GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
formation.
MOIDULE 1
Geotechnical Engineering
- is the technical specialty that deals with soil
and rock as supporting materials for
structures.
- It deals with the various foundation types that
work between the structure and the ground. In
addition, it deals with the stability of soil or
rock slopes whose failure may cause loss of
human lives or damage to property.
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
Geology is a basic science that is concerned with the
study of the history of the Earth, the rocks of which it is
composed and the changes that it has undergone or is
undergoing. In short, geology is the science of rocks and
earth processes.
Engineering geology deals with the application of
geologic fundamentals to engineering. One obvious
example of the application of engineering geology is the
mapping of active seismic faults that are to be avoided
when making plans for human habitat development,
roadway construction, or power plant construction.
Soils are formed from rock as it is acted upon by
physical, chemical, and biological forces. The extent to
which a parent rock changes to a soil is a function of the
rate and overall time of the prevailing reactions and
processes. Depending on the viewpoint, there are three
basic definitions of soil namely:
(a) from an engineering viewpoint, soil is any earthy
material that can be removed with a spade, shovel or
bulldozer and is the product of natural weathering. This
soil includes gravel and sand deposits;
(b) from a geological viewpoint, soil may be
considered as the superficial unconsolidated mantle of
disintegrated and decomposed rock material; and
(c) from a pedological (soil science) viewpoint, soil
is the weathered transformation product of the
outermost layer of the solid crust, differentiated into
horizons varying in type and amounts of mineral and
organic constituents, usually unconsolidated and of
various depths.
igneous rocks have solidified from a molten or partly
molten siliceous solution.
This molten solution is called magma.
When magma cools and solidifies in direct contact with
the atmosphere it is referred to as extrusive, while
cooling in the subsurface leads to an intrusive
Sedimentary rocks are naturally consolidated or
unconsolidated transported materials.
Metamorphic rocks form as a result of subjecting
igneous or sedimentary rocks to elevated temperatures
and pressures.
Igneous rocks comprise about 80% and metamorphic
rocks about 15% of the terrestrial and sub-oceanic
earth *crust, leaving about 5% for the sedimentary
rocks.
Rocks serve as parent material for natural soil
formation. They are also used as ground foundation
support and the crushed rock fragments are used as
major construction materials. In general, rock
classification may be made on the basis of:
(a) geological origin and genesis,
(b) rock mass strength, and
(c) weathering and environmental factors
Structural Geology is the study of the ways in which
rocks or sediments are arranged and deformed on the
earth. It involves all three rock types: igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic. We will focus on
sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks are deposited in
horizontal layers.
Any rock unit that is recognizable and mappable in the
field is called a formation. Formations can include
different rock types (so long as the entire package can
be distinguished from adjacent formations).
Sometimes formations are further subdivided into
members. The boundaries between formations are
called contacts. These boundaries can be depositional,
erosional, or structural.
Generally, geologists can only see the rocks that are at
the earth's surface. This two-dimensional view of rock
distribution is called the map view.
A geologic cross-section is a view of a vertical slice of
the earth, like you might see at a road cut or a stream
cut.
A block diagram is a combination of those two
representations and gives a 3-D view of formations and
contacts. It looks like a block, and shows a map view on
top, and a cross-sectional view on each of its visible
sides.
A cross-sectional view can reveal details of a structure
not visible in map view, such as cross bedding.

There are three types of unconformities:
Disconformity: Sedimentary layer deposited over
eroded horizontal sedimentary layer
Angular unconformity: Sedimentary layer deposited
over eroded angular (tilted or folded) rock
Nonconformity: Sedimentary layer deposited over
eroded igneous or metamorphic rock
These discontinuities can occur in several sets and are
approximately parallel within a specific set. a series of
discontinuities that have the same geologic origin,
orientation, spacing and mechanical characteristics.
The discontinuities make the rock mass anisotropic.
Anisotropic is a material whose physical, mechanical
property, etc.,
The plane of unconformity or simply the
unconformity is the surface/ plane are not all the same
in each direction.
of separation between two series of rock
beds/geological formations that belong to two different
geologic ages and they are, in most cases, different in
their geologic structure.
An unconformity occurs when there is erosion of a layer
or layers of deposited rock followed by the deposition of
new sedimentary rock on top. It is called an
unconformity because the ages of the layers of rock that
are abutting each other are discontinuous at the
unconformity. An expected age of layer or layers of rock
is/are missing due to the erosion; and, some period in
geologic time is not represented
SOIL MECHANICS
Most people would not consider soil as an engineering
material, but it is, because most constructed structures
are situated on it by necessity. Without due
consideration of soil’s bearing capacity under various
circumstances, a structure built over it may sink, tilt, or
outright turn over.
Soil mechanics is a branch of mechanics that studies
the mechanical properties of various types of soil and its
strength at different moisture-content levels. It provides
the scientific base upon which design formulas and
codes are developed for everyday engineering design
practice.
