ECG243

SOIL MECHANICS

CHAPTER 1: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF

SOIL
 PROGRAM OUTCOME
• PO 1 Apply knowledge of mathematics, natural science, engineering
fundamentals and an engineering specialization to wide practical
procedures and practices
• PO 2 Identify and analyse well-defined engineering problems reaching
substantiated conclusions using codified methods of analysis specific to
their field of activity
 COURSE OUTCOME

At the end of this course, students should be able to:-

•COI apply physical and engineering properties knowledge to wide

application of soil mechanic.
•CO2 evaluate soil behavior including shear strength, compaction and
consolidation from the standpoint of effective stress concept.
• Soil mechanics – the branch of civil engineering that deals with the
mechanical bahavior of soil and similar materials when they are
compressed or sheared or when liquids flow through them.

• Soil engineering – the application of the principles of soil mechanics in

the investigation, evaluation and design of civil works involving the use
of earth materials and inspection or testing of the construction thereof.

• Geotechnical engineering – branch of civil engineering concerned with

the engineering behaviour of earth materials. Geotechnical engineering
uses principles of soil mechanics and rock mechanics to investigate
subsurface conditions and materials; determine the relevant
physical/mechanical and chemical properties of these materials;
evaluate stability of natural slopes and man made soil deposits; assess
risks posed by site conditions; design earthworks and structure
foundation; and monitor site conditions, earthwork and foundation
construction.
BASIC FORMS OF GEOTECHNICAL
STRUCTURE
• The 4 basic types of geotechnical structure

1) Foundations
-Transmit loads to the ground
-Basic criterion – settlement should
be relatively small
-Variables – load, the size of the
base and depth
BASIC FORMS OF GEOTECHNICAL
STRUCTURE
2) Slope stability
-May be formed naturally by erosion
or built by excavation or filling
-Basic variables – slope angle and
height
-Design requirement – slope should
not fail by landsliding
BASIC FORMS OF GEOTECHNICAL
STRUCTURE
3) Retaining wall
-Slopes that are too deep and too steep
to stand unsupported con be
supported by retaining wall
-Basic variables – height of wall and
its depth of burial together with the
strength and stiffness of the wall.
BASIC FORMS OF GEOTECHNICAL
STRUCTURE
4) Earth fill dam
-In any structure where there are
different levels of water, such as in a
dam or around a pumped well, the will
be seepage of water
-The seepage causes leakage through a
dam and governs the yield of a well
and it also governs the variation of
pressure in the groundwater
LEARNING OUTCOME
(WEEK 1)
At the end of this lecture, students should be able to understand:

– The origin of soil, weathering of rocks and the formations of residual and
transported soils.
• WHAT IS SOIL ???
INTRODUCTION

• To design a foundation that will support a structure, an engineer must

understand the types of soils deposits that will support the foundation
• Engineers must remember that soil at any site frequently is non-
homogenous; that is the soil profile may vary
• Soil mechanics theories involve idealized conditions, so the application of
the theories to foundation engineering problems involves a judicious
evaluation of site conditions and soil parameters
• To do this requires some knowledge of the geological process by which
the soil deposit at the site was formed by subsurface exploration
• Good professional judgment constitutes an essential part of geotechnical
engineering and it comes only with practice
1.1.1: SOIL ORIGIN

• Soils occur very near the surface of the earth and are essentially the
products of the action of the weather and the climate of rock.
• Soil have been formed by weathering and disintegration of the rocks.
• Geologist described soil as those layers of loose unconsolidated
material extending from the surface to solid rock.
• In engineering context, soil means material that can be worked
without drilling or blasting.
• Soils originate from solid rocks such as igneous,
metamorphic and sedimentary.

• The process of soil formation are controlling by these

factors:
– Nature and composition of the parent rock.
– Climatic conditions (eg: temperature and humidity)
– Topographic and general terrain conditions (eg: exposure,
density, type of vegetation)
– Length of time related to particular prevailing conditions.
– Interference by other agencies (eg: earthquake).
– Mode and conditions of transport.
ROCK CYCLE
 ROCK CYCLE

• Magma cools and crystallizes to form igneous rock.

• Igneous rock undergoes weathering (or breakdown) to form
sediment. The sediment is transported and deposited somewhere
(such as at the beach or in a delta, or in the deep sea).
• The deposited sediment undergoes lithification (the processes that
turn it into a rock). These include cementation and compaction.
• As the sedimentary rock is buried under more and more sediment, the
heat and pressure of burial cause metamorphism to occur. This
transforms the sedimentary rock into a metamorphic rock.
• As the metamorphic rock is buried more deeply (or as it is squeezed
by plate tectonic pressures), temperatures and pressures continue to
rise. If the temperature becomes hot enough, the metamorphic rock
undergoes melting. The molten rock is called magma. This completes
the cycle.
• Igneous rock
formed by solidification of molten magma
ejected from deep within the earth mantle

- extrusive – where magma is extruded onto the

earth’s surface to create volcano
- intrusive – when magma solidifies below the
surface of the earth. May later be exposed at the
surface when the cover rocks are eroded away
- e.g. granite, basalt
• Sedimentary rock
- the deposits of gravel, sand, silt and clay
formed by weathering may become compacted
by overburden pressure and cemented agents
like iron oxide, calcite, dolomite and quartz
- can also be formed by chemical processes
- e.g. sandstone, clay

• Metamorphic rock 1. The origin of soil weathering of rocks and the formations of
residual and transported soils.

