CE 211 – FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

LECTURE 1
1ST SEMESTER, SY 2021-2022

ELEMENTARY SURVEYING

OUTLINE:
1. Introduction
2. Theory of Errors in Observations
3. Tape Corrections

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able:

1. Define Surveying;
2. Differentiate Types of Surveying;
3. Practice and Solve Pacing and Convert Units Used in Surveying;
4. Understand and Solve Different Errors in Observations such as Systematic/ Cumulative
Errors, Accidental/ Random Errors, Precision and Accuracy, Most Probable Value,
Error/Residual/ Deviation, Standard Deviation of Any Single Observation, Standard Error
of the Mean, Probable Error; and
5. Understand and Solve Corrections due to Tape Measurement such as Temperature
Correction, Pull Correction, Sag Correction, Slope Correction, Mean Sea Level
Correction, and Elongation of a Tape Hanging Vertically.

Introduction
Surveying (or Geomatics) is defined as the science of gathering information about the physical
Earth. It includes measurement of distances, determining relative positions of points o or beneath
the surface of the earth, or establishing such points.

TYPES OF SURVEYS
There are many types of surveys depending on its purpose. Some of the types are:

Cadastral Surveys
This type of survey relates to laws of ownership. It includes establishment or re-establishment of
real property boundaries.

Construction Surveys
Often called “stake-out”, “lay-out” or “setting-out”. It is an essential part of construction that is
performed to establish reference points and markers that will guide the construction.

Hydrographic Surveys
This type includes mapping of bodies of water such as lakes, rivers, etc. It also includes
measurement of features such as discharge, etc.

Industrial Surveys
A sub-discipline of surveying which requires high accuracy and precision. It includes alignment
of machineries and optical tooling.

Mine Surveys
The practice of measuring and mapping on-ground or underground points for the purpose of
exploiting and utilizing mineral deposits.

Compiled by:
Engr. Shennie B. Villanueva 1
Faculty, College of Engineering
 CE 211 – FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
LECTURE 1
1ST SEMESTER, SY 2021-2022

Photogrammetric Survey
Obtains reliable spatial information from photogrammetric images (may it be aerial or terrestrial).

Route Surveys
Survey method that are used to map natural and/or man-made features on the ground as well
as obtain elevations.

PACING
Pacing is one of the simplest method of measuring distances. It is used in instances where
approximate results can be enough for the data needed, such as getting the rodman in position
during a cross-section survey, or simply measuring a relatively short distance where accuracy is
not that of an issue.

PACE - Length of a step. Measured heel-to-heel, or toe-to-toe.

STRIDE - A double step. One stride is equivalent to two paces.
PACE FACTOR -The distance covered by one pace.

CONVERSION TABLE FOR SOME UNITS USED IN SURVEYING

1 acre 4047 m²
1 chain 100 links = 4 rods = 66 ft
1 cubit 18 inches
1 furlong 40 rods
1 knot 6080 ft = 1 nautical mile
1 link 0.66 ft
1 mile (nautical mile) 6080 ft = 8 furlongs
1 mile (statute mile) 5280 ft
1 military pace 2.5 ft
1 perch 1 pole = 1 rod = 25 links
1 pin 100 links = 1 tape length
1 section 640 acres
1 tally 10 pins
1 township 36 sections
1 vara 33 inches
1 yard 3 ft

PROBLEM 1-1
Find the number of significant figures in the value 0.00860.

SOLUTION:
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES OR DIGITS
Refers to the number of important single digits in a value, often a measurement.

0.00860
Significant figures

Say, someone measured a distance using a tape and found out that it is exactly 8.60 meters
long, accurate to the nearest centimeters (hence the ‘0’ next to ‘6’).

Compiled by:
Engr. Shennie B. Villanueva 2
Faculty, College of Engineering
 CE 211 – FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
LECTURE 1
1ST SEMESTER, SY 2021-2022

To preserve the accuracy, he wrote the measurement down as 0.00860 kilometers instead of
0.0086. Writing it down as ‘0.0086’ might give the idea that this number has been rounded-off.

‘0.00860 km’ tells us that the measurement is accurate up to the nearest centimeter giving us
three (3) significant figures.

‘0.0086 km’ tells us that the measurement is accurate up to the nearest tenth of a meter thus
giving us only two (2) significant figures.

PROBLEM 1-2
A line was measured to have 8 tallies, 6 pins, and 30 links. How long is the line in feet?

SOLUTION:
From the table,
1 tally = 10 pins 1 pin = 100 links 1 link = 0.66 ft
Length of the line L,
L = 8(10)(100)(0.66) + 6(100)(0.66) + 30(0.66)
L = 5695.8 ft

PROBLEM 1-3
A line was measured with a 50-meter tape. There were 10 tallies, 16 pins, and the distance from
the last pin to the end line was found to be 2.5 meters. Find the length of the line in meters.

