MODULE 2: MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL DISTANCES

Distance by Pacing
- Pacing means moving with measured steps, and if the steps are counted distances can be
determined if the length of a step is known.
- To pace a length it is necessary to know your pace factor by calibrating your pace to
some predetermined length in at least 5 trials.
- It is important to walk naturally when calibrating your pace or pacing distances
Definitions:
1. PACE – the length of a single step
2. STRIDE – two paces or a double step
3. PACE FACTOR – a value determined by dividing the measured or known length of a line
by the mean number of paces taken to walk or traverse the line.
4. PACED DISTANCE – the length of a course as determined by pacing.
5. TAPING – the process of measuring the length of a line or course with a tape
6. DISCREPANCY – in any measurement is the difference between any two measurements
involving the same line.
7. BREAKING TAPE – a procedure which involves the measurement of short horizontal
distances usually along uneven or sloping ground and accumulating these distances to
total full tape lengths.
Example 1. A line 100m long was paced by a surveyor for 5 times with the following data: 142,
145, 145.5, 144.6 and 146. Another line was paced 4 times again with the following results: 893,
893.5, 891, 895.5, and 894.1.
a) Determine the pace factor
b) Determine the average number of paces for the new line
c) Determine the distance of new line.
d) If the taped distance of the new line is 617.5m, determine the relative precision of the
measurement.
TAPED DIST NUMBER OF MEAN NO. OF PACE FACTOR
TRIAL LINE
(m) PACES PACES (m/pace)
1 AB 142.0
2 BA 145.0
3 AB 100 145.5 144.62 0.69
4 BA 144.6
5 AB 146.0
sum 723.1

NUMBER OF PACED REL.

TRIAL LINE MEAN TAPED DIST
PACES DIST PRECISION
1 CD 893.0
2 DC 893.5
3 CD 891.0 893.42 616.46 617.5 1/593.75
4 DC 895.5
5 CD 894.1

Distance by Taping
- Stretching a calibrated tape between points and reading the distance indicated on the
tape.

Steel Tape
 It is made of a ribbon of steel 0.5 to 1.0 cm in width, and weighs 0.8 to 1.5 kg per 30
meters. Lengths of 10, 20, 30, 50, and 100 m are available.

Metallic Tape
 Made of water-proof linen fabric into which are woven longitudinally small brass,
copper or bronze wires
Non-Metallic Tape
 A tape woven from selected synthetic materials with strong dimensional stability and
coated with plastic material
Invar Tape
 Made of an alloy of nickel (35%) and steel (65%) with very low coefficient of thermal
expansion
Lovar Tape
 A newer type of measuring tape which has properties and costs somewhere between
those of conventional steel tapes and invar tapes
Fiberglass Tape
 Made by weaving fiberglass in a longitudinal and transverse pattern

TAPING ACCESSORIES
Range Poles – rods painted with alternate red and white sections used to indicate the
location of points or the direction of lines.
Tape Clamping Handles – scissor-type handles used to apply tension with a quick grip on any
part of a steel tape
Chaining Pins – stuck on the ground to mark the ends of measured tape lengths, and may be
used in place of wooden stakes
Tension Handle or Spring Scale – used at one end of the tape for the application of the right
amount of pull
Tape Thermometer – used to determine the temperature of the air and of the tape during
measurement
Plumb Bob – used for projecting the tape ends to the ground when the tape must be
suspended above the ground
Wooden Stake – are 50x50x300mm wood to mark points
Leather Thongs – attached to a ring located near the zero-meter mark of the tape to provide
a comfortable grip
Hand Level and Clinometer – usually a 15 cm long device which consists of a metal sighting
tube with a level bubble
Lumber Crayons or Chalk – used to mark points on paved roads, sidewalks, or walls
TAPING PROCEDURE
1. Aligning the tape. Both ends of a line to be measured must first be marked.
2. Stretching the tape. Approximately 4-7 kg of force to be applied.
3. Plumbing. When it is impossible to lay the tape on the ground during measurement.
4. Marking full tape lengths.
5. Tallying taped measurements.
6. Measuring Fractional lengths.