- process of changing the composition and

texture of rocks, without melting by heat and
pressure
- type depends on the original rock material that
was metamorphosed and the temperature and
pressure conditions which were imposed
- e.g. schist, hornfels
1.1.2: WEATHERING OF ROCKS
• Weathering is disintegration or alteration of rock in its natural or
original position at or near the Earth’s surface through physical,
chemical, and biological processes induced or modified by wind,
water, and climate into smaller pieces.
There are three types of weathering.
• Physical weathering,
• Chemical weathering, and
• Biological weathering
2 common types of weathering
(1) mechanical weathering – by physical forces including running water,
wind, ocean waves, glacier ice, frost and expansion and contraction by
the gain and loss of heat
(2) chemical weathering – chemical decomposition of the original rock. The
original material may be changed to something entirely different. e.g. the
chemical weathering of feldspar can produce clay minerals
- In hot climates, weathering may remove some minerals, leaving others
of a more resistant nature in a concentrated deposit (eg laterite, bauxite)
1.1.3: FORMATIONS OF RESIDUAL &
TRANSPORTED SOIL
SOIL FORMATION METHODS
Two Main Groups:
Residual Soils
•Rock material weathered in place via mechanical and chemical processes (chemical
usually dominant factor).
• As a result of this process, and because the rock material may have an assorted
mineral structure, the upper layers of soils are usually fine-grained and relatively
impervious to water.
Transported soils
•Soils transported from place of origin via 3 main processes:
•Water, air glacials
Effects of transport
- soil produced by weathering of rocks can be
transported by physical processes to other places
- the resulting soil deposits are called transported soils.
In contrast, some soils stay where they were formed and
cover the rock surface from which they derive; and this are
called residual soils
- a fine wind blown dust may be carried considerable
distances before being deposited.
- the action of flowing water may dissolve some
minerals, carry some articles in suspension and bounce or roll
others along.
Transported soils may be classified into several groups
depending on their mode of transportation and deposition:

•Glacial soils - formed by transportation and deposition of

glaciers
•Alluvial soils - transported by running water and deposited
along streams
•Lacustrine soils - form by deposition in quiet lakes
•Marine soils - formed by deposition in the seas
•Aeolian soils - transported and deposited by wind
•Colluvial soils - formed by movement of soil form its
original place by gravity, such as during landslides
• Three stages involved in the formation of transported soil
are described as:

i) weathering
ii) transportation
iii) deposition of weathered materials
ENGINEERING SOIL TERMINOLOGY

a) Rock – Hard rigid deposit forming part of the earth’s crust

(eg: igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rock).
b) Soil – any loose or diggable material that is worked in,
worked on and worked with.
c) Organic Soil – a mixture of mineral grains and organic
material of mainly vegetable origin in varying stages of
decomposition.
d) Peat – made up entirely of organic matter, very spongy,
highly compressible, and combustible.
e) Residual soil – the weathered remains of rocks that have
undergone no transportation. Normally sandy or gravelly
with high concentrations of oxides.
f) Alluvium – sands and gravels which have been deposited
from rivers or streams.
g) Cohesive soil – fine soil containing sufficient clay or silt
particles to impart significant plasticity and cohesion.
h) Cohesionless soil – coarse soils (sand and gravel) which
do not exhibit plasticity or cohesion.
i) Boulder clay - also called till. Soil of glacial origin
consisting of a very wide range of particle sizes from
finely ground rock flour to boulders.
j) Drift – geological term to describe superficial
unconsolidated deposits of recent origin such as
alluvium.
LEARNING OUTCOME
(WEEK 2)
At the end of this lecture, students should be able to understand:

– Engineering definition of soil. The constituents of soils – solid liquid and

gas phases (mineral particle, water and air). Basic physical properties of
soils and three phase diagram (volume relations mass relations and mass –
volume relations.
– Determination of moisture content and particle density of soil solids.
1.2.1: ENGINEERING
DEFINITION OF SOIL
• All soils originate directly or indirectly from rocks and these are classified
according to their mode of formation.  By a combination of physical and
chemical processes rock masses are reduced to particles ranging in size
down to 0.001 mm. 
• The nature of the subsequent soil depends not only on its parent rocks, but
also on the processes and conditions of disintegration, transport and
deposition – and on time.   The properties of clay minerals are important, in
particular their very flaky nature.
• Understanding the formation and nature of soils is an important precursor to
understanding their engineering properties and their behavior under load.
• Soils are, in the main, naturally occurring materials.  Engineers and builders
who use soils have to take them as they find them; soils cannot be
manufactured to order in the way of other materials, such as steel and
concrete. 
• Soils are also highly variable and complex materials, possessing
engineering properties that may have a wide range of possible values.
• Thus, at the start of any design process soils must be accurately and
systematically described; classification is part of description.  The main
components of soil description are:

• The nature of the soil:               shape, size and distribution of particles

• The state of the soil:                 density, relative density, water content
• The fabric of the soil:         homogeneity or layer sequences, cementing
1.2.2: THE CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS
– SOLID, LIQUID, GAS
– Soil commonly consists of mixtures of inorganic mineral particles,
water and air. Therefore it is convenient to think of soil model
which has three phases: solid, liquid and gas

