 – sin θ1)
α
2
or, α⁄ = 1− sin θ₁−1+ sin² θ₂
𝜋 sin θ₂ – sin θ₁
α sin² θ₂− sin2 θ₁
or, ⁄𝜋 =
sin θ₂ – sin θ₁
α (sin θ₂ – sin θ₁).(sin θ₂+ sin θ₁)
or, ⁄𝜋 =
(sin θ₂ – sin θ₁)
Therefore, α = (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉₁ + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉₂).π

or, 𝛂⁄ (Constant of Cone) = (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉₁ + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉₂)⁄

𝟐𝝅 𝟐
So, radius of standard parallel PQ (VP) = r1 = 2πR cos θ₁ ⁄α
or, r1 = 2πR cos θ₁ ⁄(sin θ₁ + sin θ₂). π = (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉₁+ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉₂)
𝟐𝐑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉₁

So, radius of standard parallel PQ (VP) = r2 = 2πR cos θ₂ ⁄α

or, r2 = 2πR cos θ₂ ⁄(sin θ₁ + sin θ₂). π = (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉₁+ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉₂)
𝟐𝐑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉₂

Now, considering another parallel (θ) at ‘r’ distance away from vertex V
α
Area between parallels θ and θ1 is [2 . (r1² - r²)] on projection and [2πR². (sin θ – sin θ1)] on globe.
α
So, . (r1² - r²) = 2πR². (sin θ – sin θ1)
2
4πR². (sin θ – sin θ₁)⁄
or, r1² - r² = α
4R² cos² θ₁ 4πR². (sin θ – sin θ₁)⁄
or, (sin θ₁+ sin θ₂)²
- r² = (sin θ₁ + sin θ₂). π
4R² cos² θ₁ 4R².(sin θ – sin θ₁)
or, r² = (sin θ₁+ sin θ₂)² - (sin θ₁+ sin θ₂)
4R²
or, r² = (sin θ₁+ sin θ₂)² . [cos² θ₁ – (sin θ – sin θ₁). (sin θ₁ + sin θ₂)]
2R
or, r= (sin θ₁+ sin θ₂)
. √[cos² θ₁ – (sin θ – sin θ₁). (sin θ₁ + sin θ₂)]

So, radius of any parallel (θ) in Conical Equal-Area projection with Two Standard Parallels is
𝟐𝐑
(𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉₁+ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 θ₂)
. √[𝐜𝐨𝐬² 𝛉₁ – (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉 – 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉₁). (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉₁ + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉₂)]

Partha Das, Assistant Professor in Geography, A B N Seal College, Cooch Behar, W.B., India Page 2
 Discipline: Geography (Special Paper: Cartography) 2022

Properties:

• It is a non-perspective projection (Sarkar, 2015) of conical group in which a right circular cone,
independent of the globe, intersects it along two standard parallels.
• Parallels are unequally spaced concentric arcs of circle with inter-parallel distance being greater
between the standard parallels and decreasing beyond them both pole ward and equator ward
(Roy, 1988).
• Poles are represented as arcs of circle.
• Meridians are straight lines, equally spaced along all the parallels and converging at the vertex of
the cone. Meridians intersect the parallels at right angle.
• There is no distortion in scale or shape along the standard parallels.
• Tangential Scale (TS) is smaller between the standard parallels and rapidly increases beyond
them.
• Radial Scale (RS) is larger between the standard parallels and decreases beyond them.
• The Tangential Scale Factor (TSF) is kept reciprocal to that of the Radial Scale Factor (RSF) and
thus product of TS and RS in Albers Conical Projection with two standard parallels, is unity (TS
× RS= 1) turning it into an Equal-Area projection.
• Distortion increases towards the margin of the map in this projection.
• This projection is used for drawing regions with pre-dominant east-west extension compared to a
shorter latitudinal extent.
Example for Calculation and Construction:
Q1. Draw graticules for representing North America in Albers Equal-Area Conic projection at an
interval of 15° for the extension 10° N – 85° N and 30° W – 180° when the R.F. is 1: 60×106.
640,000,000
Radius of the generating globe (R) = = 10.66667 cm.
60,000,000

