CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

SOIL MECHANICS I

DEFINITION

Terzaghi define Soil Mechanics as follows;

The application of the laws of mechanics and hydraulics to engineering problems dealing with sediments
and other unconsolidated accumulations of solid particles produced by mechanical and chemical
disintegration of the rocks regardless of whether or not they contain an admixture of organic
constituents.

The term Soil Mechanics is now accepted quite generally to designate that discipline of the engineering
science that deals with the engineering properties and the behavior of soil as a structural material.

ORIGIN OF SOIL

The earth’s crust is composed of soil and rock. Rock can be defined as the natural aggregate of minerals
connected by a strong bonding or attractive forces. Soil may be defined as the unconsolidated material
sediments and deposits of solid particles that have resolved from disintegration of rocks.

In general sense of engineering, soil is the un-cemented aggregate (or granular material) of mineral
grains and decayed organic matter along with the liquid and gas that occupy the spaces between the
solid particles.

All man-made structures except those that float or fly are supported by natural soil or rock deposits. As
earlier noted, Soil Mechanics is the study of both solid and fluid mechanical characteristics of soil.

SOLID MECHANICS ISSUES

Here, we shall be concerned with;

 How much soil will deform when loaded?

 When loads are applied, at what rate does soil deform?
 How much load can we apply to soil before it fails?
 How does soil fail?

FLUID MECHANICS ISSUES

 How does water flow through soil? (how fast)

 How can fluid flow through the soil cause its failure?

Why do us as Civil Engineers Study Soil Mechanics

In brief, all branches of Civil Engineering require an understanding of the soil and how it behaves,
namely;

a) Structural Engineering
b) Transportation Engineering
c) Environmental Engineering
CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

d) Hydraulics Engineering

a) Structural Engineering

Virtually, all Civil Engineering type of structures come into contact with soil via their foundations, (i.e.
bridges, offices and residential buildings, chimney towers, offshore drilling rigs etc.)

The knowledge of Soil Mechanics is essential for the assurance that the structures are properly
supported. This can avert structural damages, loss of lives and financial losses.

b) Transportation Engineering

Road beds are often built of soil, and the roadways themselves can often pass through mountains, cuts
and fills.

Understanding Soil Mechanics can preclude problems with pavement pot-holing and cracking, as well as
embankment and slope failure that can wipe out the entire roadways.

c) Environmental Engineering

This covers monitoring of liquid toxins or pollutants that are often released, spilled inadvertently onto or
into the soil and land filling using the solid wastes.

The aspects to be addressed are;

 Whether the pollutants remain in place or are possibly transported through the soil, if so, at
what rate?
 Can anything be done to clean up the pollution? (Like providing dykes barriers and other
remedial measures.)
d) Hydraulics Engineering

The design of the earth flow-retention structures such as dams, dykes, storage ponds, levers etc. require
a knowledge of how water is transported through soil.

It also requires that we know how water flowing through the soil can cause failure by mechanisms such
as boiling, piping, erosion and scouring.
CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

The behavior of a structure

depends on

Properties of the soil on which the

structure rests.

Properties of the rocks from which

they are formed.
Civil Engineers must study the properties of soil, such as its;

 Origin
 Grain size distribution
 Ability to drain water
 Strength of the soil
 Mechanical behavior of the soil when they are sheared or compressed or when water flow
through it.

FORMATION AND STRUCTURE OF SOILS

The rock that forms the earth’s surface are classified as to their origin as;

i. Igneous rocks
ii. Sedimentary rocks
iii. Metamorphic rocks

Igneous rocks

Rocks formed directly from the molten state of magma. If the molten rock cools very slowly, the
different materials segregate into large crystals forming a coarse-grained or granular structure. An
example is granite. This consists of quarts and feldspars. Due to the high silica content, the rocks are
classified as acidic.

Another example is GABBRO – (formed from magnesium materials). These rock contain, iron,
magnesium, calcium or sodium with a little silica. These rocks are classified as Basic Igneous Rocks.

When the solution of minerals is cooled more rapidly, tiny crystals are formed in a vitreous matrix.
Examples are FELCITE – extremely fine grained and BASALT when formed with Ferro-magnesium
materials.

When the solution of magma is cooled very rapidly, the minerals do not separate into crystals but
solidify as amorphous volcanic SCORIA, PUMICE and OBSIDIAN.

Sedimentary Rocks
CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

They are formed from accumulated deposits of soil particles or remains of certain organisms that have
become hardened by pressure or cemented by minerals. Due to the abundant availability of cementing
minerals such as silica, carbonate and iron oxide. Examples are, limestone, sandstone, conglomerate,
shale, breccia and coral stone.

Metamorphic Rocks

Results when any type of existing rock is subjected to metamorphism that in the change is brought
about by plastic flow so that the original rock structure and mineral compositions are changed.

Plastic flow refers to slow viscous movement and rearrangement within the rock mass due to external
forces. For example;

 Limestone transforms into marble.

 Shale transforms into slate
 Granite transforms into gneiss
 Sandstone transforms into quartzite.

ROCKS

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY AND METAMORPHIC

WEATHERING

PHYSICAL/ CHEMICAL

TRANSPORTED SOIL

BOULDERS, GRAVEL, SAND, SILT AND CLAY

Rocks whose chief mineral is quartz with high silica content, decomposes to predominantly sandy or
gravely soil with little clay. (Acidic rocks are light-colored.)

