Chapter 2: Measurement of Horizontal

Distances
• The accurate determination of the distance between two points on
any surface is one of the basic operations in plane surveying.
• If the points are at different elevations, the distance is the
horizontal length between plumb lines at the points.
• There are several methods of determining distances. In surveying,
the commonly employed methods include pacing, taping,
tachymetric, graphical, mathematical, mechanical,
photogrammetric, and electronic distance measurement.
Pacing

Pace is defined as the length of a step in walking. It may be measured

from heel to heel or from toe to toe.
Pacing. In surveying, pacing means moving with measured steps;
and if steps are counted, distances can be determined if the length
of a step is known.
Pacing
• To pace a distance, it is necessary to first determine the length
of one’s pace. This is referred to as the pace factor.

• Methods: Determine the average length of an individual’s

normal step, Adjust one’s pace to some predetermined length
such as 1 m.

• Length of pace varies with different persons.

• A stride is equivalent to two paces or a double step.

DISTANCE BY PACING
Problem: A 45-m course, AB, on level ground was paced by a surveyor
for the purpose of determining his pace factor. The number of paces
for each trial taken are shown in the accompanying tabulations.
TRIAL LINE TAPED NO. OF PACES
DISTANCE
1 AB 50
2 BA 53
3 AB 51
45.00
4 BA 53
5 AB 52
6 BA 53
DISTANCE BY PACING
Requirements:
• Determine his pace factor.
• If the surveyor then took 771, 770, 768, 770, 772, and 769 paces
in walking an unknown distance CD, what is the length of the
line?
• Assuming that the taped length of line CD is 667.0, determine
the relative precision of the measurement performed.
DISTANCE BY PACING
Solutions:
A. Determine the pace factor B. Determining Unknown Distance
L = 45 m (length of line AB) n2 = 6 (no. of trials)
n1 = 6 (no. of trials) Sum2 = 771 + 770 + 768 + 770 + 772 +
Sum1 = 50 + 53 + 51 + 53 + 52 + 53 = 312 paces 769= 4620 paces
M1 = Sum1 / n1 = 312/6 = 52 paces M2 = Sum2 / n2 = 4620/6 = 770 paces

PF = L / M1 PF = PD / M2
PF = 45.00m/52 paces PD = PF (M2)
PF = 0.865 m/pace PD = 0.865 m/pace x 770 paces
PD = 666.1 m (paced length of line
CD)
DISTANCE BY PACING
Solutions:
C. Relative Precision
RP = (TD – PD) / TD
TD (taped distance) = 667.0 m
RP = (667.0 – 666.1) / 667
PD (paced distance) = 666.1 m
RP = 0.9 / 667
0.9/0.9
RP =
667/0.9
RP = 1 / 741
DISTANCE BY PACING
In five trials of walking along a 90-m course on fairly level ground,
Stefano, a pacer, counted 51, 52.5, 51.5, 52.5 and 51.5 strides
respectively. He then started walking an unknown distance XY in four
trials which were recorded as follows: 88.5, 89, 88, and 87 strides.
Determine the following:

1. Pace factor of Stefano.

2. Length of line XY.
3. Percentage of error in the measurement if the taped length of
XY is 150.5 meters.
DISTANCE BY PACING
Solutions:
A. Determine the pace factor
L = 90 m (length of course)
n1 = 5 (no. of trials taken)
Sum1 = 51 + 52.5 + 51.5 + 52.5 +51.5
= 259 strides or 518 paces
M1 = Sum1 / n1 = 518/5 = 103.6 paces
PF = L / M1
PF = 90.00m/ 103.6 paces
PF = 0.869 m/pace
B. Determining Unknown Distance
n2 = 4 (no. of trials)
Sum2 = 88.5 + 89 + 88 + 87
= 352.5 strides or 705 paces
M2 = Sum2 / n2 = 705/4 = 176.25 paces
PD = PF (M2)
PD = 0.869 m/pace x 176.25 paces
PD = 153.2 m (paced length of line
XY)
C. Determining Percentage of Error
TD (taped distance) = 150.50 m
PD (paced distance) = 153.20 m
𝑇𝐷−𝑃𝐷 150.5 −153.2
PE = 𝑇𝐷
𝑋 100% =
150.50
X 100%
PE =𝟏. 𝟕𝟗 %
EXERCISE (15 PTS)
A line 100 m long was paced by a surveyor for four times with the
following data: 142, 145, 145.5, and 146. Another line was paced
four times again with the following results: 893, 893.5, 891, and
895.5

