INTRODUCTION OF SURVEYING

INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING
A measurement is the process of determining the extent,
size or dimensions of a particular quantity in comparison
to a given standard. In surveying, measurements are
usually concentrated on angles, elevations, times, lines,
areas and volumes.

DIRECT MEASUREMENT INDIRECT MEASUREMENT

A direct measurement is a
comparison of the measured
quantity with a standard
measuring units or units
employed for measuring a
quantity of that kind.
When it is not possible to
apply a measuring instrument
directly to a quantity to be
measured an indirect
measurement is made. In this
type of measurement, the
observed value is determined
by its relationship to some
other known values.
DIFFERENT OF ERROR AND MISTAKES
ERRORS
An is defined as the
difference between the true
value and the measured
value of a quantity. It is
deviation of an observation
or a calculation from the true
value and is often beyond the
control of the one performing
the operation. Since the true
value of a quantity can never
be ascertained by
measurement, the exact
value of an error, likewise,
can never determined in any
measurement
MISTAKES
Are inaccuracies in measurement
which occur because some
aspect of a surveying operation is
performed by the surveyor with
carelessness, inattention, poor
judgement and improper
execution. Mistakes are also
caused by a misunderstanding of
the problem, inexperience, or
indifference of the surveyor. A
large mistake is referred to as a
blunder. Mistake and blunders
are not classified as errors
because they usually are so large
in magnitude when compared to
errors
KINDS OF ERROR AND MISTAKES
KINDS OF ERRORS KINDS OF MISTAKES
 They may be caused by  Reading the wrong graduation
the type of equipment used on the tape
or by the way in which the
equipment is employed.  Omitting a whole length of tape
 Caused by the  transposition of point
imperfections of natural  Reading a scale backward
causes.
 Misplacing a decimal point,
 Incorrect recording of field
notes
Adding a row or column of
numbers incorrectly
TYPES OF ERROR
SYSTEMATIC ERROR
 This types of errors is one
which will always have the
same sign and magnitude
as long as field condition
remain constant and
unchanged. For changing
field condition there is a
corresponding change in
magnitude of the error.
ACCIDENTAL ERRORS
 These errors are purely
accidental in character. The
occurrence of such errors are
matters of chance as they are
likely to be positive or negative,
and may tend in part to
compensate or average out
according to laws of probability.
There is no absolute way of
determining or eliminating them
since the error for an
observation of a quantity is not
likely to be the same as for a
second observation.
SOURCES OF ERROR
INSTRUMENTAL ERROR INSTRUMENTAL ERROR
 These errors are due to EXAMPLE
imperfections in the  Measuring with a steel tape of
instrument used, either incorrect length
from faults in their
construction or from  Using a leveling rod with
improper adjustment painted graduations not
between the different parts perfectly spaced.
prior to their use. Surveying  Determining the difference in
instrument just like any elevation between two points
other instrument, are never with an instrument whose line of
perfect, proper correction sight is not in adjustment.
and field methods are  Sighting on a rod which is
applied to bring the warped
measurement within certain
allowable limits of  Improper adjustment of the
precision. plate bubbles of a transit or
level.
SOURCES OF ERROR
NATURAL ERROR
 These errors are caused
by variations in the
phenomena of nature such
as changes in magnetic
declination, temperature,
humidity, wind, refraction,
gravity, and curvature of the
earth. Natural errors are
beyond the control of man.
However, in order to keep
the resulting errors within
allowable limits, necessary
precautions can be taken.
NATURAL ERROR EXAMPLE
 The effect of temperature
variation on the length of a steel
tape.
 Error in the reading of the
magnetic needle due to
variation in magnetic
declination.
 Deflection of the line of sight
due to the effect of the earth
curvature and atmospheric
refraction.
 Error in the measurement of a
line with a tape being blown
sidewise by a strong wind
SOURCES OF ERROR
PERSONAL ERROR
 These errors arise
principally from limitations
of the senses of sight,
touch and hearing of the
human observer which are
likely to be erroneous or in
accurate. This type of
fallibility differs from one
individual to another and
may vary due to certain
circumstances existing
during a measurement.
Some personal errors are
constant, some are
compensating.
PERSONAL ERROR EXAMPLE
 Error in determining a reading
on a rod which is out of plumb
during sighting.
 Error in the measurement of a