SOLUTION:
From the table,
1 tally = 10 pins 1 pin = 1 tape length 1 tape length = 50m(given)
Length of the line L,
L = 10(10)(50) + 16(50) + 2.5
L = 5802.5 m

PROBLEM 1-4
A distance was measured and was recorded to have a value equivalent to 10 perches, 5 rods,
and 50 varas. Compute the total distance in feet.

SOLUTION:
From the table,
1 perch = 25 links 1 rod = 25 links
1 vara = 33 inches 1 link = 0.66 ft
1 foot = 12 inches
Distance in feet,
D = 10(25)(0.66) + 5(25)(0.66) + 50(33/12)
D = 385 ft

PROBLEM 1-5
A line 100 meters-long was paced by a surveyor for five (5) times with the following number of
strides: 71, 72, 68, 70, and 71. Another line was paced five times again with the following results:
634, 631, 632, 635, and 637.
1. Find the pace factor.
2. Determine the distance of the new line.

SOLUTION:
Convert the data first into number of paces, thus: 142, 144, 136, 140, and 142 are the number of
paces respectively.

Compiled by:
Engr. Shennie B. Villanueva 3
Faculty, College of Engineering
 CE 211 – FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
LECTURE 1
1ST SEMESTER, SY 2021-2022

Obtain the pace factor PF,

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝑃𝐹 =
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
100 𝑚
𝑃𝐹 =
142 + 144 + 136 + 140 + 142
𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠
5
𝑷𝑭 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏𝟎 𝒎/𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆

Average number of paces to cover the new line,

634 + 631 + 632 + 635 + 637
= 633.8 𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠
5

Distance of the new line,

633.8 × 0.710 = 𝟒𝟓𝟎. 𝟏𝟒 𝒎

THEORY OF ERRORS IN OBSERVATIONS

Error is the difference between the observed value and the true value of a measurement. In
reality, true values can never be identified thus, all observations are assumed to have errors.
Surveyors are tasked to correct their observations depending on many factors such as the
mechanical equipment used, environmental conditions during the survey, and how careful the
person is during the survey. In this topic, we will discuss about the theory of errors, their
propagation, and how to apply the correction necessary to make the observations more
accurate.

SYSTEMATIC / CUMULATIVE ERRORS

Errors resulting from the observer, the instrument, and the environment. The nature of this type of
error is cumulative meaning it tends to increase in magnitude so long as the conditions remains
constant.

ACCIDENTAL ERRORS / RANDOM ERRORS

These are errors beyond the control of the surveyor. They are probabilistic in nature and often
tends to cancel out. They are still present even after systematic errors and mistakes have been
eliminated.

PRECISION AND ACCURACY

PRECISION refers to the degree of consistency of a group of observations.

ACCURACY refers to the closeness of a measurement to its true value.

MOST PROBABLE VALUE

As discussed, no observation is completely free from error hence, the true value of an
observation must be presented by a value assumed to be close to it. This value is called the most
probable value and it is taken as,
∑𝒙
𝒎𝒑𝒗 =
𝒏

Compiled by:
Engr. Shennie B. Villanueva 4
Faculty, College of Engineering
 CE 211 – FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
LECTURE 1
1ST SEMESTER, SY 2021-2022

ERROR / RESIDUAL / DEVIATION

The difference between an observation x and the most probable value mpv.
𝒗 = 𝒙 − 𝒎𝒑𝒗

STANDARD DEVIATION OF ANY SINGLE OBSERVATION

Also called the root-mean square, is a measure of spread/variation/dispersion/scatter of a
distribution.
∑ 𝒗𝟐
𝑺𝒙 = ±√
𝒏−𝟏

Note: what we use in most Surveying applications is the Sample Standard Deviation represented
by 𝑺𝒙 for most data obtained in surveying are small in size. The number of repetitions performed is
far from the boundary set for it to be considered as a population. The Population Standard
Deviation, represented by 𝝈𝒙 , will not be used here.

STANDARD ERROR OF THE MEAN

Also called the Standard Deviation of the mean, is a method used to estimate the standard
deviation of a sampling distribution. It measures the accuracy with which a sample represents a
population. In statistics, the deviation of the sample mean from the actual mean of the
population is called standard error.
∑ 𝒗𝟐 𝑺𝒙
𝑺𝒙̅ = ±√ =
𝒏 − 𝟏 √𝒏

PROBABLE ERROR
Defines a quantity which when added to or subtracted from the most probable value, defines a
range within there is a 50% chance that the true value of the measured quantity lies inside (or
outside) the limits thus set.

Above is the normal distribution curve. The total area under the curve is 1.0 or 100%. The area
bounded is denser at the center getting less and less dense as it moves away.

If we define a region symmetric about the center that has a total area of 0.50 or 50%, the region
will be bounded by z = -0.6745 and z = +0.6745 which is the basis of the coefficient used in
calculating the probable error.

TRY THIS!

Go to MODE, press 3(STAT), 1(1-VAR), press AC, go to DISTR,

press shift, 1, 5(DISTR), 2(Q()

Then input, Q(-0.6745) + Q(0.6745)

Thus, proving that the area in between z = -0.6745 and

z = +0.6745 is 50%.