1. Determine the pace factor.

2. Determine the average number of paces for the new line.
3. Determine the distance of the new line.
DISTANCE BY PACING
Solutions:
A. Determine the pace factor B. Determining Unknown Distance
L = 100 m (length of line) n2 = 4 (no. of trials)
n1 = 4 (no. of trials) Sum2 = 893 + 893.5 + 891 + 895.5
Sum1 = 142 + 145 + 145.5 + 146= 578.5 paces = 3573 paces
M1 = Sum1 / n1 = 578.5/4 = 144.625 paces M2 = Sum2 / n2 = 3573/4 = 893.25

PF = L / M1 PF = PD / M2
PF = 100.00m/ 144.625 paces PD = PF (M2)
PF = 0.691 m/pace PD = 0.691 m/pace x 893.25 paces
PD = 617.632 m
(paced length of the new line
DISTANCE BY TAPING
• The use of graduated tape is probably the most common
method of measuring of laying out horizontal distances.

• Taping consists of stretching a calibrated tape between two

points and reading the distance indicated on the tape.

• Taping is a form of direct measurement which is widely used in

engineering as well as non-engineering activities.

• Taping may vary from a relative precision of about 1:1000 to

1:25000 or better.
MEASURING TAPES

STEEL TAPES
MEASURING TAPES

INVAR TAPES
MEASURING TAPES
1. Steel Tape- surveyor’s or engineer’s tape, made of ribbon of steel 0.5 to 1.0
cm in width, and weighs 0.8 to 1.5 kg per 30 meters. Lengths of 10, 20, 30, 50,
100 m are available. The 30-m tape is most common. It is designed for most
conventional measurements in surveying and construction work.
2. Metallic Tape
3. Non-Metallic
4. Invar Tape- a special tape made of an alloy of nickel (35%) and steel (65%)
with a very low coefficient of thermal expansion which makes it less affected
by temperature changes.
5. Lovar Tape
6. Fiberglass Tape
7. Wires
8. Builder’s Tape
9. Phosphor-Bronze Tape
10.Nylon-coated Steel Tape
PROCEDURES IN TAPING
• Aligning the Tape

• Stretching the Tape

• Plumbing

• Marking Full Tape Lengths

• Tallying Taped Measurements

• Measuring Fractional Lengths

BREAKING THE TAPE

• A standard practice of measuring shorter distances which are

accumulated to total a full tape length. This procedure is always
done especially when the course is sloping or has an uneven
terrain surface.
• CORRECTIONS IN TAPING
 SLOPE TAPING

where d = horizontal distance

between the two points, s =
measured slope length between the
points, and α is the angle of
inclination from the horizontal.
d = s cos α If the difference in elevation, h, is
known, the horizontal distance is
d = (𝒔𝟐 – 𝒉𝟐 ) computed using the following
expression derived from the
Pythagorean theorem
SLOPE TAPING
A measurement is made along a line that is inclined by a
vertical angle of 15ᵒ25’. The slope measurement is 756.52 m.
What is the corresponding horizontal distance?
Given: Solution:
Inclination Angle (α) = 15ᵒ25’
Horizontal Distance = 756.52 m
α
d
Required:
Horizontal Distance d = s Cos α
d = 756.52 Cos 15ᵒ25’
D = 729.30 m
SLOPE TAPING
A horizontal distance of 325.75 m is to be established
along a line that slopes at a vertical angle of 13ᵒ06’. What
slope distance should be laid out?
Given: Solution:
Inclination Angle (α) = 13ᵒ06’
Horizontal Distance = 325.75 m
α
d
Required:
d = s Cos α
Slope Distance
s = d / Cos α
s = 325.75 / Cos 13ᵒ06’
s = 334.45 m
SLOPE TAPING
A line XYZ is measured on the slope in two segments. The first
segment XY measures 824.45 m and the second segment YZ
measures 1244.38m. If the difference of elevation between two
points X and Y is 4.25 m and that between Y and Z is 6.47m,
determine the horizontal length of the measured line.
Given: Required:
S1 = 824.45 m (segment XY) a. Horizontal length of segment XY
S2 = 1244.38 m (segment YZ) b. Horizontal length of segment YZ
h1 = 4.25 m (diff in elev. of point X &Y) c. Horizontal length of line XYZ
h2 = 6.47 m (diff in elev. of point X &Y)
Solution: Z
h2 = 6.47 m