gas Air
Water vappour

liquid Water
Dissolved salts

Rock fragments
solid
Mineral grains
Organic matter

Three phase soil model

ROCK FRAGMENTS

• identifiable pieces of the parent rock containing several

minerals.
• Rock fragments usually > 2mm (sand to gravel)
• Soundness of the soil will depend on the extend of
differential mineral decomposition within individual
fragments.
• For example, the presence of kaolinised granite fragments
could influence the shear strength of soil.
MINERAL GRAINS
• Separate particles of each particular mineral and range in
size from gravel to clay (> 2mm to 1μm)
• Mostly soil will consist almost entirely of one minerals but
some soils will contain mixtures of different minerals.
• Soil could be divided into 2 major groups; coarse and fine.
• Coarse soil classified as particles size > 0.06mm such as
sands and gravels.
• Fine soil are finer than 0.06 mm such as clay and silt.
• The mineral portion of soil is divided into
three particle-size classes: sand, silt, and clay. 
• As a summary, soil can be classified into two
major groups given as:
i) Coarse Soils
Coarse soils are classified as having particle
sizes > 0.063 mm such as SANDS and
GRAVELS. The grains will either be rounded
or angular and usually consist of fragments of
rock or jasper with iron oxide, calcite and
mica present. The relatively equidimensional
shape is a function of the crystalline structure
of the minerals including the degree of
rounding depends upon the amount of wear
that have taken place.
ii) Fine Soils
Fine soils are finer than 0.06 mm and typically
flaky in shape such as SILTS and CLAYS. Very
fine oxides, sulphides and sometimes organic
matter may be present. The most important
engineering context of fine soils is the flakiness of
the clay minerals which give rise to very large
surface areas.
ORGANIC MATTER
• Origin from plant or animal remains (called as humus).
• Also featured as top soil, occur in the upper layer not more
than 0.5 m thickness.
• Peat deposits are predominantly fibrous organic material.
• In engineering, organic matter has undesirable properties
(e.g: highly compressible, absorb large quantities of water
and low shear strength and thus low bearing capacity)
 WATER
• Fundamental part of natural soil and in fact has a greater
effect on engineering properties than any constituent
• Water has no shear strength, it is incompressible, therefore
transmit direct pressure. So that, the drainage conditions in
soil mass are of greatly significance when considering its
shear strength
• Water can dissolve in solution a wide range of salts and
other compounds, some of it has undesirable effects. E.g.
the presence of sulphate ions has a serious deleterious
effect on one of the compounds in Portland cement and
can therefore be harmful to concrete structures
 AIR
• Soils may be considered in a practical sense to be perfectly
dry or fully saturated
• To be exact, the 2 extremes do not occur
• In a so-called ‘dry’ soil there will be water vapor present,
while ‘fully-saturated’ soil may contain as much as 2% air
voids
• Air is compressible and water vapor can freeze
• Soil types
- Common descriptive terms – gravels, sands, silts and clays
- Gravels and sands grouped together as coarsed –grained
soils
- Silts and clays are fine-grained soils
• Soil fabrics
- Soil particles are assumed to be rigid
- During deposition, the mineral particles are arranged into
structural frameworks that we call soil fabric
- Each particle is in random contact with neighboring particles
- The environment under which deposition occurs influences the
structural framework that is formed
- 2 common types of soil fabric – flocculated and dispersed
1.2.3: SOIL PHASE DIAGRAM
• Soil commonly consists of mixtures of inorganic mineral
particles (solid), water and air.
• Unit solid volume model is the most convenient.

air Va

water
Vw
Va = volume of air
solid Vs Vw = volume of water
Vs = volume of solid = 1
(1m3 of solid material)
• The model is constructed of 1m3 of solid material and will
remain constant.
• Volume of solid is fixed while volume of air and water can
change.
• Volume of water and air = void space.
• Perfect dry soil – no water is present and void space
completely fill with air.
• Saturated soil – no air is present and void space completely
fill with water. No water No air
Voids Air Water
(air +
e

only only
1+e

Water)

solid solid solid

1

a) Void ratio b) Completely dry soil c) Saturated soil

MASS-VOLUME RELATIONSHIP

• Total volume,
V = Vs + V v = V s + V w + V a

• Assuming the weight of air is negligible, total mass,

M = Ms + Mw
 Masses Volumes

(Specific volume)
air Va = e (1-Sr)

V=1+e
Mass of water, Mw = wGsρw water Vw = Sre = wGs

Mass of soil, Ms = Gsρw solid Vs = 1

Three separate phases of a soil element with volume of soil solids equal to one

ρw = density of water = 1000kg/m3 = 1.0Mg/m3

 Based on the above model, the
following terms shall be defined :
g) Grain specific gravity (Gs)
(a) Void ratio (e)
and Particle density ( s)
(b) Porosity (n)
h) Soil Densities
(c) Specific volume (v)
• Dry density ( d )
(d) Water content (w) 
• Bulk density ( b )
(e) Degree of saturation 
(Sr) • Saturated density ( sat )

(f) Air-voids content • Submerged density ( ‘ )
(Av)
(i) Unit weights,  ( similar
to densities)
a) Void ratio (e)
The volume not occupied by solids known as voids volume. May
occupied by water or air or both.

e = volume of voids = Vv = e …(1)

volume of solid Vs 1

b) Porosity (n)
To expressing the quantity of voids.
n = volume of voids = Vv
total volume V
n= e …(2)
1+e
c) Specific volume (V)
The total volume of the soil model.
V=1+e …(3)
d) Degree of saturation (Sr) – measure how saturated the soil is.
Sr = volume of water = Vw
volume of void e
Vw = Sre …(4)
% of saturation = 100Sr
w= moisture content
*For perfectly dry soil, Sr = 0
Gs = specific gravity
*For saturated soil, Sr = 1

e) Air void ratio (Av) – ratio of air voids volume to specific volume.
Av = volume of air = Va = e (1-Sr)
total volume 1 + e 1+e
but Sr = wGs/e
Av = e (1-Sr) = e 1- (wGs/e) = e - wGs
1+e 1+e 1+e 1+e
therefore, Av = e – wGs …(5)
1+e
f) Specific gravity (Gs)
Ratio of the mass of a given volume of a material to the mass of the
same volume of water.
Gs = mass of a given volume of a material
mass of the same volume of water
= Ms …(6)
Vsρw
Gs = 2.55 to 2.75 with average value = 2.65

g) Moisture content (ω)

Ratio of the mass of water to the mass of solid.