Karl von Terzaghi, the Father of Modern Soil
Mechanics, writing in 1951 (Bjerrum, et. al., 1960), on
'The Influence of Modern Soil Studies on the Design and
Construction of Foundations' commented on
foundations as follows:
“Foundations can appropriately be described as a
necessary evil. If a building is to be constructed on an
outcrop of sound rock, no foundation is required. Hence,
in contrast to the building itself which satisfies specific
needs, appeals to the aesthetic sense, and fills its
matters with pride, the foundations merely serve as a
remedy for the deficiencies of whatever whimsical
nature has provided for the support of the structure at
the site which has been selected. On account of the fact
that there is no glory attached to the foundations, and
that the sources of success or failures are hidden deep
in the ground, building foundations have always been
treated as step children; and their acts of revenge for
the lack of attention can be very embarrassing.”
Soil Permeability
- A material is permeable if it contains
continuous voids. All materials such as rocks,
concrete, soils etc. are permeable. The flow of
water through all of them obeys approximately
the same laws. Hence, the difference between
the flow of water through rock or concrete is
one of degree. The permeability of soils has a
decisive effect on the stability of foundations,
seepage loss through embankments of
reservoirs, drainage of subgrades, excavation
of open cuts in water bearing sand, rate of flow
of water into wells and many others.
Soil Phase Relationship
- Soil is not a coherent solid material like steel
and concrete but is a particulate material. Soil
mass is generally a three-phase system. It
consists of solid particles, liquid and gas. For
all practical purposes, the liquid may be
considered to be water (although in some
cases, the water may contain some dissolved
salts) and the gas as air. The phase system may
be expressed in SI units either in terms of
mass-volume or weight-volume relationships.
The inter relationships of the different phases
are important since they help to define the
condition or the physical make-up of the soil.
Seepage
The interaction between soils and percolating water has
an important influence on:
- the design of foundations and earth slopes,
 - the quantity of water that will be lost by
percolation through a dam or its subsoil.
Foundation failures due to 'piping' are quite common.
Piping is a phenomenon by which the soil on the
downstream sides of some hydraulic structures get
lifted up due to excess pressure of water.
The pressure that is exerted on the soil due to the
seepage of water is called the seepage force or
pressure.
Stress Distribution in Soil Due to Surface Loads
Estimation of vertical stresses at any point in a soil-
mass due to external vertical loadings are of great
significance in the prediction of settlements of
buildings, bridges, embankments and many other
structures. Equations have been developed to compute
stresses at any point in a soil mass on the basis of the
theory of elasticity.
When a load is applied to the soil surface, it increases
the vertical stresses within the soil mass. The increased
stresses are greatest directly under the loaded area but
extend indefinitely in all directions. Many formulas
based on the theory of elasticity have been used to
compute stresses in soils. They are all similar and differ
only in the assumptions made to represent the elastic
conditions of the soil mass.
The formulas that are most widely used are the
Boussinesq, and Westergaard formulas. These formulas
were first developed for point loads acting at the
surface. These formulas have been integrated to give
stresses below uniform strip loads and rectangular
loads.
The extent of the elastic layer below the surface
loadings may be any one of the following:
1. Infinite in the vertical and horizontal
directions.
2. Limited thickness in the vertical direction
underlain with a rough rigid base such as a
rocky bed.
Soil Exploration
The stability of the foundation of a building, a bridge, an
embankment or any other structure built on soil
depends on the strength and compressibility
characteristics of the subsoil. The field and laboratory
investigations required to obtain the essential
information on the subsoil is called Soil Exploration or
Soil Investigation. Soil exploration happens to be one
of the most important parts of Foundation Engineering
and at the same time the most neglected part of it.
Soil exploration is a must in the present age for the
design of foundations of any project. The extent of the
exploration depends upon the magnitude and
importance of the project. Projects such as buildings,
power plants, fertilizer plants, bridges etc., are localized
in areal extent. The area occupied by such projects may
vary from a few square meters to many square
kilometers.
Compressibility and Consolidation
Structures are built on soils. They transfer loads to the
subsoil through the foundations. The effect of the loads
is felt by the soil normally up to a depth of about two to
three times the width of the foundation. The soil within
this depth gets compressed due to the imposed stresses.
The compression of the soil mass leads to the decrease
in the volume of the mass which results in the
settlement of the structure.
The compressibility characteristics of a soil mass might
be due to any or a combination of the following factors:
- Compression of the solid matter.
- Compression of water and air within the voids.
- Escape of water and air from the voids.
When a saturated clay-water system is subjected to an
external pressure, the pressure applied is initially taken
by the water in the pores resulting thereby in an excess
pore water pressure. If drainage is permitted, the
resulting hydraulic gradients initiate a flow of water out
of the clay mass and the mass begins to compress.