Basic rocks decompose to the fine-textured silt and clay soils. The clays are not small fragments of the
original material that existed in the parent rock. They are as a result of primary rock minerals
decomposing to form secondary minerals.

Soils can be grouped into two broad categories, depending on the method of deposition;

i. Residual – Formed from weathering of rocks and remain at the location of their origin.
CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

ii. Transported – These are materials that have been removed from their place of origin by
agencies like gravity, water, glacier, etc. either singularly or in combination.

The characteristics of residual soil are dependent on;

 Climatic conditions – humidity, temperature, rainfall.

 Natural drainage pattern.
 Form and extent of vegetation cover.

A warm and humid climate is favorable to the formation of residual soils and nature of different depths
below ground surface and constantly changes with time.

Transferred soils are classified according to the transporting agency and method of deposition;

 Alluvial soil – Transported in running water or rivers.

 Lacustrine – Deposited in quite lake.
 Marine – Deposited in the sea water.
 Aeolian – transported by wind.
 Glacial – Transported by ice (glaciation).
 Collavial – Deposited through action of landslides and slope wash.

Examples of Transported Soils

i. LOESS – Wind-blown deposit with very uniform fine silt particles (possess slight cementation
properties).
ii. TUFF – Fine-grained, slightly cemented action (by wind/ water).
iii. GLACIAL-TILL – Heterogeneous mixture of boulders, gravel, sand, silt and clay, e.g. hilly areas.
iv. VALUED-CLAY – Alternative layers of silt and clay deposited in fresh water/ glacial lakes.
v. MARL – Very fine-grained soil of marine origin (impermeable and greenish in water).
vi. PEAT – A highly volcanic soil consisting almost entirely of vegetable matter in varying stages of
decomposition, fibrous brown to black in color and highly compressive.

MAJOR SOIL DEPOSITS

i. Expansive – High shrink-swell characteristic (attributed to the mineral color) – Black; (presence
of iron magnesium and titanium).
ii. Marine – Very soft and may contain organic matter.
iii. Laterite – Red in color due to iron (II) oxide (laterisation in leaching of silica - due to intense
chemical weathering).
iv. Alluvial – Alternate layers of sand, silt and clay.
v. Desert - Wind-blown, uniformly graded sand.
vi. Glacial – Boulders clay with all ranges of particle sizes.

According to Karl Terzaghi (1883 – 1963)

“Unfortunately soils are made by nature and not by man and the products are always complex. As soon
as we pass from steel and concrete to earth, the importance of theory ceases to exist. Natural soil is
never uniform, its properties change from point to point while our knowledge of its properties are
limited to those few spots at which the samples have been collected. In Soil Mechanics, the accuracy of
CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

computed results never exceeds that of a crude estimate and the principal function of theory consists of
teaching on what and how to observe in the field.”

The destructive process in the formation of soil from rock may be either physical or chemical.

The physical process may be erosion by the action of wind, water or glaciers, or disintegration caused by
alternate freezing and thawing in cracks in the rock. The resultant soil particles retain the same
composition as that of the parent rock. Particles of this type are described as being of ‘bulky’ form and
their shape can be indicated by terms such as angular, rounded, flat and elongated. The particles occur
in a wide range of sizes, from boulders down to the fine rock flour formed by the grinding action of
glaciers.

The chemical process results in changes in the mineral form of the parent rock due to the action of
water (especially if it contains traces of acid or alkali), oxygen and carbon dioxide. Chemical weathering
results in the formation of groups of crystalline particles of colloidal size (<0:002 mm) known as clay
minerals. The clay mineral kaolinite, for example, is formed by the breakdown of feldspar by the action
of water and carbon dioxide.
Most clay mineral particles are of ‘plate-like’ form having a high specific surface (i.e. a high surface area
to mass ratio) with the result that their structure is influenced significantly by surface forces. Long
‘needle-shaped’ particles can also occur but are comparatively rare.
The basic structural units of most clay minerals are a silicon–oxygen tetrahedron and an aluminium–
hydroxyl octahedron, as illustrated in Figure 1.1 (a). There are valency imbalances in both units, resulting
in net negative charges. The basic units, therefore, do not exist in isolation but combine to form sheet
structures. The tetrahedral units combine by the sharing of oxygen ions to form a silica sheet. The
octahedral units combine through shared hydroxyl ions to form a gibbsite sheet. The silica sheet retains
a net negative charge but the gibbsite sheet is electrically neutral. Silicon and aluminium may be
partially replaced by other elements, this being known as isomorphous substitution, resulting in further
charge imbalance. The sheet structures are represented symbolically as shown in fig 1.1 (b).

Fig. 1.1: Clay minerals: Basic units

CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

Layer structures then form by the bonding of a silica sheet with either one or two gibbsite sheets. Clay
mineral particles consist of stacks of these layers, with different forms of bonding between the layers.
The structures of the principal clay minerals are represented in Figure 1.2.
Kaolinite consists of a structure based on a single sheet of silica combined with a single sheet of
gibbsite. There is very limited isomorphous substitution. The combined silica–gibbsite sheets are held
together relatively strongly by hydrogen bonding. A kaolinite particle may consist of over 100 stacks.

Illite has a basic structure consisting of a sheet of gibbsite between and combined with two sheets of
silica. In the silica sheet there is partial substitution of silicon by aluminium. The combined sheets are
linked together by relatively weak bonding due to non-exchangeable potassium ions held between
them.