w = mass of water = Mw = Vwρw

mass of solid Ms G s ρw
but Vw = Sre = wGs

Therefore, w = Sre …(7)

Gs
h) Dry density (ρd) (kg/m3, Mg/m3)
ρd = mass of solid = ms
total volume V
therefore, ρd = Gsρw …(8)
1+e

i) Bulk density (ρb) (kg/m3, Mg/m3)

ρb = total mass
total volume
= mass of solid + mass of water
total volume
= Gsρw + Vwρw = Gsρw + Sreρw
1+e 1+e
therefore, ρb = Gs + Sre ρw …(9)
1+e
j) Relation between dry density (ρd) and bulk density (ρb)

Gs + Sre ρw
ρb = 1+e = Gs + Sre x 1+e
ρd Gs ρw 1 +e Gs
1+e

ρb = Gs + Sre = 1 + Sre but Sre = wGs

ρd Gs Gs

ρb = 1 + wGs ρb = (1 + w) ρd …(10)
ρd Gs
k) Saturated density (ρsat) (kg/m3, Mg/m3)

when soil become saturated, Sr = 1 and ρb becomes

saturated (ρsat)

From equation (9), the saturated density becomes

ρsat = Gs + e ρw …(11)
1+e
l) Submerged density or effective density (ρ’ or ρsub) (kg/m3)
ρ’ = ρsub = ρsat – ρw …(12)

Note:
ρb is bulk density above water table
ρsat is saturated density or bulk density above
water table.
ρ’ = ρsub is submerged or effective density
for calculation, use ρ’ = ρsub when it
is below water table.

ρb Ground level ρb
Water table
ρsat ρ’ = ρsub = ρsat – ρw
m) Unit weight (γ) (kN/m3, N/cm3)

Unit weight is a weight of soil per unit volume

γ=W
V γ = force/unit volume

γ = ρ.g …(13)

where g = 9.81 m/s

* Formula is same for all condition

 1.3: DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC
GRAVITY OR PARTICLE DENSITY
• Fine soil – density bottle
• Coarse soil – gas jar or glass jar fitted with a conical screw top
(pycnometer)
• Testing procedure - An appropriate quantity of dried soil is placed in
the jar and weight. The jar is filled with de-aired water and agitated to
remove any air bubbles. After carefully topping-up with water, the jar
is weighed again. Finally, the jar is emptied and cleaned, and the filled
with de-aired water and weighed again.
DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY /
PARTICLE DENSITY

• M1 = mass of empty jar

• M2 = mass of jar + dry soil
• M3 = mass of jar + soil + water
• M4 = mass of jar + water only
• Then the specific gravity of the soil particles is obtained as follows:
EXAMPLE 1
EXAMPLE 2
EXAMPLE 3
EXAMPLE 4
LEARNING OUTCOME
(WEEK 3)
At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:

Identify types of soils based on particle sizes – Gravels sands silts and
clays. Determination of particles size distribution and grading
characteristic. Sieving methods and sedimentation methods.
INTRODUCTION
Soil is generally classified into 3 phases
Solid, Liquid & Gas
Soil, Water & Air
Solid particles & Voids
Solid particles = Soil particles
Voids = Water + Air
 TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION
• Description is simply what you see and how the soils responds to simple tests
There are several schemes published in National Standards. A simple and universal scheme
for soil description is as follows:
1. The nature of soil grains – size, grading, shape, surface texture and their mineralogy
2. The current state of soil – current stresses, water content and history of loading and
unloading
3. The structure of fabric – layering or bedding, fissuring or jointing and cementing
4. The formation of the soils – may be deposited naturally by water, ice or wind, may be
residual products of rock weathering or may be compacted by machines into embankments
and fills
• Classification is a scheme for separating soils into broad groups, each with broadly similar
behavior
There are various classification schemes for different purposes. For civil engineering purposes
soil classifications should be based mainly on mechanical behavior
TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION
BS 1377 (British Standards Institutions)
BS 5930 (British Standards Institutions)
ASTM (American Standard of Testing
Materials)
AASHTO (American Association State
Highway & Transportation Official)
MS (Malaysian Standards)
 80

70

60
Types of Classification
50

40
Figures below give a general overview of the British Standard
range size particles and the American Standard range size
100
30
90
20
particles, respectively, which are carried out based on the
80
weight percentages falling within the band size represented
10
70 by these divisions and sub divisions.
600

50 0.001 0.002 0.006 0.01 0.02 0.06 0.1 0.2 0.6 1 2 6 10 20 60 100
particle diameter, (mm)
40
fine medium coarse fine medium coarse fine medium coarse
CLAY
30 SILT SAND GRAVEL
© BBB2000
BSCS
20

10

0
0.001 0.002
0.002 0.006 0.01 0.02 0.0740.06 0.1
0.42 0.2 2 0.6 1
4.76 2 19.1 6 10 20
76.2 60 100
particle diameter, (mm)
fine medium coarse fine medium coarse fine Fine medium Coarse
coarse
CLAY SILT
SILT SAND GRAVEL
© BBB2000

USCS
TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION

BS 5930 (British Standards Institutions)

TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION
BS 5930 (British Standards Institutions)
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
British Soil Classification System

BS5930:1999 – USED THIS LATEST VERSION OF

SOIL
SOILMECHANICS
MECHANICS(ECG426)
(ECG413) ARM/FBI
COARSE/FINE COMPOSITION % TO ARM
NAME SOIL2014
2014
TYPES
TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION
ASTM or Unified Soil Classification System
SOIL CLASSIFICATION