Compiled by:
Engr. Shennie B. Villanueva 5
Faculty, College of Engineering
 CE 211 – FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
LECTURE 1
1ST SEMESTER, SY 2021-2022

PROBABLE ERROR OF ANY SINGLE OBSERVATION

𝑷𝑬𝒔 = ±𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟒𝟓 𝑺𝒙

PROBABLE ERROR OF THE MEAN

𝑺𝒙
𝑷𝑬𝒎 = ±𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟒𝟓 = ±𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟒𝟓 𝑺𝒙̅
√𝒏

RELATIVE ERROR / PRECISION

The ratio of the magnitude of the error to the magnitude of the measured value.

𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒓 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝒎𝒑𝒗

INTERRELATIONSHIP OF ERRORS
The following shows the algorithm used when values with known errors are added or multiplied.

SUMMATION OF ERRORS
When measurements of known probable errors are added, the probable error of the sum is
given by
𝑷𝑬𝑺𝑼𝑴 = ±√𝑷𝑬𝟐𝟏 + 𝑷𝑬𝟐𝟐 + 𝑷𝑬𝟐𝟑 +. . . +𝑷𝑬𝟐𝒏

PRODUCT OF ERRORS
When measurements of known probable errors are multiplied, the probable error of the product
is given by
𝑷𝑬𝑷𝑹𝑶𝑫𝑼𝑪𝑻 = ±√(𝑸𝟏 × 𝑷𝑬𝟐 )𝟐 + (𝑸𝟐 × 𝑷𝑬𝟏 )𝟐

Where,
𝑸𝟏 & 𝑸𝟐 = measured quantities
𝑷𝑬𝟏 & 𝑷𝑬𝟐 = probable error corresponding to each measured quantity

RULES FOR WEIGHTED MEASUREMENTS

1. The weight is directly proportional to the number of observations or measurements.
𝑤 = 𝑛𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

2. The weight is inversely proportional to the square of the probable errors.

1
𝑤= 2
𝑃𝐸

3. The weight is inversely proportional to the distance.

1
𝑤=
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

4. The weight is inversely proportional to the number of set-ups.

1
𝑤=
𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑢𝑝𝑠

Compiled by:
Engr. Shennie B. Villanueva 6
Faculty, College of Engineering
 CE 211 – FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
LECTURE 1
1ST SEMESTER, SY 2021-2022

PROBLEM 1-6
Given the following data in measuring a distance of a certain line.

DISTANCE NO. OF MEASUREMENTS

47.23 3
47.21 2
47.19 4
47.27 2
1. Determine the most probable value of the measurements.
2. Calculate the standard deviation of any single observation.
3. Calculate the standard error of the mean.
4. Calculate the probable error of any single observation.
5. Calculate the probable error of the mean.

SOLUTION:
Note that in this problem, the number of measurements corresponds to the frequency.

Data (x) Frequency x· Freq

47.23 3 141.69
47.21 2 94.42
47.19 4 188.76
47.27 2 94.54
n = 11 ∑ 𝑥 = 519.41

Most probable value of the measurements,

∑ 𝒙 519.41
𝒎𝒑𝒗 = =
𝒏 11
𝒎𝒑𝒗 = 𝟒𝟕. 𝟐𝟏𝟗 𝒎

Date (x) Deviation (v) 𝑣2 Freq 𝑣 2 · Freq

47.23 47.230 – 47.219 = +0.011 0.000121 3 0.000363
47.21 47.210 – 47.219 =-0.009 0.000081 2 0.000162
47.19 47.190 – 47.219 = -0.029 0.000841 4 0.003364
47.27 47.270 – 47.219 = +0.051 0.002601 2 0.005202
n = 11 ∑ 𝑣 2 = 0.009091

Standard deviation of any single observation,

∑ 𝒗𝟐 0.009091
𝑺𝒙 = ±√ = ±√ = ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟏𝟓
𝒏−𝟏 𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏

standard error of the mean,

𝑺𝒙 ±0.03015
𝑺𝒙̅ = = = ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟎𝟗
√𝒏 √11

Probable error of any single observation,

𝑷𝑬𝒔 = ±𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟒𝟓 𝑺𝒙

𝑷𝑬𝒔 = ±0.6745 (±0.03015)
𝑷𝑬𝒔 = ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟎𝟑𝟒

Probable error of the mean,

𝑷𝑬𝒎 = ±𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟒𝟓 𝑺𝒙̅

𝑷𝑬𝒎 = ±0.6745 (±0.00909)
𝑷𝑬𝒎 = ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟏𝟑

Compiled by:
Engr. Shennie B. Villanueva 7
Faculty, College of Engineering
 CE 211 – FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
LECTURE 1
1ST SEMESTER, SY 2021-2022

PROBLEM 1-7
From the following tabulated data, several lines of levels are run over different routes from
Benchmark-1 to Benchmark-2.

ROUTE DISTANCE DIFFERENCE IN ELEVATION

A 6 km 25.012 m
B 8 km 24.958 m
C 10 km 25.135 m

Determine the most probable value of the difference in elevation BM1 and BM2.