Montmorillonite has the same basic structure as illite. In the gibbsite sheet there is partial substitution
of aluminium by magnesium and iron, and in the silica sheet there is again partial substitution of silicon
by aluminium. The space between the combined sheets is occupied by water molecules and
exchangeable cations other than potassium, resulting in a very weak bond. Considerable swelling of
montmorillonite can occur due to additional water being adsorbed between the combined sheets.

Fig. 1.2. Clay minerals: (a)kaolinite, (b) Illite, (c) Montmorillonite

SOIL PHASE RELATIONSHIP

INTRODUCTION

Soil mass is generally a three phase system. It consist of soil particles, liquid and gas. For all practical
purposes, the liquid may be considered to be water (although in some cases the water may contain
some dissolved salts) and the gas as air. The phase system may be expressed in SI units either in terms
of mass-volume or weight-volume relationships. The inter-relationship of the different phases are
important since they help to define the condition or the physical make-up of the soil.

MASS-VOLUME RELATIONSHIP

In SI units, the mass (M) is normally expressed in Kg and the density in Kg/m 3. Sometimes, the mass and
densities are also expressed in gm and gm/cm3 or mg and mg/m3 respectively. The density of water ρ
at 4℃ is exactly 1.00gm/cm3 = (1000Kg/m3 = 1mg/m3). Since the variation in density is relatively small
CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

over the range of temperature encountered in ordinary engineering practice, the density of water ρ at
other temperatures may be taken as at 4℃. The volume is expressed as either in cm3 or m3.

WEIGHT-VOLUME RELATIONSHIP

Unit weight or weight per unit volume is still the common measurement in Geotechnical Engineering
practice. The density ρ may be converted to unit weight γ using the relationship;

γ = ρg .................. (3.1a)

The standard value of g is 9.807 m/s2 (9.81 m/s2 for all practical purposes).

CONVERSION OF DENSITY OF WATER

Conversion of ρ to γ ; from equation 3.1a:

γ = ρ g ............. (3.1b)

Substituting the values of density and gravitational pull in the equation, we have;

.
γ = …….. (3.1c)

= 9810 Kg/m /s

Since 1N = 1 Kgm/s2, we have;

γ = 9810 N/m or 9.81 KN/m …………………. (3.1d)

In general, the unit weight of soil mass may be obtained from the equation;

γ = 9.81ρ KN/m ……………….. (3.1e)

Where ρ is in gm/cm3.

For example, if a soil mass has a dry density, ρ = 1.7g/cm the dry unit weight of soil;

γ = 9.81 × 1.7

γ = 16.68 KN/m

MASS-VOLUME RELATIONSHIP

The relationship for both mass-volume and weight-volume are as shown in the diagram below;
CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

A block of unit cross-sectional area is considered, the volumes of the different constituents are shown
on the right side and the corresponding mass/ weight on the left and right sides of the block. The mass/
weight of air may be considered as zero.

VOLUME RATIOS

There are three volumetric ratios that are very useful in Geotechnical Engineering and they can be
determined directly from the phase diagram.

VOID RATIO

This is defined as;

e= .................. (3.2)

V − The volume of voids

V − The volume of solids

The void ratio is always expressed as a decimal.

CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

POROSITY

This is defined as;

n= × 100% ... ………….. (3.3)

V − The total volume of soil sample.

Porosity is always expressed as a percentage.

SATURATION

The degree of saturation is defined as;

s= × 100% ... ………….. (3.4)

V − The volume of water.

Saturation is always expressed as a percentage of the total volume of voids.

When s = 0%, the soil is completely dry and when s = 100%, the soil is fully saturated, otherwise it is
partially saturated.

AIR-VOID RATIO

This is expressed as;

A = % = n(1 − s)100 ……………… (3.4a)

AIR CONTENT

This is expressed as;

A = % = (1 − s)100 ……………… (3.4b)

Where s is expressed as a fraction.

WATER CONTENT

This is defined as the ratio of the mas of water in the voids to the mass of solids.

w= × 100 …………………. (3.5)

The water content is usually expressed as a percentage. It can range from zero (dry soil) to several
hundred percent. The natural water content for most soils is well under 100%, but for soils of volcanic
origin (e.g. bentonite) it can range up to 500% or more.
CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

DENSITY

This is another useful concept in Geotechnical Engineering which is expressed as mas per unit volume.
There are several commonly used densities. These may be defined as total (or bulk) as moist density ρ ;
dry density ρ ; saturated density ρ ; the density of particles (solid density) ρ and density of water ρ .
Each of these densities are defined as follows with respect to figure 3.1.

Total density ρ = …………… (3.6)

Dry density ρ = ………………… (3.7)

Saturated density ρ = for s = 100% ………………. (3.8)

Density of solids ρ = ………………………… (3.9)

Density of water ρ = ………………………….. (3.10)

SPECIFIC GRAVITY

This is defined as the ratio of a substance’s mass in air to the mass of an equal amount of volume of
water at 4℃. The specific gravity for a mass of soil (including air, water and solids) is termed as mass
specific gravity (Gm). It is expressed as;

G = = …………………. (3.11)

The specific gravity of solids (G) (excluding air and water) is expressed as;

G= = ……………… (3.12)

INTER-RELATIONSHIP OF DIFFERENT PARAMETERS

We can establish relationships between the different parameters defined by the previous equations.
CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

In order to develop the relationships, Fig 3.2 will be used.