Particle Size Test

Typical Grading Curve
Grading Characteristics
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Particle Size Test
The aim is to measure the distribution of
particle size in the sample.
When a wide range of sizes is present, the
sample will be sub-divided, and separate tests
carried out on each sub-sample.
Wet sieving is used to separate fine grains from
coarse grains and is carried out by washing soil
specimen.
 Soil Classification
Method 1 : WET SIEVING
 Wet sieving is carried out to remove fine-grained particles and to
determine the combined clay/silt fraction percentage given in BS 1377:
1990: Part 2: Test 9.2.
• A sub sample is first oven dried and sieved to separate the
coarsest particle (>20 mm).
 The sub sample is then immersed in water containing dispersing agent of
sodium hexametaphosphate of about 2 g/litre solution and is allowed to
stand before being washed away in a 63 m mesh sieve.
• The retained fraction is again oven dried and passed into a nest
of sieves.
 The cumulative percentage passing is calculated and the combined
clay/silt fraction is determined from the weight difference expressed as a
percentage of the total sub sample from hydrometer test.
• The coarsest fraction (>20 mm) is sieved and the result is
combined to complete the grading curve.

Note : Details procedure of wet sieving can be referred in BS1377-2:1990 Clause 9.2.4
 Soil Classification
METHOD 2 : DRY SIEVING
 Dry sieving is carried out on particles
bigger than 63 m to determine the
coarse material in the sub sample in
accordance to BS 1377: 1990: Part 2:
Test 9.3.
 The sub sample is first oven dried. Fit
the largest size test sieve appropriate
to the max size of the material present
to the receiver and placed on the nest
of sieves.
 The nest is then agitated on the shaker
shown and the weight retained in each
sieve is determined.
 The cumulative percentage passing is
calculated to plot the grading curve.
BS Test Sieve
72
SOIL CLASSIFICATION

Particle Size Test

Dry sieving analyses can only be carried out on
particles > 0.060 mm; samples (with fines
removed) are dried and shaken through a nest
of sieves of descending mesh size.
Sedimentation is used only for fine soils
(hydrometer test).
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Hydrometer analysis
• For particle sizes smaller than 0.06mm in diameter
• Based on principle of sedimentation of soil grains in water
• When soil specimen is dispersed in water, the particles settle at different
velocities
• depending on their shape, size and weight and the viscosity of the water
• This analysis is effective for separating soil fractions down to a size of about
0.5μm
TEST PROCEDURE FOR HYDROMETER TEST
•The hydrometer test was conducted on the oven-dried soil sample passing the 63mm sieve. 60 g of the soil
sample was placed in an evaporating dish and covered in 125 ml solution of dispersing agent (sodium
hexametaphospate). The mixture was allowed to soak for 16 hours. The whole mixture was then placed in a
dispersion cup and water was added to fill up to half of the cup. The mixture was stirred with a mechanical
mixer for 1 minute to form consistent slurry.
•The soil slurry was quickly transferred into a sedimentation cylinder and more water was added to fill the
cylinder up to the 1L mark.
•In another cylinder, a control solution was prepared using 125 ml solution of the dispersing agent with
water added up to exactly the 1L mark. Hydrometer reading of the control solution was taken and recorded.
•A stopper was used to cover the end of the cylinder containing the soil solution. The cylinder was then
turned upside down and back for 60 times in 2 minutes. The cylinder was immediately placed upright on a
table and the start time recorded. The hydrometer reading of the solution at various time intervals were
recorded and shown in form PS2
CLASSIFICATION OF COARSE SOIL
Particle Size Test
The cumulative percentage quantities finer than
certain sizes (e.g. passing a given size sieve
mesh) are determined by weighing.
Points are then plotted of % finer (passing)
against log size.
A smooth S-shaped curve drawn through these
points is called a grading curve.
CLASSIFICATION OF COARSE SOIL

Particle Size Test

The position and shape of the grading curve
determines the soil class; also, geometrical
grading characteristics can be determined from
the grading curve.
CLASSIFICATION OF COARSE SOIL
Typical Grading Curve
CLASSIFICATION OF COARSE SOIL
Typical Grading Curve
A - a poorly-graded medium SAND (probably
estuarine or flood-plain alluvium)
B - a well-graded GRAVEL-SAND (i.e.. equal
amounts of gravel and sand)
C - a gap-graded COBBLES-SAND
D - a sandy SILT (perhaps a deltaic or
estuarine silt)
E - a typical silty CLAY
CLASSIFICATION OF COARSE SOIL

Grading Characteristics
A grading curve is a useful aid to soil
description.
Grading curves are often included in ground
investigation reports.
Results of grading tests can be tabulated using
geometric properties of the grading curve.
These properties are called grading
characteristics.
 Classification of Coarse Soil
 Well graded ~ A soil, in order to be classified as
well-graded, must have a good range of all
representative particle sizes between the
largest and the smallest. The soil in Figure 7 is
well-graded.

 Poorly-graded ~ soils are either those

containing a narrow range of particle sizes or
those with some intermediate sizes lacking.
Soils with a limited range of particle sizes are
called "uniformly graded”. Soils which have
some intermediate size or sizes not well
represented or missing are called "gap graded”.
Sometimes gap graded is also known as "step
graded,”, or "skip graded”. Figure 8 shows
poorly graded soils
82
CLASSIFICATION OF COARSE SOIL
Grading Characteristics
First of all, three points are located on the
grading curve :

D10 = the maximum size of the smallest 10% of

the sample
D30 = the maximum size of the smallest 30% of
the sample
D60 = the maximum size of the smallest 60% of
the sample
CLASSIFICATION OF COARSE SOIL
Grading Characteristics
CLASSIFICATION OF COARSE SOIL
Grading Characteristics
From these, the grading characteristics are
then calculated :

Effective size = D10

Uniformity coefficient, Cu = D60 / D10

Coefficient of gradation, Cg = (D30)² / (D60 x D10)