vertical angle when the cross
hair of the telescope are not
positioned correctly on the
target.
 Making an erroneous estimate
of the required pull to be
applied on a steel tape during
measurement.
ACCURACY VERSUS PRECISION
 A surveyor strives for both since measurements and
accuracy and precision. observations are always subject
Many people use the terms to error. “PRECISION” refers to
“accuracy” and “precision” how closely repeated
interchangeably. However, measurements or observations
for those in the surveying come to duplicating measured
profession (as well as other or observed values.
technical and scientific
fields), these words have
different meanings. To
surveyors, "ACCURACY”
refers to how closely a
measurement or observation
comes to measuring a "true
value,"
ACCURACY VERSUS PRECISION
Case 1: Not accurate, not
precise: A shooter stands,
aims through the rifle’s
telescopic sight, and fires four
shots at a target. Upon
examining the target, the
shooter sees that all four shots
are high or left and scattered
all around that part of the
target. These shots were
neither accurate (not close to
the center) nor precise (not
close to each other).
ACCURACY VERSUS PRECISION
Case 2: Precise, not accurate:
The shooter assumes a prone
position, rests the barrel of the
rifle on a support, takes
careful aim, holds his breath,
and gently squeezes the
trigger. The target shows that
these four shots are very close
together, but all four are high
and to the left of the bull’s eye.
These shots are precise (close
together), but not accurate
(not close to the center of the
target).
ACCURACY VERSUS PRECISION
Case 3: Accurate, not precise:
The shooter adjusts the rifle’s
telescopic sight and, full of
confidence that the problem of
inaccuracy has been solved,
stands and quickly fires four
shots. Upon studying the
target, the four holes are
scattered across the target,
but the location of each of the
four is very close to the bull’s
eye. These shots are
accurate, but not precise.
ACCURACY VERSUS PRECISION
Case 4: Accurate, precise:
The shooter again assumes a
prone position, rests the barrel
of the rifle on a support, takes
careful aim, holds his breath,
and gently squeezes the
trigger four times. This time,
the four holes are very close
to the center of the target
(accurate) and very close
together (precise).
THEORY OF PROBABILITY
 Probability is defined as the
number of times something
will probably occur over the
range of possible
occurrences. It is very much
involved in games of chance,
such as throwing dice,
tossing a coin, or in various
games using cards. Things
do happen randomly or by
chance and these are
proven by principles of
mathematics commonly
referred to as probability
THEORY OF PROBABILITY:
ASSUMPTION RELATIVE TO THE
OCCURENCES OF ERRORS:
1. Small errors occur more often
than large ones and that they
are more probable.
2. Large errors happen
infrequently and are therefore
less probable, for normally
distributed errors, unusually
large ones may be mistake
rather than accidental error.
3. Positive and negative errors of
the same size happen with
equal frequency, that is, they
are equally probable
MOST PROBABLE VALUE
From the theory of
probability a basic
assumption is that the most
probable value(mpv) of a
group of repeated
measurements made under
similar conditions is that
arithmetic mean or the
average. Most probable
value refers to a quantity
which, based on available
data, has more chances of
being correct than has any
other.
FORMULA:
mpv = X = ∑X / n or
(X1+X2+X3+…. +Xn) / n
Where: mpv is the most probable
value of the quantity measured, ∑X
is the sum of the individual
measurements, and n is the total
number of observation made. The
above equation is derived from the
principle of least squares.
PROBLEM NO. 1
1.0 A surveying instructor sent FORMULA:
out six groups of students to mpv = ∑X /n
measure a distance between =(X1+X2+X3+X4+X5+X6) / n
two points marked on the
ground. The students 260.25,
260.15, 250.90,252.04,251.50 ANS: 254.51
and 252.22 meters. Assuming
these values are equally
reliable and that variations
result from accidental errors,
determine the most probable
value of the distance
measured.
PROBLEM NO. 2
2.0 The angles about a point ANS:
Q have the following observed OBSERVER 1:
values.130°15’20’’, 142°37’30’’
130°15’10’’
and 87°07’40’’. Determine the
most probable value of each OBSERVER 2:
angle. 142°37’20’’
a. Determine the Correction OBSERVER 3:
to be Applied
87°07’30’’
b. Determine the Most
probable Values.
c. Solution Check
PROBLEM NO. 3
3.0 The observed interior
angles of a triangle are A =
35°14’37’’, B = 96°30’09’’,C =
48°15’05’’. Determine the
discrepancy for the given
observation and the most
probable value of each angle.
a. Determining the Correction
to be Applied
b. Determining the Most
Probable Values
c. Solution Check