Y D2

h1 = 4.25 m
X D1
D

a. Compute horizontal length of segment XY (d1): b. Compute horizontal length of segment YZ (d2):

D1 = 𝑠1 2 − ℎ1 2 D2 = 𝑠2 2 − ℎ2 2 = D2 = (1244.38)2 −(6.47)2
D2 = 1244.36 𝑚
D1 = (824.45)2 −(4.25)2
b. Total Length (Horizontal)
D1 = 824.44 𝑚
D1 + D2 = 824.44 +1244.36 = 2068.68 m
MEASUREMENTS WITH TAPE
The length of a line AB measured with a 50-m tape is 465.285 m.
When the tape is compared with a standardized invar tape it is
found to be 0.016 m too long in almost the same conditions of
support, tension, and temperature that existed during
measurement of the line. Determine the correct length of AB.
Given:
NL = 50 m (nominal or indicated length of tape used)
ML = 465.285 m (measured length of line AB)
Corr = 0.016 m (correction per tape length, tape too long)

Required: Correct length of AB

MEASUREMENTS WITH TAPE
Solution:
𝐶1 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟 𝑀𝐿 465.285
= ; 𝐶1 = 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟 ( ) = 0.016( )
𝑀𝐿 𝑁𝐿 𝑁𝐿 50
= +0.149 𝑚
(Total correction to be applied
to measured length of line AB)
CL= 𝑀𝐿 ± 𝐶1
CL= 465.285 + 0.149 (𝑎𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔, 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒)

CL= 𝟒𝟔𝟓. 𝟒𝟑𝟒 𝒎 (𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝐴𝐵)

Ref: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yP0Xi2vUcBM
Jonas’ Class Notes
Correction due to Slope
a. Gentle Slope ℎ2
𝐶ℎ =
2𝑠

b. Steep Slopes (between 20% and ℎ2 ℎ4

𝐶ℎ = +
30%) 2𝑠 8𝑠 3

c. Very Steep Slopes (greater than

𝐶ℎ = 𝑠 (1 − cos ∅)
30%)

d. Equivalent Horizontal Distance 𝑑 = 𝑠 − 𝐶ℎ

𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒆: 𝒎 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽
Sample Problem
Slope distances AB and BC measures 330.49m and 660.97 m,
respectively. The differences in elevation are 12.22 m for points A and
B, and 10.85 m for points B and C. Using the approximate slope
correction formula for gentle slopes, determine the horizontal length
of line ABC. Assume that line AB has a rising slope and BC a falling
slope.

Given:
S1 = 330.49 m (slope length of AB)
S2 = 660.97 m (slope length of BC)
h1 = 12.22 m (diff in elev. between A & B)
h2 = 10.85 m (diff in elev. between B & C)
Required: Horizontal length of ABC
Solution:
B

C
d2
A d1

D = d1 + d2

h12 12.222
d1 = s1 -
2s1 = 330.49 - 2 ( 330.49)
= 330.26 m (horizontal length of AB)
h22 10.852
d2 = s2 -
2s2 = 660.97 - 2 ( 660.97)
= 660.88 m (horizontal length of BC)

D = d1 + d2 D = 330.26 + 660.88 = 991.14 m

Ref: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GfVbASs0SWg
Jonas’ Class Notes
Correction due to Temperature
• The value of Ts is usually taken as 20°C. If the tape used is made
of steel, the value of c is 0.0000116 / ᵒC.

• The resulting sign of Ct will be either positive or negative and is

added algebraically to the length measured to obtain the correct
length.

• As a general rule, to obtain more accurate measured values,

taping should be undertaken when the temperature does not
vary significantly from the temperature used during
standardization
Sample Problem
1. A steel tape with a coefficient of linear expansion of 0.0000116 / ᵒC
is known to be 50m long at 20ᵒC. The tape was used to measure a
line which was found to be 532.28 meters long when the
temperature was 35ᵒC. Determine the following:

a. Temperature correction per tape length

b. Temperature correction for the measured line
c. Correct length of the line
Given:
Coefficient of thermal expansion: 0.0000116 / ᵒC
Standard temperature = 20 ᵒC
Temperature at instant = 35ᵒC
Tape length = 50 m
Length of the line = 532.28 m