BREAKING TAPE
SLOPE TAPING
 An alternative to breaking tape done by measuring along the slope and the angle α is
determined. The horizontal can then be computed using principles of trigonometry.

TAPING CORRECTIONS – corrections to taping are applied by the use of the following rules:
1. When a line is measured with a tape that is “too long”, corrections are applied to the
observed length by adding.
2. When a specified or required length is to be laid out with a tape that is “too long”, the
corrections are subtracted from the known length to determine the corrected length.
3. When a line is measured with a tape that is “too short”, corrections are applied to the
observed length by subtracting.
4. When a specified or required length is to be laid out with a tape that is “too short”, the
corrections are added from the known length to determine the corrected length.

Too long Too short

Measuring with tape Add Subtract
Laying out with tape Subtract Add

CORRECTION DUE TO INCORRECT TAPE LENGTH, Corr

 Correction per tape length (Corr) is the difference between the true or actual length
of tape (TL) and the nominal length of tape (NL)
Corr = TL – NL

 If Corr is positive, tape used is too long; too short if negative

 The corrected length (CL) is found by subtracting or adding the total correction (cl) to
the measured length or length to be laid out (ML)
cl = Corr (ML/NL)

CL = ML ± cl

CORRECTION DUE TO SLOPE, Ch

 Gentle Slopes (less than 20%)
𝒉𝒉𝟐𝟐
𝑪𝑪𝒉𝒉 =
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
 Steep Slopes (between 20% and 30%)
𝒉𝒉𝟐𝟐 𝒉𝒉𝟒𝟒
𝑪𝑪𝒉𝒉 = +
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟑𝟑
 Very Steep Slopes (greater than 30%)
𝑪𝑪𝒉𝒉 = 𝒔𝒔(𝟏𝟏 − 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄)
 Horizontal Distance, d = s - Ch

CORRECTION DUE TO ALIGNMENT, Ca

 The correction due to incorrect alignment can be calculated using the slope
correction formula, however in actual taping, this error is negligible.
CORRECTION DUE TO TEMPERATURE, Ct
 The correction to be applied to the length of the tape due to change in temperature
is:
Ct = CL (T – Ts)
 Where C = coefficient of linear expansion; L = length of tape or line measured; T =
observed temperature; Ts = temperature at which the tape is standardized.
 The resulting sign will either be positive or negative and is added algebraically to the
length measured to obtain the correct length.

CORRECTION DUE TO TENSION, Cp

 From the expression for the modulus of elasticity, E
𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑃𝑃/𝐴𝐴
𝐸𝐸 = =
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙ℎ 𝑒𝑒/𝐿𝐿
 Substituting (Pm – Ps) to P and Cp to e
(𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚 − 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 )/𝐴𝐴
𝐸𝐸 =
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 /𝐿𝐿

(𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚 − 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 )𝐿𝐿

𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 =
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

𝐿𝐿′ = 𝐿𝐿 ± 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝

 Where Pm = applied pull (kg); Ps = standard pull (kg); L = measured length (m); A =
cross-sectional area of tape (cm2); E = modulus of elasticity of tape material (kg/cm2);
L’ = corrected length of measured line (m)

CORRECTION DUE TO SAG, Cs

 The correction due to sag is the difference between the arc formed by the tape and
the subtending chord.
𝑤𝑤 2 𝐿𝐿3
𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 =
24𝑃𝑃2
 or,
𝑊𝑊 2 𝐿𝐿
𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 =
24𝑃𝑃2
 Where w = weight of tape per unit length (kg/m); W = total weight of tape between
supports (kg); L =distance between supports or unsupported length of tape (m); P =
tension or pull applied on the tape (kg)

CORRECTION DUE TO WIND

 Similar to the effect of sag but is usually much less

NORMAL TENSION, PN
 Tension that eliminates sag error
0.204𝑊𝑊√𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝑃𝑃𝑁𝑁 =
�𝑃𝑃𝑁𝑁 − 𝑃𝑃𝑆𝑆
COMBINED CORRECTIONS
 The corrections for the effects of incorrect length of tape, temperature, tension, slope,
and sag may be combined as a single net correction per tape length.