SOLUTION:
As with the previous problem, we need to determine first the weight of each observation. The
longer the distance of the route, the higher will be the error in the observation. This is due to the
fact that leveling is performed through series of instrument set-ups, so longer routes will require
more set-ups, thus higher risk of errors.

Because of this, we need to set the data in route C as the least reliable (least weight) while the
data in route A as the most reliable (greatest weight). To do that, set the weight of each
observation as the reciprocal of their respective distances.

ROUTE Weight (Freq) Data (x) x· Freq

A 1/6 25.012 m 4.169
B 1/8 24.958 m 3.120
C 1/10 25.135 m 2.514
n = 47/120 ∑ 𝑥 =9.803

∑𝒙 9.803
𝒎𝒑𝒗 = =
𝒏 47/120
𝒎𝒑𝒗 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟎𝟐𝟗 𝒎

PROBLEM 1-8
The following interior interior angles of a triangular traverse were measured with the same
precision.

ANGLE VALUE NO. OF MEASUREMENTS

A 41°30′45′′ 5
B 77°15′15′′ 6
C 60°14′30′′ 2

1. Determine the most probable value of angle A, in sexagesimal form.

2. Determine the most probable value of angle B, in sexagesimal form.
3. Determine the most probable value of angle C, in sexagesimal form.

SOLUTION:
Sum of interior angles of a triangle = 180°
Sum of interior angles of the traverse = 41°30′ 45′′ + 77°15′ 15′′ + 60°14′ 30′′ = 179°00′30′′
Total Error = 180° − 179°00′ 30′′ = 0°59′30′′

The total error must be distributed among the interior angles. The angle measured the most
frequent must have the least error.

Compiled by:
Engr. Shennie B. Villanueva 8
Faculty, College of Engineering
 CE 211 – FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
LECTURE 1
1ST SEMESTER, SY 2021-2022

ANGLE VALUE Weight of Error

A 41°30′45′′ 1/5
B 77°15′15′′ 1/6
C 60°14′30′′ 1/2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 179°00′30′′ 13/15

True angle = Measured Angle ± (Total Error x Relative Weight)

1
A = 41°30′ 45′′ + (0°59′ 30′′ × 5
13 ) = 𝟒𝟏°𝟒𝟒′ 𝟐𝟖. 𝟐𝟓′′
15

1
B = 77°15′ 15′′ + (0°59′ 30′′ × 6
13 ) = 𝟕𝟕°𝟐𝟔′ 𝟒𝟏. 𝟓𝟒′′
15

1
C = 60°14′ 30′′ + (0°59′ 30′′ × 2
13 ) = 𝟔𝟎°𝟒𝟖′ 𝟒𝟗. 𝟔𝟐′′
15

PROBLEM 1-9
The following data are the observed elevation of a point by running a line of levels over four
different routes, in meters.

ROUTE ELEVATION PROBABLE ERROR

A 312.14 ±0.08
B 311.72 ±0.04
C 312.28 ±0.02
D 312.24 ±0.01

1. Using the method of least squares, determine the weight of elevation taken from route D.
2. Determine the corresponding relative weight of the elevation taken from route B if the
relative weight of route A is set as 1.0.
3. Determine the most probable value of the elevation of the observed point.

SOLUTION:
Using the method of least squares, the weight is inversely proportional to the square of each
probable errors.

ROUTE ELEVATION WEIGHT OF ELEVATION

1
A 312.14 = 156.25
0.082
1
B 311.72 = 625
0.042
1
C 312.28 = 2500
0.022
1
D 312.24 = 10000
0.012

This gives the weight of the elevation taken from route D which is 10,000.

We then obtain the relative weight of each elevation by setting the least weight 1.0. To do this,
we divide each weight by 156.25 (the least weight),
DATA WEIGHT RELATIVE WEIGHT
156.25
312.14 156.25 = 1.0
156.25
625
311.72 625 = 4.0
156.25
2500
312.28 2500 = 16.0
156.25
10000
312.24 10000 = 64.0
156.25

Compiled by:
Engr. Shennie B. Villanueva 9
Faculty, College of Engineering
 CE 211 – FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
LECTURE 1
1ST SEMESTER, SY 2021-2022

Hence, the relative weight of the elevation taken from route B is 4.0.

DATA (x) RELATIVE WEIGHT (Freq) x ∙ Freq

312.14 1.0 312.14
311.72 4.0 1246.88
312.28 16.0 4996.48
312.24 64.0 19983.36
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 n = 85 26538.86

∑ 𝒙 26538.86
𝒎𝒑𝒗 = =
𝒏 85
𝒎𝒑𝒗 = 𝟑𝟏𝟐. 𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒎

PROBLEM 1-10
Assume that a line is measured in three sections, with errors in the individual parts equal to
±0.012, ±0.028, ±0.020 feet respectively. Determine the anticipated error of the total length.