Since the sectional area perpendicular to the plane of the paper is assumed as unit, the heights of the
blocks will represent volumes. The volume of the solids may therefore be represented as V s = 1.

When soil is fully saturated, the voids are completely filled with water.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN e AND n (Fig. 3.2)

V V
e= = =V
V 1

V e
n= =
V 1+e

Or

e= .......... ……….. (3.13)

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN e, G and S.

Case 1: When partially saturated (s<100%);

CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

V V
s= =
V e

But;

M wM wGV ρ
V = = =
ρ ρ ρ

= wG

Therefore;

s= or e = ……………….. (3.14a)

Case 2: When saturated (s=100 %)

From equation 3.14a, we have; for s = 1:

e = wG ................. ….. (3.14b)

V
n=
V

n(V + V ) = V

1
n 1+ =1
e

n(e + 1) = e

e
n=
e+1

Or

ne + n = e

n = e − ne

n = e(1 − n)

n
e=
1−n

RELATONSHIP BETWEEN DENSITY AND OTHER PARAMETERS

The density of soil can be expressed in terms of other parameters for the following cases of soil;

1. Partially saturated (s<100 %)

CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

2. Fully saturated (s = 100 %)

3. Fully dry (s = 0%)
4. Submerged

Case 1: For a partially saturated soil;

( ) ( )
ρ = = = ……………….. (3.15)

From the previous equation 3.14;

s
w=e
G
Substituting for w in the above equation 3.15;
( )
ρ = ....... ………….. (3.16)

Case 2: For a fully saturated soil;

From the above equation 3.16,

( )
ρ =ρ = .………………….. (3.17)

Case 3: For a fully dry soil;

From equation 3.16 above;

ρ =ρ = ..... ………………… (3.18)

Case 4: When the soil is submerged;

If the soil is submerged, its density ρ is equal to the density of the saturated soil reduced by the density
of water. That is:
( )
ρ =ρ −ρ =ρ −ρ = ……………………. (3.19)

RELATIVE DENSITY (Density Index, ID)

The looseness or denseness of sandy soil can be expressed numerically by index density defined by the
equation below;

I = × 100 ……………. (3.20)

In which;

e − void ratio of sand in its loosest state having a dry density of ρ

e − void ratio in its densest statehaving a dry density of ρ
e − void ration under in − situ condition having a dry density of ρ

The general equation for e may be written as;

CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

ρ G−ρ
e=
ρ
Substituting the corresponding dry density for e ,e and e in equation 3.20 above and simplifying,
we have;

I = × × 100 …………………….. (3.21)

The loosest state for a granular material can usually be created by allowing the material to fall into a
container from a funnel held in such a way that the free fall is about 1 centimeter. The densest state can
be established by a combination of static pressure and vibration of soil packed in a container.

WEIGHT VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS

This can be established from the earlier equation by substituting γ = ρ and W for M. The various
equations can be tabulated as shown below;
W
water content (w) = × 100
W
W
Total unit weight (γ ) =
V
W
Dry unit weight (γ ) =
V
W
Saturated unit weight (γ )
V
W
Unit weight of solids (γ ) =
V
W
Unit weight of water (γ ) =
V
W
Mass Specific Gravity (G ) =
Vγ
W
Specific Gravity of solids (G) =
Vγ
Gγ (1 + w)
Total unit weight of solids (s < 100%)(γ ) = or
1+e
γ (G + es)
γ =
1+e
γ (G + e)
Saturated unit weight (γ )=
1+e
γ G
Dry Unit weight (γ ) =
1+e
CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

γ (G − 1)
Submerged unit weight (γ ) =
1+e
γ γ −γ
Density Index (I ) = ×
γ γ −γ
DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Specific gravity as such does not indicate the behavior of soil mass under external loads, but it is an
important factor which is used in computing other soil properties, for instance; the void ratio of a soil
and its unit weight and soil particle size determination by means of hydrometer method. It is also used
in consolidation studies of clays in calculating the degree of saturation of the soil and in other
calculations. Therefore, greater attention should be given for precise determination of the specific
gravity of a soil.

LABORATORY METHOD OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY DETERMINATION

A pycnometer or constant volume method has been found to be the most reliable method for the
determination of specific gravity. Commonly, about 200g of dry mass of sample, a 500 cc constant
volume bottle and distilled water are used.

In the computation of the specific gravity of soil from laboratory data, the mass of the specific gravity
bottle filled with distilled water at the test temperature will be needed. This value is usually taken from
a plot of temperature versus weight of bottle with water. The plot or calibration curve can be
determined either by experimental or theoretical means (Refer to any book of Soil testing for details).
Next, it is required to determine the mass of bottle with known mass of soil and water filled just to the
constant volume mark. Greatest care should be taken to expel all air from the mixture. The air may be
expelled by gently boiling or by suction by applying a partial vacuum to the suspension or both. The
CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

mass is taken after the bottle with the suspension is cooled to the room temperature. The
measurements that are used in the computation for specific gravity are:

a) Mass of empty dry bottle = M1

b) Mass of bottle + dry soil = M2
c) Mass of bottle + soil + water = M3
d) Mass of bottle + water = M4

Now the following equations can be written from the above data;

Mass of dry soil (M ) = M − M (e)

Mass of water in c (M ) = M − M (f)