CLASSIFICATION OF COARSE SOIL

Grading Characteristics

Both Cu and Cg will be 1 for a single sized soil

Cu > 5 indicates a well-graded soil
Cu < 3 indicates a uniform soil
Cg = 0.5 - 2.0 indicates a well-graded soil
Cg < 0.1 indicates a possible gap-graded soil
CLASSIFICATION OF COARSE SOIL
SIEVING TESTING PROCEDURE

Electric Sieve Shaker Hand Operated Sieve Shaker

SIEVING TESTING PROCEDURE
SIEVING TESTING PROCEDURE

Small
Aperture

Big
Aperture
SIEVING TESTING PROCEDURE

Perforated Plate Sieve Woven Wire Mesh Sieve

(Square Hole)
SIEVING TESTING PROCEDURE

Perforated Plate Sieve Woven Wire Mesh Sieve

(Square Hole)
SIEVING TESTING PROCEDURE
Perforated Plate Sieve (Square Hole)

20 mm

20 mm
SIEVING TESTING PROCEDURE
Woven Mesh Sieve
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE
Weigh all the empty test
Sieve Size 37.5mm sieves selected for the
testing including the pan.
Larger Aperture Size

Smaller Aperture Size

Sieve Size 3.35mm

Pan
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE
Weigh the mass of the
soil which is going to be
Used for the testing

Mass of soil = 2458 g

SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE
Preparing of the Test Sieve
1st Stage of sieving.
Size 37.5 mm

Size 28 mm stack the test sieve in a proper

Size 20 mm sequence.
Size 14 mm Sieve In this example, the lid or
Size 10 mm Arrangement cover will be placed on the top
Size 6.3 mm of the sequence.
Size 5 mm
It then followed by the test
Size 3.35 mm
sieve of size 37.5 mm until the
Pan
test sieve of size 3.35 mm
with the pan at the bottom
most order of the stack.
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE
Set Up the Sieve Shaker
Transfer the stacked test
Size 37.5 mm
sieve to the sieve shaker.
Size 28 mm

Size 20 mm Do not attached the

Size 14 mm
stabilizing bar yet.
Size 10 mm

Size 6.3 mm

Size 5 mm

Size 3.35 mm

Pan

Sieve Shaker
Endecott EFL 2000
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE
Transferring the Soil
Remove the lid.
Size 37.5 mm

Size 28 mm
Pour the soil to the top most
Size 20 mm of the stacked test sieve.
Size 14 mm

Size 10 mm
Be extra careful when
Size 6.3 mm pouring the soil into the test
Size 5 mm sieves.
Size 3.35 mm

Pan

Sieve Shaker
Endecott EFL 2000
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE
Get Ready to “Shake”
Fasten the lid.
Size 37.5 mm

Size 28 mm
Fasten and tighten the
Size 20 mm stabilizing bar on top of the
Size 14 mm
stacked sieve.
Size 10 mm

Size 6.3 mm Set the dial knob to 10

Size 5 mm minutes.
Size 3.35 mm

Pan
Press ‘On’.
The shaking starts.

Sieve Shaker
Endecott EFL 2000
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE
Weighing the Retained Soil
on the Test Sieves
Size 37.5 mm
Remove the stabilizing bar
Size 28 mm

Size 20 mm
on top of the stacked sieve.
Size 14 mm
Remove the lid.
Size 10 mm

Size 6.3 mm Remove the stacked sieves

Size 5 mm from the sieve shaker.
Size 3.35 mm

Pan
Prepare the test sieves for
individual weighing with the
retained soil.
Sieve Shaker
Endecott EFL 2000
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE
No Soil
Weighing the Retained Soil
Size 37.5 mm
Retained
on the Test Sieves
Size 28 mm

Size 20 mm

Size 14 mm

Size 10 mm

Size 6.3 mm

Size 5 mm

Size 3.35 mm

Pan
The mass of soil retained can be obtained
by deducting the mass of the test sieve
obtained during the initial stage of testing.
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE
Preparing of the Test Sieve
Size 2 mm
2nd Stage of sieving.
Size 1.18 mm Similar to the 1st Stage, stack
Size 600 µm the test sieve in a proper
Size 425 µm
Sieve
sequence.
Size 300 µm Arrangement The lid or cover will be placed
Size 212 µm
on the top of the sequence.
Size 150 µm
The sequence is the test sieve
Size 63 µm
size of size 2 mm on top and
Pan
the test sieve of size 63 µm
with the pan will be at the
bottom.
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE
Example :

Total mass of soil used = 2458 g

Stage 1
Sieve size (mm) 37.5 28 20 14 10 6.3 5.0 3.35
Mass of soil 0 55 100 154 205 305 199 275
Retained (g)
Pan Contents = 1165 g Riffled sample to = 196 g
Stage 2
Sieve size 2 1.18 600 425 300 212 150 63
(mm or µm)
Mass of soil 54.3 38 30 14.2 15.5 13.1 11.2 16.5
Retained (g)
Pan Contents = 3.1 g
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE
S.O.L.A.T
Interface
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE

S.O.L.A.T
Print Out
Layout
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE
Riffling the Soil Sample
Pan
The mass of the soil sample
Soil Mass of
collected in the pan @
1165 g
passing the 3.35 mm test
Sieve size 2.0 mm
sieve is 1165 g.
Maximum Soil Mass of These mass exceeds the mass
200 g
that are allocated for the next
Sieve size 1.18 mm
stage of test sieve which is
sieve size 2.0 mm (Refer
Maximum Soil Mass of
100 g Table).
Riffling has to be conducted.
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE
Riffling the Soil Sample
Soil Mass of
1165 g
The riffle box has two
compartments.
When the soil mass is poured
into the riffle box, it divides
the mass into half @ 2
portions.
Soil Mass of
 500 +/- g In this case, the 1st riffling
This portion will
be discard process will generate 2
portions of soil with each has
Soil Mass of
500 +/- g a mass of  500 +/- g.
This portion will
be riffled again
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE
Riffling the Soil Sample
Soil Mass of The other half will be re-riffled.
 500 +/- g
Whilst the other half will be
discarded.
In the 2nd riffling process the
amount collected in each of the
portion will be  200 +/- g.
Soil Mass of So, the other half will again be
 200 +/- g
This portion will discarded, whilst the 196 g will
be discarded
be used for the 2nd stage of
Soil Mass of sieving.
196 g
This portion will
Be used for the 2nd stage of
sieving
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE

S.O.L.A.T
Print Out
Layout
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE
Preparing of the Test Sieve
Size 2 mm
2nd Stage of sieving.
Size 1.18 mm Similar to the 1st Stage, stack
Size 600 µm the test sieve in a proper
Size 425 µm
Sieve
sequence.
Size 300 µm Arrangement The lid or cover will be placed
Size 212 µm
on the top of the sequence.
Size 150 µm
The sequence is the test sieve
Size 63 µm
size of size 2 mm on top and
Pan
the test sieve of size 63 µm
with the pan will be at the
bottom.
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE
Set Up the Sieve Shaker
Transfer the stacked test
Size 2 mm
sieve to the sieve shaker.
Size 1.18 mm

Size 600 µm Do not attached the

Size 425 µm
stabilizing bar yet.
Size 300 µm

Size 212 µm

Size 150 µm

Size 63 µm

Pan

Sieve Shaker
Endecott EFL 2000
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE
Transferring the Soil
Remove the lid.
Size 2 mm

Size 1.18 mm
Pour the soil (196 g) to the
Size 600 µm top most opening of the
Size 425 µm
stacked test sieve.
Size 300 µm

Size 212 µm Be extra careful when

Size 150 µm pouring the soil into the
Size 63 µm
sieves.
Pan

Sieve Shaker
Endecott EFL 2000
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE
Get Ready to “Shake”
Fasten the lid.
Size 2 mm

Size 1.18 mm
Fasten and tighten the
Size 600 µm stabilizing bar on top of the
Size 425 µm
stacked sieve.
Size 300 µm

Size 212 µm
Set the dial knob to 10
Size 150 µm minutes.
Size 63 µm

Pan
Press ‘On’.
The shaking starts.

Sieve Shaker
Endecott EFL 2000
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE
Weighing the Retained Soil
on the Test Sieves
Size 2 mm
Remove the stabilizing bar
Size 1.18 mm

Size 600 µm
on top of the stacked sieve.
Size 425 µm
Remove the lid.
Size 300 µm

Size 212 µm
Remove the stacked sieves
Size 150 µm from the sieve shaker.
Size 63 µm

Pan
Prepare the test sieves for
individual weighing with the
retained soil.
Sieve Shaker
Endecott EFL 2000
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE
Weighing the Retained Soil
Size 2 mm
on the Test Sieves
Size 1.18 mm

Size 600 µm

Size 425 µm

Size 300 µm

Size 212 µm

Size 150 µm

Size 63 µm

Pan
The mass of soil retained can be obtained
by deducting the mass of the test sieve
obtained on earlier stage of testing.
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE
S.O.L.A.T
Interface
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE
S.O.L.A.T
Print Out
Layout
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE
S.O.L.A.T
Print Out
Layout
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE
S.O.L.A.T
Print Out
Layout
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE
S.O.L.A.T
Print Out
Layout
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE

Determine the “Characteristics Size” :

(from the PSD plot @ chart)
D10 = 0.27 mm
D30 = 1.60 mm
D60 = 5.30 mm
SIEVING

Grading Characteristics

D60

D30

D10

0.27 1.6 5.3

SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE

Determine the “Grading Characteristics” :

(i) Effective size = D10 = 0.27 mm

(ii) Coefficient of Uniformity

Cu = D60 = 5.30 = 19.6
D10 0.27
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE

Determine the “Grading Characteristics” :

(iii) Coefficient of Gradation or

Coefficient of Curvature
Cg = (D30)2 = (1.60)2
D60 x D10 (5.30 x 0.27)

= 1.78
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE

Determine the “Percentage of Particle Size” :

(from the PSD plot @ chart)
Gravel = 65 %
Sand = 35 %
Fines = 0 %
SIEVING

Percentage of Particle Size

65 %
Gravel
35 %
Sand

0%
Fines
(Silt & Clay)
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE

“Classifying the Soil” :

(from data @ grading and BS1377/BS5930)

Cu > 5 ; It indicates that it is a well graded soil.

&
0.5 < Cg < 5 ; It indicates that it is a well
graded soil.
SIEVING
SIEVING TEST PROCEDURE

“Classifying the Soil” :

(from data @ grading and BS1377/BS5930)

It is a “Well graded very sandy GRAVEL

(GW)”.
 LESSON OUTCOMES (LO)
WEEK 4
At the end of the lecture, students should be
able to:-
•Consistency of fine – grained soils – Atterberg limit (liquid limit, plastic limit and
shrinkage limit).Plasticity index, Liquidity index, activity, Plasticity chart.
Laboratory determination of liquid limit and plastic limit.
•Soil description based on visual examination and simple tests.
•Soil classification for engineering purposes. Soil classification system based
on British/ Malaysia Standard
 
CLASSIFICATION OF FINE SOILS

Consistency Limits & Plasticity

Consistency varies with the water content of
the soil.
The consistency of a soil can range from
(dry) solid to semi-solid to plastic to liquid
(wet).
The water contents at which the consistency
changes from one state to the next are
called consistency limits (or Atterberg limits)
CLASSIFICATION OF FINE SOILS

Two of these are utilised in the classification

of fine soils :
1. Liquid limit (wL) - change of consistency
from plastic to liquid.
2. Plastic limit (wP) - change of consistency
from brittle/crumbly to plastic.
Measures of liquid and plastic limit values
can be obtained from laboratory tests.
CLASSIFICATION OF FINE SOILS

Plasticity Index
Measures of liquid and plastic limit values
can be obtained from laboratory tests.
The consistency of most soils the ground
will be plastic or semi-solid.
Soil strength and stiffness behaviour are
related to the range of plastic consistency.
 CLASSIFICATION OF FINE SOILS

The range of water content over which a soil

has a plastic consistency is termed the
Plasticity Index (IP or PI).