Parallels to be drawn- 10°N, 25°N, 40°N, 55°N, 70°N, 85°N

Total Latitudinal Extension= (10°N ~ 85°N) = 75°

As ideally two-third area must lie between the standard parallels, let them be 22°30' N (θ1) and 72°30' N
(θ2)

Meridians to be drawn- 30°W, 45°W, 60°W, 75°W, 90°W, 105°W, 120°W, 135°W, 150°W, 165°W, 180°
Therefore central meridian is 105°W
2×10.66667×cos 22°30′
Now radius of Standard Parallel (rθ₁) = = 14.74815 cm.
sin 22°30′ +sin 72°30′

2×10.66667×cos 72°30′
And radius of Standard Parallel (rθ₂) = = 4.80025 cm.
sin 22°30′ +sin 72°30′

(2𝜋×10.66667×cos 22°30′)×15°
Division on Std. Parallel (θ1) for spacing the meridians (d1) = = 2.57996 cm.
360°

(2𝜋×10.66667×cos 72°30′)×15°
Division on Std. Parallel (θ2) for spacing the meridians (d2) = = 0.83973 cm.
360°

Partha Das, Assistant Professor in Geography, A B N Seal College, Cooch Behar, W.B., India Page 3
 Discipline: Geography (Special Paper: Cartography) 2022

Now radii of all parallels (θ) to be drawn-

θ 10°N 25°N 40°N 55°N 70°N 85°N

rθ (cm.) 16.99101 14.27961 11.35468 8.29866 5.27417 2.92844
Table 1: Computation of radii of parallels (rθ)

Following steps to be taken to draw the graticules-

• A vertical straight line, representing the central meridian, is drawn through the centre of the
paper. Zenith of this line represents the vertex of the right circular cone.
• Concentric arcs of circle, representing the standard parallels (θ1 and θ2) and rest of the parallels
(θ) are drawn from the vertex using their radii (rθ1, rθ2 and rθ) calculated above.
• Standard Parallels (θ1 and θ2) are then divided using d1 and d2, on both sides of the central
meridian, to draw the rest of the meridians.
• Straight lines connecting division points on both standard parallels are drawn next, to represent
the rest of the meridians.
• Graticules, thus prepared, are properly labeled next followed by mentioning the title of the
projection, extension and interval on top and the R. F. value at the bottom.

Fig. 2: North America on Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection with II Standard Parallels

Partha Das, Assistant Professor in Geography, A B N Seal College, Cooch Behar, W.B., India Page 4
 Discipline: Geography (Special Paper: Cartography) 2022

Q2. Find constant of cone and mapping equation for Conical Equal-Area projection with II Standard
Parallels for the extension 15° N- 75° N and 12° E- 102° E when R.F. is 1:80,000,000. Calculate the
length of 38° N parallel and 90° E meridian within this extension. Find the distance (inches) and
azimuth of B (20°30' N, 100°20' E) from A (70°20' N, 25° E) along with scale variations at A.
250,000,000
Radius of the generating globe (R) = = 3.125"
80,000,000

Total Longitudinal Extension= (12°E ~ 102°E) = 90°

Total Latitudinal Extension= (15°N ~ 75°N) = 60°

Let the Standard Parallels be θ1 (30°N) and θ2 (60°N)

sin θ₁ + sin θ₂ sin 30° + sin 60°
Therefore the Constant of Cone (η) is = = 0.68301
2 2

Radius of any parallel (θ) in Conical Equal-Area projection with Two Standard Parallels is
2R
(sin θ₁+ sin θ₂)
. √[cos² θ₁ – (sin θ – sin θ₁). (sin θ₁ + sin θ₂)]

Now (sin θ1 + sin θ2) = (sin 30° + sin 60°) = 1.36602"

Therefore the mapping equation is

𝟔.𝟐𝟓
(𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝟎° + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟔𝟎°)
. √[𝐜𝐨𝐬² 𝟑𝟎° – (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉 – 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝟎°). (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝟎° + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟔𝟎°)]