Mass of water in d (M ) = M − M (g)

From g and f;

Mass of water equivalent to the volume of soil solids;

M = M − M (h)

Or

M = (M − M ) − (M − M )
The specific gravity of solids is defined as;
Mass of dry soil
G=
Mass of equal volume of water
M M −M
G= =
M [(M − M ) − (M − M )]

Or
M
G= … … … … . (3.22)
M − (M − M )
DETERMINATION OF WATER CONTENT

Two methods may be used to determine water content of a wet sample of soil. Namely;

I. Oven dry method

II. Pycnometer method

OVEN DRY METHOD

The following step describe briefly the method;

A. Take a clean container with lid. Let mass of container with lid be M 1.
B. Take about 300g of the wet sample (whose water content is to be determined) in the container.
(M2)-
CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

C. Keep the container with the wet sample (lid removed) in a thermostatically controlled oven and
dry the sample with the temperature of the oven kept at about 110℃. The drying period
depends upon the type of soil. For example, clay sample may take 10 – 15 hours, whereas a
sandy sample takes about 4 hours with the sample in a desiccator. Replace the lid on the
container. Now let the mass of the container with lid + dry soil sample = M 3

The water content of the sample may be expressed as follows;

Water content (w) = × 100% ……………. (3.23)

PYCNOMETR METHOD

A pycnometer is a glass bottle of about one litre capacity, filled with a brass conical cap by means of a
screw type cover. The cap has a small hole at the top. The various steps to be followed in determination
of a water content (w) are as follows;

I. Find the mass of the pycnometer (M1)

II. Fill the pycnometer with about 300g of wet sample.
III. Fill water into the pycnometer up to about half the height. Stir the water with the sample by
using a glass rod. Continue stirring as more and more water is added. Finally, bring the water
level flush with hole in the conical cap. Now, mass of pycnometer + soil + water = M 3

Let ρ be the density of water, ρ to be the density of solids, V to be the volume of dry solids of the
sample and G to be the specific gravity of the samples.

The equation for the water content of the sample may be obtained as follows; (Refer to the figure
below)

Let M be the mass of solid particles

CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

M
Volume of M = V =
G
The equation for the water content of the sample may also be obtained with reference to the above
figure.
M
In the figure above, M is the mass of soil particles and its volume is equal to G. Thus, if the soil
particles from c are with mass of water we get the mas M4 in d of figure 3.4 (B) we may now write

M
M =M −M +
G
From which;
G
M = (M − M )
G−1
Now the mass of water in the wet sample is;

M = (M − M ) − M
Since the water content is;
M
w= × 100
M
We may write;
(M − M ) − M
× 100
M
(M − M )
− 1 × 100
M

Or
M −M G−1
w= × − 1 × 100 … … … … … … . (3.24)
M −M G
Example 3.1

A sample of wet silty clay soil has a mass of 126Kg. The following data was obtained from the laboratory
test on the sample: wet density (ρ = 2.1 g/cm3, G = 2.7, water content (w) = 15%

Determine;

i. Dry density (ρ )
ii. Porosity
iii. Void ratio
iv. Degree of saturation

Class Example
CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

In its natural condition, a soil sample has a mass of 2290 g and volume of 1.15 × 10 m . After being
completely dried in an oven, the mass of the sample is 2035 g. The value of G for the soil is 2.68.
Determine the bulk density, unit weight, water content, void ratio, porosity, degree of saturation and air
content.

Class example solution

M 2290 × 10
Bulk density (ρ) = =
V 1.15 × 10
= 1990 Kg/m
Mg
Unit weight (γ) = = 1990 × 9.81
V
= 19500 N/m

= 19.5 kN/m
M 2290 − 2035
Water content (w) = =
M 2035
= 0.125 or 12.5%
ρ
Void ratio (e) = G (1 + w) −1
ρ
1000
= 2.68 × 1.125 × −1
1990
= 1.52 − 1
= 0.52
e
Porosity(n) =
1+e
0.52
=
1.52
= 0.34 or 34%
wG
Degree of saturation (Sr) =
e
0.125 × 2.68
=
0.52
= 0.645 or 64.5%
Air content (A) = n(1 − Sr)
= 0.34 × 0.355
= 0.121 or 12.1%
CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

SOLUTION

Mass of sample M = 126 Kg

Volume (V) = = 0.06 m

. ×

Now;

M + M = M or M + wM
= M (1 + w) = M
Therefore,
M 126
M = =
1 + w 1.15
= 109.5 Kg
M = M − M = 16.43 Kg

Now;
W
V =
ρ
16.43
=
1000
CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

= 0.01643 m
M
V =
Gρ
109.57
=
2.7 × 1000
= 0.04058 m
V =V−V
= 0.06000 − 0.04058

= 0.01942 m
M
Dry density (ρ ) =
V
109.57
=
0.06
= 1826.2 Kg/m
V
Porosity (n) = × 100
V
0.01942 × 100
=
0.06
= 32%
V
Void ratio (e) =
V
0.01942
=
0.04058
= 0.47
V
Degree of saturation (s) = × 100
V
0.01643
= × 100
0.01942
= 84.5%
Example

A saturated soil has a unit weight of 18.85 kN/m 3 and a water content of 32.5%. Determine e and G of
the soil.