EXAMPLES

SLOPE TAPING. A measurement is made along a line that is inclined by a vertical angle of 15o25’
as measured using a hand level and clinometer. The slope measurement is 756.52 m. What is the
corresponding horizontal distance?
MEASUREMENTS WITH TAPE. The length of line AB measured with a 50-m tape is 465.285 m.
When the tape is compared to a standardized invar tape, it is found to be 0.016 m too long.
Determine the correct length of AB.
LAYING OUT DIMENSIONS WITH TAPE. A building 38m x 45m is to be laid out with a 50-m long
metallic tape. If during standardization of the tape is found to be only 49.950m, determine the
following: (a) dimensions to be laid out (b) what should the diagonals read?
CORRECTION DUE TO SLOPE. Slope distances AB and BC are 330.49m and 660.97m,
respectively. The differences in elevations are 12.22m for points A and B, and 10.85m for points B
and C. Using the approximate formula for gentle slopes, determine the horizontal distance of line
AC. Assume AB has rising slope and BC falling slope.
CORRECTION DUE TO TEMPERATURE. A steel tape, known to be of standard length at 20oC, is
used in laying out a runway 2,500.00 m long. If its coefficient of linear expansion is 0.0000116/1oC,
determine the temperature correction and the correct length to be laid out when the
temperature is 42oC.

CORRECTION DUE TO TENSION. A heavy 50-m tape having a cross-sectional area of 0.05 cm2
has been standardized at a tension of 5.5 kg. If E = 2.10 x 106 kg/cm2, determine the elongation
of the tape if a pull of 12 kg is applied.

CORRECTION DUE TO SAG. A 30-m tape is supported only at its ends and under a steady pull of
8kg. if the tape weighs 0.91kg, determine the sag correction and the correct distance between
the ends of the tape.

NORMAL TENSION. A steel tape weighing 0.85kg has a cross-sectional area of 0.05 cm2. The
tape measures exactly 30.00m when supported throughout its length under a standard pull of
5.5kg. if the E = 2.10 x 106 kg/cm2, determine the tension required to make the tape equal to its
nominal length when supported only at the end points.

COMBINED CORRECTIONS. A line was determined to be 2395.25 m when measured with a 30-m
steel tape supported throughout its length under a pull of 4 kg and at a mean temperature of
35oC. Determine the correct length of the line if the tape used is of standard length at 20oC
under a pull of 5 kg. The cross-sectional area of the tape is 0.03 cm2, its coefficient of linear
expansion is 0.0000116/oC, and the modulus of elasticity of steel is 2.0 x 106 kg/cm2.

SURVEYING WITH TAPE

1. Erecting Perpendicular To Line
a) Chord-Bisection Method
 b) 3:4:5 Method

2. Measuring Angles With Tape (angle is unknown)

a. Chord Method

b. Unequal Lengths – use of trigonometric functions

3. Laying Off Angles With Tape (angle is known)

a. Using a Perpendicular Line

b. Using a Chord Length

 4. Determining Obstructed Distances
If obstructions are encountered in the field, indirect measurement has to be performed.
Most methods involve the use of triangles (right triangles, similar triangles, etc...) then
computing lengths using trigonometric equations. An example is shown below.

EXAMPLES
MEASURING ANGLES WITH TAPE. The angle between two intersecting fences is to be
determined with a tape. A point on each fence line is established 30m from the point of
intersection. If the distance between the established points is 12.20m, what is the intersection
angle?

OBSTRUCTED DISTANCES. Line AB is to be measured across a wide river. Line AC is established

perpendicular to AB and its length is 30.0 m. Angle θ is found to be 62o24’ by chord method.
How long is line AB?