SOLUTION:

𝑷𝑬𝑺𝑼𝑴 = ±√𝑷𝑬𝟐𝟏 + 𝑷𝑬𝟐𝟐 + 𝑷𝑬𝟐𝟑 +. . . +𝑷𝑬𝟐𝒏

𝑷𝑬𝑺𝑼𝑴 = ±√(0.012)2 + (0.028)2 + (0.020)2
𝑷𝑬𝑺𝑼𝑴 = ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟔

PROBLEM 1-11
The two sides of a rectangular lot were measured with certain estimated probable errors as
follows: 𝑊 = 324.36 ± 0.075 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿 = 568.15 ± 0.096 𝑚.

1. Determine the probable error in the area of the rectangular lot.

2. Determine the range where there is a 50% chance that the true area may lie.

SOLUTION:
𝑊 = 324.36 ± 0.075 𝑚 𝑄1 = 324.36 𝑃𝐸1 = ±0.075
𝐿 = 568.15 ± 0.096 𝑚 𝑄2 = 568.15 𝑃𝐸2 = ±0.096

𝑷𝑬𝑷𝑹𝑶𝑫𝑼𝑪𝑻 = ±√(𝑸𝟏 × 𝑷𝑬𝟐 )𝟐 + (𝑸𝟐 × 𝑷𝑬𝟏 )𝟐

𝑷𝑬𝑷𝑹𝑶𝑫𝑼𝑪𝑻 = ±√(324.36 × 0.096)2 + (568.15 × 0.075)2
𝑷𝑬𝑷𝑹𝑶𝑫𝑼𝑪𝑻 = ±𝟓𝟐. 𝟕𝟕𝟔 𝒎𝟐

Area of the rectangular lot,

𝐴=324.36 × 568.15
𝐴 = 184,285.134 𝑚2
𝑨 = 𝟏𝟖𝟒, 𝟐𝟖𝟓. 𝟏𝟑𝟒 ± 𝟓𝟐. 𝟕𝟕𝟔 𝒎𝟐

∴ There’s a 50% chance that the true area may lie between 184,232.358 m² and 184,337.910 m².

Compiled by:
Engr. Shennie B. Villanueva 10
Faculty, College of Engineering
 CE 211 – FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
LECTURE 1
1ST SEMESTER, SY 2021-2022

CORRECTIONS TO TAPE MEASUREMENT

Measuring tapes are calibrated at controlled conditions. Surveyors need to consider
environmental factors when measuring distances using these instruments. The errors are relatively
small for short distances but they accumulate and become significant when measuring long
distances.

Consider two fixed points 15 cm apart (true distance). If the conditions during the observation
matches the standard conditions, we should be able to read an exact 15 cm on the tape
measure.

Fixed Points (15 cm apart)

Standard Length Tape

Tape too short, Error = (-) 1 cm

Tape too long, Error = (+) 1 cm

From the figure, it is apparent that when the tape is too short, the error is negative thus it is to be
subtracted from the measured length, consequently when the tape is too long, the error is
positive thus it is to be added.

From this we can establish the following relation,

𝑻𝑫 = 𝑴𝑫 + 𝑬
Where,
TD = True distance
MD = Measured distance
E = Total Error

TEMPERATURE CORRECTION
To be added or subtracted.
𝑪𝑻 = 𝜶(𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 )𝑳𝟏
Where,
𝑪𝑻 = Correction due to temperature
𝜶 = Coefficient of thermal expansion = 11.6 × 10−6 𝑚/𝑚 ∙ 𝐶° (for steel)
𝑻𝟐 = Temperature during the time of observation
𝑻𝟏 = Standard Temperature / Temperature during calibration
𝑳𝟏 = Standard length / Tape length

PULL CORRECTION
To be added or subtracted.
(𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 )(𝑳𝟏 )
𝑪𝑷 =
𝑨𝑬
Where,
𝑪𝑷 = Correction due to pull
𝑷𝟐 = Applied pull
𝑷𝟏 = Standard pull/ Pull applied during calibration
𝑨 = Cross-sectional area of the tape
𝑬 = Modulus of elasticity = 200 GPa (for steel)

Compiled by:
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Faculty, College of Engineering
 CE 211 – FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
LECTURE 1
1ST SEMESTER, SY 2021-2022

SAG CORRECTION
To be subtracted only.
𝒘𝟐 𝑳𝟑𝟏
𝑪𝑺𝑨𝑮 =
𝟐𝟒 𝑷𝟐𝟐
Where,
𝑪𝑺𝑨𝑮 = Correction due to sag
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒
𝒘 = Linear Density =
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒

NORMAL TENSION
The necessary pull to compensate the correction due to sag.

𝑪𝑺𝑨𝑮 = 𝑪𝑷𝑼𝑳𝑳
𝒘𝟐 𝑳𝟑𝟏 (𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 )(𝑳𝟏 )
𝟐
=
𝟐𝟒 𝑷𝟐 𝑨𝑬

SLOPE CORRECTION
To be subtracted only.