Solution

Using the approach of V = 1;

CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

nγ
w=
(1 − n)G

0.325 = ……………….. (Eqn. 1)

( )

γ = 18.85 = nγ + (1 − n)G γ
n
18.85 = (1 − n)G γ +1
(n − 1)G

w = 14.22 kN
0.463
e=
0.558
= 0.86
CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

Substituting in eqn. 1;
0.86
0.325 =
G
G = 2.646
Example

A sample of dry sand having a unit bulk density of 16.50 KN/m and G of 2.70 is placed in the rain.
During the rain, the volume of the sample remains constant but the degree of saturation increases to
40%. Determine the unit weigh t and water content of soil after being in the rain.

SOLUTION
V
S =
V
V = 0.40 × 0.636 = 0.254
W
w= × 100 = 9.42%
W
CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

V γ = 0.254 × 10 = 2.54kN
V G γ = 1 × 2.7 × 10 = 27kN
27 + 2.54
γ = = 18.05kN/m
1 + 0.636
SOIL COMPACTION
Compaction is the process of increasing the density of a soil by packing the particles closer
together with a reduction in the volume of air; there is no significant change in the volume of
water in the soil. In the construction of fills and embankments, loose soil is placed in layers
ranging between 75 and 450mm in thickness, each layer being compacted to a specified
standard by means of rollers, vibrators or rammers. In general, the higher the degree of
compaction the higher will be the shear strength and the lower will be the compressibility of
the soil.
The degree of compaction of a soil is measured in terms of dry density, i.e. the mass of solids
only per unit volume of soil. If the bulk density of the soil is ρ and the water
content w, then the dry density is given by

The dry density of a given soil after compaction depends on the water content and the
energy supplied by the compaction equipment (referred to as the compactive effort).
CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

In BS 1377 (Part 4) [2] three compaction procedures are detailed:

1) Proctor test:
The volume of the mould is 1 l and the soil (with all particles larger than 20mm removed) is
compacted by a rammer consisting of a 2.5-kg mass falling freely through 300 mm: the soil is
compacted in three equal layers, each layer receiving 27 blows with the rammer.
2) The modified AASHTO test:
The mould is the same as is used in the above test but the rammer consists of a 4.5-kg mass
falling 450 mm: the soil (with all particles larger than 20mm removed) is compacted in five
layers, each layer receiving 27 blows with the rammer. If the sample contains a limited
proportion of particles up to 37.5mm in size, a 2.3-1 mould should be used, each layer receiving
62 blows with either the 2.5- or 4.5-kg rammer.
3) The vibrating hammer test :
The soil (with all particles larger than 37.5mm removed) is compacted in three layers in a 2.3-1
mould, using a circular tamper fitted in the vibrating hammer, each layer being compacted for a
period of 60 s.
After compaction using one of the three standard methods, the bulk density and water content
of the soil are determined and the dry density calculated.
For a given soil the process is repeated at least five times, the water content of the sample
being increased each time. Dry density is plotted against water content and a curve of the form
shown in the figure below is obtained.
This curve shows that for a particular method of compaction (i.e. a particular compactive effort)
there is a particular value of water content, known as the optimum water content (wopt), at
which a maximum value of dry density is obtained. At low values of water content most soils
tend to be stiff and are difficult to compact. As the water content is increased the soil becomes
more workable, facilitating compaction and resulting in higher dry densities. At high water
contents, however, the dry density decreases with increasing water content, an increasing
proportion of the soil volume being occupied by water.

Dry density–water content relationship.

CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

The maximum possible value of dry density is referred to as the ‘zero air voids’ dry density
or the saturation dry density and can be calculated from the expression:

generally, the dry density after compaction at water content w to an air content A can
be calculated from the following expression,

Field compaction
There are two approaches to the achievement of a satisfactory standard of compaction
in the field, known as method and end-product compaction.
In method compaction the type and mass of equipment, the layer depth and the number of
passes are specified. Used in most earthworks
In end-product compaction the required dry density is specified: the dry density of the
compacted fill must be equal to or greater than a stated percentage of the maximum dry
density obtained in one of the standard laboratory compaction tests. Normally restricted to
pulverized fuel ash in general fill and to certain selected fills.

The following types of compaction equipment are used in the field.

a) Smooth-wheeled rollers
These consist of hollow steel drums, the mass of which can be increased by water or
sand ballast. They are suitable for most types of soil except uniform sands and silty
sands, provided a mixing or kneading action is not required. A smooth surface is produced on
the compacted layer, encouraging the run-off of any rainfall but resulting
in relatively poor bonding between successive layers; the fill as a whole will therefore
tend to be laminated. Smooth-wheeled rollers, and the other types of roller described
below, can be either towed or self-propelled.
b) Pneumatic-tyred rollers
This equipment is suitable for a wide range of coarse and fine soils but not for
uniformly graded material. Wheels are mounted close together on two axles, the rear
set overlapping the lines of the front set to ensure complete coverage of the soil surface.
The tyres are relatively wide with a flat tread so that the soil is not displaced laterally.
This type of roller is also available with a special axle which allows the wheels to
wobble, thus preventing the bridging over of low spots. Pneumatic-tyred rollers impart
a kneading action to the soil. The finished surface is relatively smooth, resulting in a
low degree of bonding between layers. If good bonding is essential, the compacted
surface must be scarified between layers. Increased compactive effort can be obtained
by increasing the tyre inflation pressure or, less effectively, by adding kentledge to the
CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

body of the roller.