A portion of the applied stress is transferred to the soil
skeleton, which in turn causes a reduction in the excess
pore pressure.
This process, involving a gradual compression occurring
simultaneously with a flow of water out of the mass and
with a gradual transfer of the applied pressure from the
pore water to the mineral skeleton is called
consolidation.
The process opposite to consolidation is called
swelling, which involves an increase in the water
content due to an increase in the volume of the voids.
Causes of Failure of Slopes: The important factors that
cause instability in a slope and lead to failure are
1. Gravitational force
2. Force due to seepage water
3. Erosion of the surface of slopes due to flowing water
4. The sudden lowering of water adjacent to a slope
5. Forces due to earthquakes
Slopes of earth are of two types
Natural slopes
Manmade slopes
Natural slopes are those that exist in nature and are
formed by natural causes. Such slopes exist in hilly
areas. The sides of cuttings, the slopes of embankments
constructed for roads, railway lines, canals etc. and the
slopes of earth dams constructed for storing water are
examples of manmade slopes. The slopes whether
natural or artificial may be
The term infinite slope is used to designate a constant
slope of infinite extent. The long slope of the face of a
mountain is an example of this type, whereas finite
slopes are limited in extent. The slopes of embankments
and earth dams are examples of finite slopes. The slope
length depends on the height of the dam or
embankment.
Slope stability is an extremely important
consideration in the design and construction of earth
dams. The stability of a natural slope is also important.
The results of a slope failure can often be catastrophic,
involving the loss of considerable property and many
lives.
Lateral Earth Pressure
Structures that are built to retain vertical or nearly
vertical earth banks or any other material are called
retaining walls. Retaining walls may be constructed of
masonry or sheet piles.
Whatever may be the type of wall, all the walls listed
above have to withstand lateral pressures either from
earth or any other material on their faces. The pressures
acting on the walls try to move the walls from their
position. The walls should be so designed as to keep
them stable in their position. Gravity walls resist
movement because of their heavy sections. They are
built of mass concrete or stone or brick masonry. No
reinforcement is required in these walls.
In all these cases, the backfill tries to move the wall from
its position. The movement of the wall is partly resisted
by the wall itself and partly by soil in front of the wall.
Sheet pile walls are more flexible than the other types.
ROCK MECHANICS
The earth materials that constitute relatively the thin
outer shell, called crust, of the Earth are arbitrarily
categorized by civil engineers as soils and rocks. These
materials are made up of small crystalline units known
as minerals. A mineral is basically a naturally occurring
inorganic substance composed of one or more elements
with a unique chemical composition, unique
arrangement of elements (crystalline structure) and
distinctive physical properties.
The rock is a hard, compact and naturally occurring
earth material composed of one or more minerals and is
permanent and durable for engineering applications.
Rocks generally require blasting and machinery for
their excavation. It should be noted that geologists
consider engineering soils as unconsolidated rock
materials composed of one or more minerals.
Rock Mechanics is the subject concerned with the
study of the response of rock to an applied disturbance
caused by natural or engineering processes.
Rock Engineering deals with the engineering
applications of the basic principles and the information
available in the subjects of engineering geology and rock
mechanics in an economic way. All these subjects are
closely concerned with several engineering disciplines
such as civil, mining, petroleum and geological
engineering
Orientation of Planes and Lines
The term rock mass applies to a large extent of rock,
from several meters to few kilometers, which can
include many discontinuities of different forms. The
presence of discontinuities such as faults, joints and
bedding planes in the rock mass influences its
engineering behavior.
In rock mechanics and geology, we deal with
discontinuities, which include bedding planes, faults
and joints or the orientation (or attitude) of a plane.
It is very important to define the orientation of these
planes without any ambiguity.
Some of the common terms associated with the
orientation of a plane are dip (ψ), dip direction (α)
and strike. Dip, also known as the true dip, is the
steepest inclination of the plane to horizontal.
Apparent dip is the inclination of any arbitrary line on
the plane to horizontal, which is always less than the
true dip. When a marble is rolled down the plane, it
follows the line of maximum inclination, defining the
true dip.
Strike is the trace (or intersection) of the dipping plane
with the horizontal reference plane. It is also the
orientation of the horizontal line drawn on the dipping
plane. It is perpendicular to the dip direction.
FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
A foundation is the interface between a superstructure
and its supporting soil. A common type of foundation
for single-family homes consists of strip footings placed
under loadbearing basement walls. Another common
practice is to use a concrete slab to spread the weight of
the building over the soil underneath.

Foundation Engineering is the study of different types

of foundation and their proper applications. It is the
application and practice of the fundamental principles
of soil mechanics and rock mechanics (i.e., geotechnical
engineering) in the design of foundations of various
structures. These foundations include those of columns
and walls of buildings, bridge abutments, embankments,
and others.