V.

GEOLOGIC
STRUCTURES
Geology

Angela C. Alcera

James Robin C. Balading

Rosemyr C. Bocalos

Judy Ann S. Castillo

Kolen S. Datumanong

Christian B. Delos Reyes

Jhyzil Mengote-Orga Enreras

Caitlyn Joy G. Ibay

Medard F. Naga Jr

Vincent F. Toring

BSCE – 2A
5.1 INTRODUCTION

Geology is the study of the solid Earth, the materials which makes up its structure
and surface, and the effects of the natural forces acting upon them. Structural
geology is a branch in geology that studies the processes which results in the
formation of geologic structures. These geological structures are the result of the
powerful tectonic forces that occur within the earth. The folds and faults and other
geologic structures help us make geologic maps and understand the formation of
geologic resources to locate and manage them.

Geologists study the land to understand the geologic history of the region, its
tectonic movements and plate movements in order to determine whether it is
stable enough to support the proposed project which engineers also do to analyze
the suitability and stability of the land for the project to be successful.

OBJECTIVES:

To be able to:

• Determine the geology in the field of civil engineering

• Find out the types of geologic structures.
• Distinguish between strain and stress
• Determine the importance of folds, faults, joints and unconformities to
civil engineering.
• Classify the effects of folds, faults, joints and unconformities to civil
engineering.
5.2 GEOLOGY IN THE FIELD OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Geology is one of the fundamental studies that are important for civil engineering.
Its significance in the field of civil engineering has become a requirement in
university-level civil engineering programs. A good and successful project will
never be done by civil engineers without the help of geology. For a project to be
successful, civil engineers need to understand the land and area where the project
will be held and rest. Geologists are the ones who have a deep understanding of
geology. They study the land to determine if the land is stable enough to support
the proposed project and evaluate whether a certain location is prone to floods
and other water patterns. They also study interactions between the earth's
structures and how earth processes or the earth's surface affect man-made
constructions and human activities.

Engineering geology is the application of geology to engineering studies to ensure

that the geological characteristics of a location are recognized and properly
recorded. To execute a safe and cost-effective design for building projects,
engineering geology also deals with the investigation of the earth's structure in
relation to civil engineering. Engineering geologists contribute geological and
geotechnical advice, study, and design pertaining to human development and a
range of structural forms in the engineering discipline.

Engineering geology studies may be performed during the planning,

environmental impact analysis, civil or structural engineering design, value
engineering, and construction phases of public and private works projects, as well
as during post-construction and forensic phases of projects. It offers a method for
appreciating and identifying geologic elements that might have an impact on the
general effectiveness of engineering structures and projects in the short and long
term. Additionally, it examines how geological phenomena impact us.
5.3 DEFINITION OF GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE
The rocks, which from the earth’s crust, undergo various deformations,
dislocations, and disturbances under the influence of tectonic force.

Analysis of changes in shape of rock bodies (strain) produced by tectonic force

(stress).

Stress: is the force over an area or the force applied to a rock.

Strain: Amount of deformation an object experiences compared to original
shape/size. Change in shape and/or volume induced by stress.

Structural geology is the study of the processes that result in the formation of
geologic structure and how structures affect rocks.
5.4 TYPES OF GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE
1. Primary Structures-
• Those which develop at the time of formation of the rocks.
• It is formed during the sedimentary processes as a result of non-
tectonic causes (stratification or bedding, cross bedding, mud
cracks, and ripple marks).
2. Secondary Structures -
• Which are those that develop in rocks after their formation as a
result of their subjection to external forces.
• Is formed after the sedimentary processes as a result of tectonic
causes (folds, fractures, salt structures and igneous structures).
3. Compound Structures / Unconformities -
• Form by a combination of events some of which are
contemporaneous with the formation of a group of rocks taking part
in these "structures".