c) Sheepsfoot rollers
This type of roller consists of hollow steel drums with numerous tapered or club-shaped
feet projecting from their surfaces. The mass of the drums can be increased by ballasting.
The arrangement of the feet can vary but they are usually from 200 to 250mm in length
with an end area of 40–65 cm2. The feet thus impart a relatively high pressure over a
small area. Initially, when the layer of soil is loose, the drums are in contact with the soil
surface. Subsequently, as the projecting feet compact below the surface and the soil
becomes sufficiently dense to support the high contact pressure, the drums rise above the
soil. Sheepsfoot rollers are most suitable for fine soils, both plastic and non-plastic,
especially at water contents dry of optimum. They are also suitable for coarse soils with
more than 20% of fines. The action of the feet causes significant mixing of the soil,
improving its degree of homogeneity, and will break up lumps of stiff material. Due to
the penetration of the feet, excellent bonding is produced between successive soil layers,
an important requirement for water-retaining earthworks. Tamping rollers are similar to
sheepsfoot rollers but the feet have a larger end area, usually over 100 cm2, and the total
area of the feet exceeds 15% of the surface area of the drums.
d) Grid rollers
These rollers have a surface consisting of a network of steel bars forming a grid with
square holes. Kentledge can be added to the body of the roller. Grid rollers provide
high contact pressure but little kneading action and are suitable for most coarse soils.
e) Vibratory rollers
These are smooth-wheeled rollers fitted with a power-driven vibration mechanism.
They are used for most soil types and are more efficient if the water content of the soil is
slightly wet of optimum. They are particularly effective for coarse soils with little or
no fines. The mass of the roller and the frequency of vibration must be matched to the
soil type and layer thickness. The lower the speed of the roller the fewer the number of
passes required.
f) Vibrating plates
This equipment, which is suitable for most soil types, consists of a steel plate with
upturned edges, or a curved plate, on which a vibrator is mounted. The unit, under
manual guidance, propels itself slowly over the surface of the soil.
g) Power rammers
Manually controlled power rammers, generally petrol-driven, are used for the compaction
of small areas where access is difficult or where the use of larger equipment
would not be justified. They are also used extensively for the compaction of backfill in
trenches. They do not operate effectively on uniformly graded soils.
CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

SOIL INDEX PROPERTIES

Index properties refers to these properties of the soil that indicate the types and conditions of the soil,
and provide a relationship to structural properties such as, strength and compressibility or tendency for
swelling and permeability.

These can be divided into two categories;

i. Soil grain properties

ii. Soil aggregate properties

The development of the ability to think of soils in terms of numerical values of their index properties
should be one of the foremost aims of every engineer who deals with Soil Mechanics.

Soil Grain Properties

These are the properties of the individual particles of which the soil is composed, without reference to
the manner in which these particles are arranged in a soil mass.

For example;

Mineralogical composition, specific gravity of solids, size and shape of grains

Soil aggregate properties

These are properties that are dependent on the soil mass as a whole and thus, represent the collective
behavior of the soil.

Soil aggregate properties are a function of stress history, mode of soil formation and the soil structure.
Aggregate refers to the soil itself, it may defer in porosity, relative density, water and air content and
consistency.

Although soil grain properties are commonly needed for identification purposes, the engineer should
realize that the soil aggregate properties have greater influence on the engineering behavior of a soil
because engineering structures are founded on natural deposits or undisturbed soil mass.

INDEX PROPERTIES

Grain Distribution Consistency Limits

Mechanical Analysis Hydrometer Analysis

(Coarse-grained soil) (fine-grained soil)

Liquid limits

Plastic limit
Dry Method Plasticity Index
Wet Method Shrinkage limit (Fine-grained)
CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION (GSD)

This is a subject of active research interest today. The aim is to obtain accurate prediction of soil
properties based largely on GSDs, void ratio and soil particle characteristics.

When measuring GSDs for soils, two methods are generally used;

i. For grains larger than 0.075 mm – Sieving is used.

ii. For grains in range of 0.075 mm diameter to 0.5μm the hydrometer test is used.

SIEVE ANALYSIS

(For coarse-grained soil d>0.075mm)

A sieve analysis is a laboratory test that measures the grain size distribution of a soil by passing it
through a series of sieves. It is a screening process in which coarse fractions of soil are separated by
means of a series of sieves.

Grain size diagram.

The diagram indicates the percentage of the particles smaller than a certain diameter, measured as a
percentage of the weight. A steep slope of the curve in the diagram indicates a uniform soil, a shallow
slope of the diagram indicates that the soil contains particles of strongly different grain sizes.
The grain size distribution can be characterized by the quantities D 60 and D10. These indicate that 60 %,
respectively 10 % of the particles (expressed as weights) is smaller than that diameter. In the case
illustrated in the figure above it appears that D60 ≈0.6 mm, and D10 ≈ 0.07 mm.
The ratio of these two numbers is denoted as the uniformity coefficient Cu,

In this case, this is about 8.5. This indicates that the soil is not uniform. This is sometimes denoted as a
well graded soil . In a poorly graded soil the particles all have about the same size. The uniformity
coefficient is then only slightly larger than 1, say Cu = 2.
SEDIMENTATION ANALYSIS

(For fine-grained soils 0.5μm < d < 75μm)

CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

It is assumed as a first approximation that fine grained soil particles can be idealized as a small sphere.