Required: a. Temperature correction per tape length

b. Temperature correction for the measured line
c. Correct length of the line
Solution:

a. Temperature correction per tape length

Ct = (0.0000116 / ᵒC) (35 ᵒC - 20 ᵒC) (50m)
= (0.0000116 / ᵒC) (15ᵒC) (50m)
Ct = +0.0087 m (tape is too long)
b. Temperature correction for the measured line
Ct’ = (0.0000116 / ᵒC) (35 ᵒC - 20 ᵒC) (532.28m)
= (0.0000116 / ᵒC) (15ᵒC) (532.28m)
Ct’ = +0.0926 m (tape is too long)
c. Correct length of the line
L’ = L ± Ct’ = 532.28 + 0.0926 = 532.37 m
Sample Problem
2. A steel tape, known to be of standard length at 20ᵒC, is used in
laying out a runway 2500 m long. If its coefficient of linear expansion
is 0.0000116/ᵒC, determine the temperature correction and the
correct length to be laid out when the temperature is 42ᵒC.

Given: Coefficient of thermal expansion: 0.0000116 / ᵒC

Standard temperature = 20 ᵒC
Temperature at instant = 42ᵒC
Length of Runway= 2500 m
Required: Temperature correction | Correct length to laid out
Solution:

a. Temperature correction for the runway to lay out

Ct’ = (0.0000116 / ᵒC) (42 ᵒC - 20 ᵒC) (2500 m)
= (0.0000116 / ᵒC) (15ᵒC) (532.28m)
Ct’ = +0.638 m (tape is too long)

b. Correct length of the runway to be laid out

L’ = L ± Ct’ = 2500 - 0.638 = 2,499.36 m ,subtract since tape is
too long
Correction due to Pull/Tension
• During calibration, a tape is subjected to a certain amount of
standard pull or tension on its ends.

• If the pull is greater than that for which it was calibrated, the
tape elongates and become too long. Correspondingly, it will
stretch less than its standard length when an insufficient pull is
applied thus making it too short.

• Errors due to variation of pull may be either random or

systematic. It can be eliminated by using a spring balance, to
measure and maintain the standard pull.
Ref: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b5pZZH_Czng
Jonas’ Class Notes
Ref: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b5pZZH_Czng
Jonas’ Class Notes
Sample Problem
1. A heavy 50-m tape having a cross-sectional area of 0.05 cm2
has been standardized at a tension of 5.5 kg. If E = 2.10 x 106
kg/cm2, determine the elongation of the tape if a pull of 12 kg
is applied.

Given Pm = 12 kg Required:
Ps = 5.5 kg
Elongation of the
L = 50 meters
tape/correction
A = 0.05 cm2
E = 2.10 x 106 kg/cm2
 Solution:

Elongation of the Tape

𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑠 𝐿
𝐶𝑝 =
𝐴𝐸
12 𝑘𝑔 − 5.5 𝑘𝑔 50𝑚
𝐶𝑝 = 6 𝑘𝑔
10
(0.05 𝑐𝑚2 )(2.0 𝑥 2 )
𝑐𝑚
𝑪𝒑 = +𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟐𝟓𝒎
Sample Problem
2. A 30-m steel tape weighing 1.45 kg is of standard length under
a pull of 5 kg, supported for full length. The tape was used in
measuring a line 938.55 m long on smooth level ground under a
steady pull of 10 kg. Assuming E = 2.0 x 106 kg/cm2 and the unit
weight of steel to be 7.9 x 10-3 kg/cm3, determine the following:

a. Cross-sectional area of the tape

b. Correction for increase in tension
c. Correct length of the line measured
Given Pm = 10 kg Required:
Ps = 5kg
L = 30 meters a. Cross-sectional area of the tape
D = 938.55 m b. Correction for increase in tension
W = 1.45 kg c. Correct length of the line measured
γ = 7.9 x 10-3 kg/cm3
E = 2.10 x 106 kg/cm2

Solution
a. Cross-sectional area of the tape
𝑊 1.45 𝑘𝑔
𝐴= 𝐴= 100 𝑐𝑚
𝑐𝑚3)(30 m ) 1𝑚
γ𝐿 7.9 x 10−3 kg
(/
𝑐𝑚3
Solution:
a. Cross-sectional area of the tape
𝑊
𝐴=
γ𝐿
1.45 𝑘𝑔
𝐴=
7.9 𝑥 10−3 𝑘𝑔 100 𝑐𝑚
( 3 )(30𝑚)( )
𝑐𝑚 1𝑚