5.5 MEASURING OF GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE

1. Strike
• The direction in which on geological structure is present.
• It is the compass orientation of a horizontal line on the surface of
the bed.
2. Dip
• It means slope or inclination, it is expressed as direction and the
angle.
• Measured perpendicular to the strike, otherwise the dip angle that is
measured will be smaller than the actual tilt of the bed.

Strike and dip are use to describe any

other plane features including joints
dykes, sills and even the foliation
planes in metamorphic rocks.
 (left) Strike and (right) Dip

5.6 TYPES OF SECONDARY GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES

A. FOLDS
Folds are bends or flexures in the earth’s crust, and can therefore be
identified by a change in the amount and/or direction of dip of rock units. Most
folds result from the ductile deformation of rocks when subjected to
compressional or shear stress.
Types of Folds
1. Monocline - is a simple bend in the rock layers so that they are no longer
horizontal but are inclined. The oldest rocks are the bottom and the
youngest are at the top.
2. Anticline – fold that arches upward. The rocks dip away from the center
of the fold. The oldest rocks are found at the center of an anticline and the
youngest ones are draped over them at the top of the structure.
3. Syncline – fold that bends downward. The rocks curve down to a center.
The youngest rocks are at the center and the oldest at the outside.

B. FAULTS
A fault is a fracture in the earth’s rock units along which there has been an
observable amount of movement and displacement. Unlike folds which form
predominantly by compressional stress, faults result from either tension,
compression or shear.
Types of Faults
1. Normal Fault – is a fault in which the hanging wall appears to have moved
downwards relative to the footwall (i.e. downthrown block = hanging wall
block).
2. Reverse Fault – is a fault in which the hanging wall appears to have moved
upwards relative to the footwall (i.e. upthrown block = hanging wall
 block). Because the displacement in both normal and reverse faults occurs
along the dip of the fault plane, they may be considered types of dip slip
faults.
3. Thrust Fault – is a reverse fault in which the fault plane is dipping at low
angles (< 45°). Thrusts are very common in mountain chains (fold and
thrust belts) where they are characterized by transporting older rocks on
top of younger ones over long distances.
4. Strike Slip (Wrench, Tear or Trans Current) Fault – is a fault in which
the movement is horizontal along the strike of the fault plane. Strike slip
faults are either dextral or sinistral. A dextral fault (also known as right
lateral fault) is one in which the block on the observer’s right hand side
appears to have moved towards him, whereas a sinistral strike slip fault
(also known as left lateral fault) is one in which the block on the observer’s
left hand side appears to have moved towards him.
5. Oblique Slip Fault – is one in which the displacement was both in the
strike and dip directions (i.e. the displacement has strike and dip
components). Keep in mind that an oblique slip fault can also be either
normal or reverse.

C. JOINTS
Joints are fractures in the rocks characterized by no movement along their
surfaces. Although most joints are secondary structures, some are primary,
forming at the time of formation of the rocks.
Types of Joints
1. Columnar Joints – are joints that form in basalts. When the basaltic lava
cools, it contracts giving rise to hexagonal shaped columns.
2. Mud Cracks – are joints that form in mud. As the mud loses its water, it
contracts and cracks.
3. Secondary Joints – are joints that form in rocks as a result of their
subjection to any form of stress (compression, tension or shear). Joints that
is oriented in one direction approximately parallel to one another make up
a joint set. Rocks often have more than one set of joints with different
orientations, which may intersect, and are then known as joint systems.
4. Sheet Joints – are joints that form in granitic rocks in deserts causing them
to break into thin parallel sheets. These joints form when the rocks expand
as a result of the rapid removal of the overlying rock cover, possibly due
to faulting or quarrying. This process is called exfoliation.
5.7 TYPES OF COMPOUND STRUCTURES/UNCONFORMITIES
1. Angular unconformities-

Are those in which the angle of dip of the younger layers is different from
that of the older ones.
2. Disconformities-

Are those in which the units above and below the unconformity surface are
parallel to each other, but not continuous in deposition or age.
3. Nonconformities-

Are those in which plutonic or metamorphic rocks are covered by

sedimentary or volcanic units.
5.8 APPLICATION OF GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES TO CIVIL
ENGINEERING PROBLEMS
1. Exploration and mining
The quality of natural resources needed to sustain the modern industrialized
and technocratic world is still growing, and exploration for materials from the
Earth continues unabated. The search of fossil fuels geothermal fields, mineral
deposits, building materials, and groundwater reservoirs involves geological
exploration and the assessment of the subsurface structure.