Spherical particles falling in a liquid of indefinite extent and all particles have the same unit weight.
Particles reach a constant terminal velocity within a few seconds after it is allowed to fall.

Although clay particles are far from spherical, the application of Stoke’s law based on equivalent
diameters provide a basis for arriving at GSD of fined grained soils (sufficiently realistic).

According to Stoke’s law, the viscous drag force F on a spherical body moving through a laminar fluid
at a steady velocity v is given by;

F = 3πμvd
Where μ the viscosity of the fluid is, v is the steady velocity of the body and d is the diameter of the
sphere.

If we drop a grain soil into a viscous fluid, it will eventually achieve a terminal velocity v where there is a
balance of force between viscous drag force, gravity weight force and buoyant forces as shown below;
CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

1
F −F = (G − 1)γ πd
6
For equilibrium of the soil grain,

F =F −F

From this equation, we solve for the equilibrium of terminal velocity of the soil grain as;
(G − 1)γ
v= d
18μ

Observe v α d

This equation is called the Stoke’s law, after Sir George Stoke (1891).

Thus, the larger a soil grain is, the faster it settles in water. This critical factor is used in hydrometer
analysis to obtain GSDs for fine grained soil.

PROCESS OF SEDIMENTATION OF DISPERSED SPECIMEN

The theory of sedimentation is based on the fact that the large particles in suspension in a liquid settle
more quickly than small particles assuming that all particles have similar densities and shapes.

If all the particles were of a single size with effective diameter d, by knowing the terminal velocity v, we
can calculate t .
18μz
t =
(G − 1)γ d

The velocity which a falling particle reaches is known an as a terminal velocity.

CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

W
V =
G γ
CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

W
V = 1−
G γ
Initial unit weight of a unit volume of suspension;

W (G − 1)
γ = γ + G

Size d of the particle which have settled from the surface through depth z in time t (From Stoke’s Law)

18μ z
d=
(G − 1)γ t

Above level X – X, no particle of size d will be present.

If the percentage of weight of particle finer than d (already sedimented) to the original weight of soil
solids in the suspension is NI then;

Weight of solids per unit volume of suspension at depth z;

w w
=N i. e w =
v v
Unit weight of suspension after elapsing time t at depth z;
CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

w (G − 1)
γ = γ +N
v G

Rearranging the above equation;

G w
N = (γ − γ )
(G − 1) v
N is in percentage (%)
HYDROMETER ANALYSIS

Let us assume that for a soil suspension the particles start settling down right from the start and hence
the unit weight of soil suspension varies from top to bottom.

Measurement of specific gravity of a soil suspension (Hydrometer) at known depth at a particular time
provides a point on the GSD.

But;
R
γ =G γ = 1+ γ
1000
Where G = Sp gravity of soil suspension (Graduated from 0.995 – 1.030)

R = the reading on the hydrometer

G R v
N =
(G − 1) 1000 w
CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

G R
=
(G − 1) w

For;

V = 1000cc
Measures of Gradation

D10 is the sieve size in which 10% of the particles pass and 90% coarser than D 10 sieve size.

D60 sieve of the size in which 60% are finer and 40% are coarser.

D30 is similarly defined.

Uniformity coefficient (C = .

When Cu < 4, the soils are poorly graded or uniform for Cu > 4 - , the soil is well graded.

Coefficient of gradation or curvature;

(D )
C =
(D × D )

When Cc = 1 – 3, the soil is well graded.

PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION (as per ASTM D2487)

Sieve Size Particle diameter Soil Classification

Passes Retained (mm)
12'' >300 Boulder
12'' 3'' 75 – 300 Cobble
3'' 0.75'' 19 – 75 Coarse Gravel
0.75'' No 4 (sieve) 4.75 – 19 Fine Gravel
No 4 No 10 2 – 4.75 Coarse sand
No 10 No 40 0.425 – 2 Medium sand
No 40 No 200 0.075 – 0.425 Fine sand
No 200 <0.075 Fines (silt + clay)

TYPICALCHARACTERISTICS OF GSD CURVES

Steep curves means low Cu values, implies a poor graded soil (uniformly graded); C < 4 for uniform
soils.

On the other hand, flat curves implies high Cu values; i.e. well graded soils.

PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF GSD

GSD of soils smaller than 0.075 mm (Sieve No. 200) is of little importance in the solution of engineering
problems. GSDs larger than 0.075 mm have several important uses.
CSEN 313 SOIL MECHANICS 1

I. GSD affects the void ratio of soils and provides useful information for use in cement and
asphaltic concretes. (Well graded aggregates require less cement per unit volume of concrete to
produce a denser concrete, less permeable and more resistant to weathering).
II. A knowledge of the amount of percentage fines and the gradation of coarse particles is useful in
making a choice of material for base courses under highways, runways, rail-tracks etc.
III. To determine the activity of clay based on percentage clay fraction (<2μm, i.e. 0.002 mm).
IV. To design filters (Filters are used to control seepage and pores must be small enough to prevent
particles from being carried from adjacent soils).
V. To estimate coefficient of permeability of coarse grained soils (using effective size).
VI. To assess frost susceptibility in soils based on percent clay fractions.

SOME APPLICATION OF GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS (GSA) IN GEOTECHNOLOGY AND CONSTRUCTION

1. Selection of fill material (embankment and dams)

2. Road sub-base material
3. Drainage filters
4. Ground water drainage
5. Grouting and chemical injection
6. Dynamic compaction