𝑨 = +𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟏𝟐 𝑐𝑚2

Solution:

b. Correction for increase in tension

𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑠 𝐿 𝑀𝐿
𝐶𝑝 = 𝐶𝑝1 = 𝐶𝑝 ( )
𝐴𝐸 𝑁𝐿
938.55 𝑚
10 𝑘𝑔 − 5 𝑘𝑔 30𝑚 𝐶𝑝1 = 0.00122 ( )
𝐶𝑝 = 30 𝑚
10 6 𝑘𝑔
(0.0612 𝑐𝑚2 )(2.0 𝑥 ) 𝑪𝒑𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟖 𝒎
𝑐𝑚 2
Tape is too long
𝑪𝒑 = +𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟐𝒎
(correction per tape length)
Solution:
c. Correct length of the line

L’ = L ± Ct’ = 938.55 + 0.038 = 938.588 m / 938.59 m

Exercise

1. A steel tape having a correct length at 22 ᵒC was used to

measure a baseline and the recording readings gave the total
of 856.815 m. If the average temperature during the
measurement was 18 ᵒC, determine the correct length of the
line. (5 points)
2. A steel tape is 30-m long under a pull of 6.0 kg when supported
throughout. It has a cross-sectional area of 0.035 cm2 and is
applied fully supported with a 12-kg pull to measure a line
whose recorded length is 308.32 m. Determine the correct
length of the line if E = 2.1 x 106 kg/cm2. (10 points)
Solution
#Prob1:
a. Temperature correction of the baseline measured
Ct’ = (0.0000116 / ᵒC) (18 ᵒC - 22 ᵒC) (856.815 m)
= (0.0000116 / ᵒC) (-4ᵒC) (856.815m)
Ct’ = -0.039756 m (tape is too short)

b. Correct length of the baseline to measure

L’ = L ± Ct’ = 856.815 - 0.039756 = ,subtract since tape is
856.775 m too short (measure)
 Solution
#Prob2:

Elongation of the Tape

𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑠 𝐿 𝑀𝐿
𝐶𝑝 = 𝐶𝑝1 = 𝐶𝑝 ( )
𝐴𝐸 𝑁𝐿
308.32 𝑚
12 𝑘𝑔 − 6 𝑘𝑔 30𝑚 𝐶𝑝1 = 0.002445 ( )
𝐶𝑝 = 30 𝑚
10 6 𝑘𝑔
(0.035 𝑐𝑚2 )(2.1 𝑥 ) 𝑪𝒑𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟐 𝒎
𝑐𝑚2
𝑪𝒑 = +𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟒𝟒𝟓𝒎 c. Correct length of the line
L’ = L ± Ct = 308.32 + 0.0252
’

= 308.34 m
Sample Problem
1. A 50-m steel tape weighs 0.04 kg/m and is supported at its end
points and at the 8-m and 25-m marks. If a pull of 6 kg is applied,
determine the following:

• Correction due to sag between the 0-m and 8-m

marks, 8-m and 25-m marks, and the 25-m and
50-m marks.
• Correction due to sag for one tape length
• Correct distance between the ends of the tape
Sample Problem

Given L = 50 m (total length of the tape)

L1 = 8 m (length of the 1st span)
L2 = 17 m (length of the 2nd span)

L3 = 25 m (length of the 3rd span)

P = 6 kg (pull applied on ends of tape)
w = 0.04 kg/m (unit weight of tape)
 𝜔2 𝐿2 3
Solution: 𝐶𝑠2 =
24𝑃2
(0.04)2 (17)3
A. Determining Correction Due 𝐶𝑠2 =
to Sag for each Span 24(6)2

𝜔 𝐿1 2 3 𝑪𝑺𝟐 = +𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟏 𝒎

𝐶𝑠1 = (Correction due to sag between 8-25m mark)
24𝑃2 𝜔 𝐿3 2 3
(0.04)2 (8)3 𝐶𝑠3 =
𝐶𝑠1 = 24𝑃2
24(6)2 (0.04)2 (25)3
𝑪𝑺𝟏 = +𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟗 𝒎 𝐶𝑠3 =
24(6)2
(Correction due to sag between 0-8m mark)
𝑪𝑺𝟑 = +𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟖𝟗 𝒎
(Correction due to sag between 25-50m mark)
Solution:
c. Correct length of the line
b. Determining Total Sag
L’ = L ± Ct’
Correction for One Tape Length
= 50 - 0.0389
𝐶𝑠 = 𝐶𝑠1 + 𝐶𝑠2 + 𝐶𝑠3 = 49.961 m
𝐶𝑠 = 0.0009 + 0.0091 +
0.0289
𝑪𝑺 = +𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟖𝟗 𝒎