2. Prevention of natural hazards

Natural hazards involving rock movement include earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, mass wasting, sinkholes, meteoritic impacts. A better understanding
of each of these hazards comes from careful investigations of the geological
structures associated with these phenomena.

3. Planning and site investigation

Every new construction operation is likely to cause changes in the existing
condition of the ground surface. Civil Engineering Works involving ground
movement include open excavation, drainage networks, trenches, tunnels,
underground repositories, foundations of dams, Bridges and buildings, Road
cuts, ,Railways, airfields harbors, land reclamation and docs.

4. Regional mapping
The geological survey teams of all Modern Nations are continually engaged
in the preparation of detailed geological maps of their countries. Geological
base maps are necessary for targeted mineral exploration to support Land
management directives, and to facilitate engineering and construction
projects. Useful geological maps include detailed information on the variety
of deformation structures.
SUMMARY/CONCLUSION
• Geology is the study of earth, the materials of which it is made, the
structure of those materials and the effects of the natural forces acting
upon them and is important to civil engineering. Engineering geology
is the application of the geology to engineering study for the purpose of
assuring that the geological factors regarding the location, design,
construction, operation and maintenance of engineering works are
recognized and accounted for. Engineering geologists provide
geological and geotechnical recommendations, analysis, and design
associated with human development and various types of structures.

• Geologic Structure. The rocks, which from the earth’s crust, undergo
various deformations, dislocations and disturbances under the influence
of tectonic forces. The result is the occurrence of different geological
structures like folds, fault, joints and unconformities in rocks. The
details of mode of formation, causes, types, classification, importance
etc of these geological structures from the subject matter of structural
geology. Geologic structures are usually the result of the powerful
tectonic forces that occur within the earth. These forces fold and break
rocks, form deep faults, and build mountains. Repeated applications of
force—the folding of already folded rocks or the faulting and offsetting
of already faulted rocks—can create a very complex geologic picture
that is difficult to interpret.

• Structural geology is the study of the processes that result in the

formation of geologic structures and how these structures affect rocks.
Structural geology deals with a variety of structural features that can
range in size from microscopic (such as traces of earlier folds after
multiple events of deformation have occurred) to large enough to span
the globe (such as mid-oceanic ridges).

• Types of Geologic Structures. Primary Structures, Secondary

Structures, Compound Structures / Unconformities
REFERENCES:
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY AS AN INTERDISCIPLINARY FIELD
https://www.colorado.edu/center/mortenson/sites/default/files/attached-
files/intro2016.pdf
Importance of Geology in Civil engineering – Civil Wale
https://civilwale.com/importance-of-geology-in-civil-engineering/
Structural Geology & Stress
https://www.slideshare.net/MTaherHamdani/lecture-10-structural-geology-
stress
Geologic Structures Defined https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-
guides/geology/geologic-structures/geologic-structures-defined
Application of structural geology to the solution of engineering problems
https://www.slideshare.net/Rkosgaming/application-of-structural-geology-to-
the-solution-of-engineering-problems
Unconformities
https://geol105b.sitehost.iu.edu/images/gaia_chapter_6/unconformities.htm
GEOLOGY/GEOPHYSICS 101 Program 9 EARTH'S STRUCTURES
https://www.honolulu.hawaii.edu/instruct/natsci/geology/brill/gg101/Programs/
program9%20EarthStructures/program9.html