Distance by Tachymetry
- Measurement of horizontal distances are based on the optical geometry of the
instruments employed.
1. Stadia Method
 Introduced in 1771 by James Watt of Scotland
  The equipment consists of a telescope with two horizontal hairs called stadia hairs
and a graduated rod called stadia rod. The spacing of the stadia hairs is so designed
that at a distance 100 m their intercept on a vertical rod will be about 1.0 m. It is
important that the line of sight is horizontal and it intersects the rod at right angles.
𝐷𝐷 = 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 + 𝐶𝐶
C = Stadia Constant
K = Stadia Interval Factor
s = Stadia Interval

2. Subtense Bar Method

 The distance is then computed as follows:
𝑠𝑠⁄2
tan 𝜃𝜃2 =
𝐷𝐷

Distance by Graphical and Mathematical Methods

- Unknown distances may be determined through their relationship with known distances
geometrically.
- Widely employed in plane table surveys and triangulation work
- Determining distances by scaling from maps or aerial photographs

Distances by Mechanical Devices

1. Odometer – a device attached to a wheel that records the number of revolutions when
rolled over a distance similar to the speedometer of a car.
2. Measuring Wheel – similar to the odometer but this gives automatically the distance in m.
3. Optical Rangefinder – this device can be handheld or mounted on a tripod and can be
used to determine distances approximately simply by focusing then the distance is read
on a graduated scale of the device
Distance by Photogrammetry
- Measurement of images on a photograph taken from an aircraft with the axis of the
camera pointed vertically toward the terrain photographed.

Electronic Distance Measurement

- EDM, first introduced in the 1950s by the founders of Geodimeter Inc., has undergone
continual refinement since those early days. The early instruments, which were capable of
very precise measurements over long distances, were large, heavy, complicated, and
expensive. Rapid advances in related technologies have provided lighter, simpler, and less
expensive instruments. These EDM instruments are manufactured for use with theodolites
and as modular components of total station instruments.
- Current EDM instruments use infrared light, laser light, or microwaves. The once-popular
microwave systems use a receiver/transmitter at both ends of the measured line, whereas
infrared and laser systems utilize a transmitter at one end of the measured line and a
reflecting prism at the other end. EDM instruments come in long range (10–20 km),
medium range (3–10 km), and short range (0.5–3 km). Some laser EDM instruments
measure relatively shorter distances (100–2,000 m) without a reflecting prism, reflecting
the light directly off the feature (e.g., building wall) being measured. Microwave
instruments were often used in hydrographic surveys and have a usual upper measuring
range of 50 km.
- EDM devices can be mounted on the standards or the telescope of most theodolites; they
can also be mounted directly in a tribrach. When used with an electronic theodolite, the
combined instruments can provide both the horizontal and the vertical position of one
point relative to another. The slope distance provided by an add-on EDM device can be
reduced to its horizontal and vertical equivalents by utilizing the slope angle provided by
the theodolite. In total station instruments, this reduction is accomplished automatically.
Principles of EDM
Figure 3.26 shows a wave of wavelength λ. The wave is traveling along the x-axis with a
velocity of 299,792.458 km/s (in vacuum). The frequency of the wave is the time taken for
one complete wavelength:
 𝑐𝑐
λ=
𝑓𝑓
λ = wavelength in meters
c = velocity in km/s
f = frequency in hertz (one cycle per second)
Figure 3.26 shows the modulated electromagnetic wave leaving the EDM device and
being reflected (light waves) or retransmitted (microwaves) back to the EDM device. You
can see that the double distance (2L) is equal to a whole number of wavelengths (nλ),
plus the partial wavelength (φ) occurring at the EDM instrument:

2𝐿𝐿 = 𝑛𝑛λ + ∅ meters

EXAMPLES
DISTANCE BY STADIA. A stadia rod held at a distant point B is sighted by an instrument set up at
A. The upper and lower hair readings were observed as 1.300 m and 0.900 m, respectively. If the
stadia interval factor (K) is 100, and the instrument constant (C) is zero, determine the length of
line AB.

DISTANCE BY SUBTENSE BAR. The following subtended angles were read on a 2-m long
subtense bar using a theodolite: 0o54’13’’, 0o22’20’’. Compute the horizontal distance from the
theodolite to each position of the bar.