𝑆 2 = 𝐻 2 + ℎ2
𝑆 2 = (𝑆 − 𝐶𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 )2 + ℎ2
2
𝑆 2 = 𝑆 2 − 2𝑆𝐶𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 + 𝐶𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 + ℎ2
2
0 = −2𝑆𝐶𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 + ℎ
ℎ2
𝐶𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
2𝑆

Note: 𝐶𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 becomes very small for gentle slopes, making 𝐶𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
2
negligible.

Thus, for gentle slopes, usually less than 20%,

𝒉𝟐
𝑪𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 =
𝟐𝑺

For steep slopes, usually between 20% and 30%,

𝒉𝟐 𝒉𝟒
𝑪𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 = + 𝟑
𝟐𝑺 𝟖𝑺

For every steep slopes, usually greater than 30%, the horizontal distance ‘H’ can be solved using
trigonometry,
𝑯 = 𝑺 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽

And the correction is,

𝑪𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 = 𝑺 − 𝑺 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = 𝑺(𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽)

Where,
𝒉 = difference in elevation between the ends of the measurement.
𝑺 = sloping distance
𝑯 = horizontal distance
𝜽 = angle between 𝑺 and 𝑯

Compiled by:
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Faculty, College of Engineering
 CE 211 – FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
LECTURE 1
1ST SEMESTER, SY 2021-2022

MEAN SEA LEVEL CORRECTION

𝐿′ 𝐿
=
𝑅−ℎ 𝑅
′
𝐿(𝑅 − ℎ)
𝐿 =
𝑅
ℎ
𝐿′ = 𝐿 (1 − )
𝑅

𝑳 = length measured at the specified elevation

𝑳′ = length at mean sea level
𝑹 = distance from the earth’s core to the specified location
𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒉 = distance from the earth’s core to the mean sea level
𝒉 = elevation of the place where the length is measure

Hence, the mean-sea level correction is,

𝑳𝒉
𝑪𝒎𝒔𝒍 =
𝑹

This correction is subtracted if the line measured is above sea level and added if the line is
measured below sea level.
𝐿′ = 𝐿 − 𝐶𝑚𝑠𝑙
𝐿ℎ
𝐿′ = 𝐿 −
𝑅
Length at mean sea level,
𝒉
𝑳′ = 𝑳 (𝟏 − )
𝑹

Note: From the figure it is shown that 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ + ℎ, but since ‘h’ is very small relative to ‘R’, it is a
common practice that we set 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ . 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ is approximately 6,400 kilometers or 6,400,000
meters.

ELONGATION OF A TAPE HANGING VERTICALLY

There are cases where it is required to make measurements in vertical plane, by suspending a
tape vertically. When a tape AB, of length 𝑙, is suspended freely vertically, it will lengthen by a
value of 𝛿𝑠𝑤 due to gravitational pull on the mass of the tape.

Let,
𝑚 = linear density in kg/m 𝑔 = gravitational acceleration
𝑙 = length of the tape 𝐴 = cross-sectional area of the tape
𝑥 = measured distance 𝐸 = modulus of elasticity of the tape
𝑃1 = standard pull
𝑀 = mass of the object attached at the bottom to stabilize the tape (if any)

Compiled by:
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Faculty, College of Engineering
 CE 211 – FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
LECTURE 1
1ST SEMESTER, SY 2021-2022

Weight of tape being carried by each strip dx,

𝑤𝑥 = 𝑚𝑔(𝑙 − 𝑥)

Deformation of the tape due to its self-weight,

𝒘𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝜹𝒔𝒘 =
𝑨𝑬
𝛿𝑆𝑊 𝑥
𝑚𝑔(𝑙 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝛿𝑠𝑤 =∫
0 0 𝐴𝐸
𝑚𝑔 𝑥 𝑥
𝛿𝑠𝑤 = [∫ 𝑙𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 ]
𝐴𝐸 0 0
𝑚𝑔 𝑥2
𝛿𝑠𝑤 = [𝑙𝑥 − ]
𝐴𝐸 2
𝑚𝑔𝑥
𝛿𝑠𝑤 = [2𝐿 − 𝑥]
2𝐴𝐸

If a mass of M is attached at the bottom for stability,

𝑀𝑔𝑥
𝛿𝑀 =
𝐴𝐸

If we take into account the standardization tension factor, a negative extension must be
allowed initially as the tape is not tensioned up to standard pull 𝑃1 . Hence,

𝑃1 𝑥
𝛿𝑃 = −
𝐴𝐸

The total elongation of a tape can be expressed as,

𝛿 = 𝛿𝑠𝑤 + 𝛿𝑀 + 𝛿𝑃
𝑚𝑔𝑥 𝑀𝑔𝑥 𝑃1 𝑥
𝛿= (2𝑙 − 𝑥) + + (− )
2𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸
𝒈𝒙 𝟏 𝑷𝟏
𝜹= [ 𝒎(𝟐𝒍 − 𝒙) + 𝑴 − ]
𝑨𝑬 𝟐 𝒈

PROBLEM 1-12
To measure a base line, a steel tape 30m long, standardized at 15℃ with a pull of 80N was used.
Find the correction per tape length, if the temperature at the time of measurement is 25℃ and
the pull exerted is 150N. Take Young’s modulus 𝐸 = 2 × 105 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 and coefficient of thermal
expansion 𝛼 = 11.6 × 10−6 /℃. Cross sectional area of tape is 8𝑚𝑚2 .

