COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

CEGEOL220 GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

ACTIVITY SHEET 4

NAME: Balico, Ednalyn Anne F.

DATE: October 21, 2020 COURSE/YR&SECTION: BSCE II-E23

Answer the following:

1. Research and discuss the different Fold Systems.

- Fold Systems are group of folds with common trends and characteristics. There are four
different Fold Systems: the Plunging Fold System, Anticlinorium, Synclinorium and Fan Fold.

Plunging Fold System is described as a fold whose axis plane is not horizontal or not
parallel to the sea level. The direction in which the axis is inclined nose refers or indicate the
direction of its plunge. On the other hand, in anticline, the plunge is directed towards nose and in
sycline it is directed away from nose.

An anticline is a fold that is convex upward, and a syncline is a fold that is concave upward.
An Anticlinorium is a large anticline on which minor folds are superimposed, and a
synclinorium is a large syncline on which minor folds are superimposed. It is also a large and
complexly structured series of folds in the strata of the earth’s crust that occurs in geosynclines
as a result of major and protracted uplifts in the earth’s crust which are accompanied by folding
processes and characterized by a general uplift in the center.

Synclinorium is a large compound structure of folds of the earth’s crust characterized by a

general depression in the center. This resemble large synclines complicated by smaller folds.
They may reach many hundreds of kilometers in length and dozens of kilometers in width, rarely
being more than 100 km wide. They usually originate in geosynclines as a result of the folding
and the extensive and prolonged subsidence of the earth’s crust. Synclinoria are associated with
anti-clinoria, structures that are opposite in shape.

Lastly, Fan Fold is a fold of strata in which both limbs are overturned, forming a syncline or
anticline. They are usually in simple anticlines, the limbs dip away from one another and in
simple synclines, they dip towards each other. These folds are also fan-shaped.
 2. Discuss the different causes of folds.

The folds arise as a result of the tectonic pressure and stress in the rocks and rather than
fracture, they fold. They are easily visualized by the loss of horizontality of the strata. When
tectonic forces acting on sedimentary rocks are a number of characteristic forms. Sedimentary
rocks are more flexible than the metamorphic, and when the thrust is not intense enough to move
them fold as if they were a piece of paper.

*Folding Due to Tangential Compression

-Lateral Compression is believed to be the main cause for throwing the rocks of the crust
into different types of folds depending upon the types of rocks involved in the process and also
the direction and magnitude of the compression effecting those rocks.

*Flexural Folding
-It is that process of folding in which the competent or stronger rocks are thrown into
folds due to their sliding against each other under the influence of lateral compression. This is
also distinguished as flexural-slip-folding in which the slip o r movement of the strata involved
takes place parallel to the bedding planes of the layers.

*Flowage Folding
-It is the principal process of folding in incompetent or weaker, plastic type of rocks such
as clays, shales, gypsum an d rock salt etc.

*Shear Folding
-In many cases, folding is attributed to shearing stresses rather than simple compression.

*Folding Due to lnsrusions

- Intrusion of magma or even rock salt bodies from beneath has been found to be the
cause of uparching of the overlying strata.

*Folding Due to Differential Compression

-Strata that are being compacted under load in a basin of sedimentation develop, with
passage of time, downward bending especially in the zones of maximum loading.
3. Identity and explain some causes and some effects of faulting.

*Causes of Faulting:
-Faults are generally caused under the influence of stresses acting upon the
rocks of the crust of the earth from within. Any rock on or below the crust may withstand all
the operating stresses up to a limit, which depends upon its cohesive strength and internal
friction. But when that limit is crossed by the operating stresses, the rock yields by fracturing or
breaking along certain directions.
After the development of these fractures, the blocks created along the fractures
suffer sudden displacement along those fractures under the influence of the same (or different)
stresses that caused the fracturing of the rocks at the first place. The displacement may take
place essentially along the fracture surface or in different directions and for different distances
depending upon the magnitude of the operating stresses thus giving rise to different types of
faults.

*Effects of Faulting:
-Changes in the elevation of the ground.
-Omission of some strata where they are normally expected.
-Repetition of some strata in a given direction against the normal order
of superposition.
-Displacements and shifts in the continuity of the same rocks in certain
regions.