Length of 38° N parallel within this extension is

2𝜋𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2𝜋×3.125"×cos 38° 2𝜋×3.125"×cos 38°
× (λ1~ λ2) = × (12°E ~ 102°E) = × 90° = = 3.86814"
360° 360° 360°

Now to measure the length of 90° E meridian within this extension, radius of parallels 15°N and 75°N
require to be measured.
2×3.125"
Radius of 15° N= (sin 30° + sin 60°)
. √[cos² 30° – (sin 15° – sin 30°). (sin 30° + sin 60°)]

6.25
= 1.36602 . √(0.75 + 0.32946) = 4.75364"
2×3.125"
Radius of 75° N= (sin 30° + sin 60°)
. √[cos² 30° – (sin 75° – sin 30°). (sin 30° + sin 60°)]

6.25
= 1.36602 . √(0.75 − 0.63647) = 1.54162"

Therefore the length of 90° E meridian within this extension is (4.75364" ~ 1.54162") = 3.21202"

Similarly to find the distance between A (70°20' N, 25° E) and B (20°30' N, 100°20' E), lengths (radii) of
A and B need to be measured from the vertex (V).

Partha Das, Assistant Professor in Geography, A B N Seal College, Cooch Behar, W.B., India Page 5
 Discipline: Geography (Special Paper: Cartography) 2022

2×3.125"
Now VA= (sin 30° + sin 60°) ×
√[cos² 30° – (sin 70°20′ – sin 30°). (sin 30° + sin 60°)]
6.25
= 1.36602 × √(0.75- 0.60333)

= 1.75224"
2×3.125"
Similarly VB = (sin 30° + sin 60°) ×
√[cos² 30° – (sin 20°30′ – sin 30°). (sin 30° + sin 60°)]
6.25
= 1.36602 × √(0.75+ 0.20462)

= 4.47032"
Fig. 3: Calculation of Distance and Azimuth

Angle generated at V is αλ = η. λ = 0.68301× (25° E ~ 100°20' E) = 51° 27' 12"

Now to measure the distance between A and B, let’s apply cosine rule

AB2 = VA2 + VB2 – (2× VA × VB × cos αλ)

or, AB2 = (1.75224)2 + (4.47032)2 – (2× 1.75224 × 4.47032 × cos 51° 27' 12")

or, AB2 = 13.29172

Therefore AB = √13.29172 = 3.64578"
Now to measure the azimuth from A to B, let’s apply sine rule
sin 𝐴⁄ = sin αλ⁄
𝑉𝐵 𝐴𝐵
sin 51° 27′ 12"×4.47032
or, sin A = = 0.958983
3.64578

or, A = sin-1 0.958983 = 73° 31' 59"

But A is located pole ward with respect to B, so the angle from A to B must be greater than 90°

Therefore azimuth of B from A is (180° ~ 73° 31' 59") = 106° 28' 01"

And the distance between A and B is 3.64578"

As it is an equal area projection, therefore Tangential and Radial Scales are reciprocal to one another.
𝑅 ×cos 70°20′ 3.125 ×0.33655
TS at A (70°20' N) = 1: 𝜂 ×𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 70°20′ = 1: = 1: 0.87878
parallel 0.68301 ×1.75224

1 1
RS at A = 1: 𝑇𝑆 = 1: 0.87878 = 1: 1.13794

Partha Das, Assistant Professor in Geography, A B N Seal College, Cooch Behar, W.B., India Page 6
 Discipline: Geography (Special Paper: Cartography) 2022

References:

Roy, P. (1988). An Analytical Study of Map Projections (Vol. 1). Calcutta: Pan Publishing Company.

Sarkar, A. (2015). Practical Geography- A Systematic Approach (3rd ed.). New Delhi: Orient Blackswan Private
Limited.

Snyder, J. P. (1987). Map Projections- A Working Manual (U. S. G. S. Professional Paper 1395). Washington:
United States Government Printing Office.

Partha Das, Assistant Professor in Geography, A B N Seal College, Cooch Behar, W.B., India Page 7