SOLUTION:
Given,
𝑇1 = 15℃ 𝑇2 = 25℃ 𝐸 = 2 × 105 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑃1 = 80𝑁 𝑃2 = 150𝑁 𝐴 = 8𝑚𝑚2
𝐿1 = 30𝑚 𝛼 = 11.6 × 10−6 /℃

Correction due to temperature,

𝑪𝑻 = 𝜶(𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 )𝑳𝟏
𝑪𝑻 = 11.6 × 10−6 /℃(25℃ − 15℃)(30𝑚)
𝑪𝑻 = +𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟒𝟖 𝒎

Compiled by:
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Faculty, College of Engineering
 CE 211 – FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
LECTURE 1
1ST SEMESTER, SY 2021-2022

Correction due to pull,

(𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 )(𝑳𝟏 )
𝑪𝑷 =
𝑨𝑬
(150 − 80)(30)
𝑪𝑷 =
(8)(2 × 105 )
𝑪𝑷 = +𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝒎

Total correction per tape length,

𝑪𝑻𝑶𝑻𝑨𝑳 = 𝑪𝑻 + 𝑪𝑷
𝑪𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟒𝟖 𝒎 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟏𝟐𝟓
𝑪𝑻 = +𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟕𝟗𝟐𝟓 𝒎 (𝒕𝒐𝒐 𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈)

PROBLEM 1-13
A 50-m tape weighs 2 kg. Every time a measurement is performed, the tape is supported at its
end points and at the 8 m mark and 25 m marks. If a pull of 6 kg is applied, determine the
following:
1. Correction due to sag for one tape length.
2. Correct distance between the ends of the tape.
3. The same tape was used to measure a line using the same support locations. If the line
was found to be 150 meters long, determine the correct measurement.

SOLUTION:
Given,
Total weight, W = 2 kg
Linear density, w = 2 kg/50 m = 0.04 kg/m
Applied pull, 𝑃2 = 6 𝑘𝑔

𝒘𝟐 𝑳𝟑𝟏
𝑪𝑺𝑨𝑮 =
𝟐𝟒 𝑷𝟐𝟐
(0.04) (8)2
2
𝑪𝑺𝑨𝑮𝟏 = = 0.0009481 𝑚
24 (6)2
(0.04)2 (17)2
𝑪𝑺𝑨𝑮𝟐 = = 0.0090981 𝑚
24 (6)2
2 2
(0.04) (23)
𝑪𝑺𝑨𝑮𝟑 = = 0.0289352 𝑚
24 (6)2

Total correction due to sag,

𝑪𝑻𝑶𝑻𝑨𝑳 = 0.0009481 𝑚 + 0.0090981 𝑚 + 0.0289352
𝑪𝑻𝑶𝑻𝑨𝑳 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟗 𝒎 (𝑻𝒂𝒑𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒐 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒕)

Correct distance between the tape ends,

𝑻𝑫 = 𝑴𝑫 + 𝑬
𝑻𝑫 = 50 𝑚 + (−0.039 𝑚)
𝑻𝑫 = 𝟒𝟗. 𝟗𝟔𝟏 𝒎

For a measured distance of 150 meters, we need to solve the total error by proportion,
𝑀𝐷
𝐸 = 𝑒( )
𝐿1
Hence,
𝑻𝑫 = 𝑴𝑫 + 𝑬
𝑀𝐷
𝑻𝑫 = 𝑀𝐷 + 𝑒 ( )
𝐿1
150
𝑻𝑫 = 150 + (−0.039) ( )
50
𝑻𝑫 = 𝟏𝟒𝟗. 𝟖𝟖𝟑 𝒎

Compiled by:
Engr. Shennie B. Villanueva 15
Faculty, College of Engineering
 CE 211 – FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
LECTURE 1
1ST SEMESTER, SY 2021-2022

PROBLEM 1-14
Compute the normal tension which will be applied to a tape supported over two supports in
order to make the tape equal to its nominal length when supported only at the end points. The
steel tape in 30-m long and weighs 1.5 kg when supported throughout its length under a
standard pull of 6kg with the modulus of elasticity is 2 × 106 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚2 and area of 0.05 𝑐𝑚2 .

SOLUTION:
Given,
𝐿1 = 30 𝑚 𝐸 = 2 × 106 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚2
𝑊 = 1.5 𝑘𝑔 𝐴 = 0.05 𝑐𝑚2
𝑃1 = 6 𝑘𝑔 𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙/𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

Compute the linear density,

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒
𝑤=
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒
1.5 𝑘𝑔
𝑤=
30 𝑚
𝑤 = 0.05 𝑘𝑔/𝑚

To solve for the normal pull or tension, equate 𝐶𝑆𝐴𝐺 and 𝐶𝑃 ,

𝐶𝑆𝐴𝐺 = 𝐶𝑃𝑈𝐿𝐿
𝑤 2 𝐿31 (𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )(𝐿1 )
=
24𝑃22 𝐴𝐸
(0.05)2 (30)3 (𝑃𝑁 − 6)(30)
=
24(𝑃𝑁 )2 (0.05)(2 × 106 )
𝑷𝑵 = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟐𝟗 𝒌𝒈

PROBLEM 1-15
A distance was measured on a 4% slope and found to be 1456.5 meters. What is the horizontal
distance measured in meters?

SOLUTION:

𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = tan 𝜃 = = 4%
𝑟𝑢𝑛

For very small 𝜃,

sin 𝜃 = tan 𝜃

ℎ = 𝑆 sin 𝜃 = 𝑆 tan 𝜃
ℎ = 1456.5 (4%)
ℎ = 58.26 𝑚

ℎ2
𝐶𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
2𝑠
(58.26)2
𝐶𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
2(1456.5)
𝐶𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 1.1652 𝑚

𝐻 = 𝑆 − 𝐶𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
𝐻 = 1456.5 𝑚 − 1.1652 𝑚
𝑯 = 𝟏𝟒𝟓𝟓. 𝟑𝟑𝟓 𝒎

Compiled by:
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Faculty, College of Engineering
 CE 211 – FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
LECTURE 1
1ST SEMESTER, SY 2021-2022

PROBLEM 1-16
A student was asked to make 345.43 m long line using a 25-m tape that is 0.0021m too long.
What is the required measurement?

SOLUTION:
When laying-out a line, we simply set the given distance as the true distance TD and solve for the
required distance or MD,
𝑻𝑫 = 𝑴𝑫 + 𝑬
𝑀𝐷
𝑇𝐷 = 𝑀𝐷 + 𝑒 ( )
𝐿1
𝑀𝐷
345.43 = 𝑀𝐷 + (+0.0021) ( )
25
𝑴𝑫 = 𝟑𝟒𝟓. 𝟒𝟎𝟏 𝒎

PROBLEM 1-17
The baseline of a triangulation survey was measured to be 1,800 m at a place having an altitude
of 8 km above sea level. Compute the sea level distance of the baseline.

SOLUTION:
Given,

𝐿 = 1800 𝑚
ℎ = 8000 𝑚
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ = 6,400,000 𝑚

𝒉
𝑳′ = 𝑳 (𝟏 − )
𝑹
8000
𝐿′ = 1800 (1 − )
6,400,000
′
𝑳 = 𝟏, 𝟕𝟗𝟕. 𝟕𝟓 𝒎

PROBLEM 1-18
A 1000-m tape is suspended vertically to measure a mine shaft. It is attached with a 5-kg mass at
the bottom for stability. The modulus of elasticity is 200 GPa, the mass of the tape is 0.08 kg/m
and the cross-sectional area of the tape is 10 mm². If the same tape was calibrated as 1000.00 m
at 150 N tension, what is the true length of the mine shaft if its recorded measurement id 999.325
m?

SOLUTION:
Given,

Elongation due to its self-weight,

𝒙
𝒘𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝜹𝒔𝒘 = ∫
𝟎 𝑨𝑬
999.325
(0.08)(9.81)(1000 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝜹𝒔𝒘 =∫
0 (10)(200,000)
𝜹𝒔𝒘 = 0.19620 𝑚

Compiled by:
Engr. Shennie B. Villanueva 17
Faculty, College of Engineering
 CE 211 – FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
LECTURE 1
1ST SEMESTER, SY 2021-2022

Elongation due to M,

𝑴𝒈𝒙
𝜹𝑴 =
𝑨𝑬
(5)(9.81)(999.325)
𝜹𝑴 =
(10)(200,000)
𝜹𝑴 = 0.02451 𝑚

Note that a standard pull 𝑃1 must be applied for the tape to maintain its standard length. To
consider this, a deformation due to this initial shortening must be considered.
𝑷𝟏 𝒙
𝜹𝑷 = −
𝑨𝑬
150(999.325)
𝜹𝑷 = −
10(200,000)
𝜹𝑷 = −0.07495 𝑚 (𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔)

The total elongation can now be expressed as,

𝜹𝑻𝑶𝑻𝑨𝑳 = 𝜹𝑺𝑾 + 𝜹𝑴 + 𝜹𝑷
𝜹𝑻𝑶𝑻𝑨𝑳 = 0.19620 + 0.02451 + (−0.07495)
𝜹𝑻𝑶𝑻𝑨𝑳 = 0.14576 𝑚

The true length of the mine shaft is therefore,

𝑻𝑫 = 𝑴𝑫 + 𝜹𝑻𝑶𝑻𝑨𝑳
𝑻𝑫 = 999.325 + 0.14576
𝑻𝑫 = 𝟗𝟗𝟗. 𝟒𝟕𝟏 𝒎

Compiled by:
Engr. Shennie B. Villanueva 18
Faculty, College of Engineering