IP = Liquid Limit - Plastic Limit

= wL – wP
Plasticity Index = Liquid Limit – Plastic Limit

Shrinkage Plastic Liquid

water content
0
limit limit limit
CLASSIFICATION OF FINE SOILS

Plasticity Index
Volume IP

Natural Water Content, W

Va Semi Liquid
Plastic Plastic
Solid Solid
VS

WS Wp WL % Water
Content
CLASSIFICATION OF FINE
SOILS
CLASSIFICATION OF FINE SOILS

Plasticity Chart
Measures of liquid and plastic limit valuesIn
the British Standard Soil Classification fine
soils are divided into ten classes based on
their measured plasticity index and liquid
limit values.
CLAYS are distinguished from SILTS, and
five divisions of plasticity are defined as
given below :
CLASSIFICATION OF FINE SOILS

Low plasticity wL = < 35%

Intermediate plasticity wL = 35 - 50%
High plasticity wL = 50 - 70%
Very high plasticity wL = 70 - 90%
Extremely high plasticity wL = > 90%
CLASSIFICATION OF FINE SOILS
CLASSIFICATION OF FINE SOILS
Plasticity Chart USCS / ASTM
CLASSIFICATION OF FINE SOILS
Activity (ratio between PI and % clay fraction)
Used as an index property to determine the swelling
potential of expansive clays
Skempton (1953) showed that for a soil with a particular
mineralogy, the plasticity index is linearly related to the
amount of the clay fraction. He coined a term called
‘activity’.
The proportion of clay mineral flakes (< 2 µm size) in a
fine soil affects its current state, particularly its tendency
to swell and shrink with changes in water content.
The degree of plasticity related to the clay content is
called the activity of the soil.
Activity = Ip / (% clay particles)
CLASSIFICATION OF FINE SOILS

Some typical values are:

Mineral Activity Soil Activity

Muscovite 0.25 Kaolin clay 0.4-0.5

Kaolinite 0.40 Glacial clay and loess 0.5-0.75

Illite 0.90 Most British clays 0.75-1.25

Montmorillonite > 1.25 Organic estuarine clay > 1.20

CLASSIFICATION OF FINE
SOILS
• The measure of soil strength using Atterberg limits and the
relationship between the soil’s natural water content and its
consistency limits, i.e. its natural or in situ consistency is given by the
liquidity index (IL):

• Where w =natural or in situ water content

ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE
Liquid Limit (LL) Testing
1. Cone Penetrometer Method
2. Casagrande Method

Plastic Limit (PL) Testing

Shrinkage Limit Testing

 ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE (CONE PENETRATION)
Dial gauge with Penetration lever.
360O read out. This lever moves
Example : the dial gauge needle.
(1O = 0.1 mm)

Height adjustment
for cone and dial
gauge assembly Manual cone release and
locking device.
An automatic electric
release and locking device
is also available.
Cone :
Mass 80 g
Length 35 mm
Angle 30O
Soil in metal cup :
55 mm diameter
40 mm deep

iDeaz
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE (CONE PENETRATION)
Electric LL Cone
Penetrometer
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE

Cone Penetrometer 6. Setting up the Cone

Method Penetrometer
Stages involve in testing : 7. Measuring the Cone
penetration
1.Sample preparation
8. Moisture content
2.Mixing with water determination
3.Maturing 9. Remixing & Repeat test
4.Remixing 10. Calculation
5.Placing in cup 11. Results
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE
Soil Sample
1. Sample Preparation
The soil sample that are
Size 425 µm
used have to pass the 425
micron sieve.
Soil
Passing Next a representative
Sieve
Size sample is required
425 µm
weighing around 200- 250
g.
Pan

Soil retained on pan

 200 – 250 g
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE
Soil retained on pan
 200 – 250 g
2. Mixing with Water
Then the sample is
Pan transferred to a flat glass
plate,
Distilled water is added and
the soil and water are mixed
thoroughly with two palette
knives until the mass
becomes a thick homogenous
paste.
Glass Plate
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE
3. Maturing
The paste is then transferred to
an air-tight container for 24
hours to allow the water time to
Glass Plate penetrate the soil fully.
For a soil of a low clay content,
such as silty soil, the curing
period may be omitted and the
test can be carried out
Air Tight immediately.
Container
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE
4. Remixing
Remove the soil from the
container after maturing.
Air Tight
Container
Transfer the soil to the glass
plate.
Remix it with pallette knives
for 10 minutes.
It is essential to obtain a
uniform distribution of water
throughout the sample.
Glass Plate
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE
5. Placing in Cup
Push a portion of the sample
into the cup with a palette knife
taking care not to trap air.
Strike off the excess and with
the pallette knife to get a
smooth and level surface.

Cone
Penetration Cup fully
Cup filled with
soil
 6. Setting
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS Up the Cone
Penetrometer
TESTING PROCEDURE
1 Pull up the
penetration lever.
Dial gauge will be
set at ‘Zero”.

2
4 Pull out the
locking device.
Adjust the height
till the top of the Push up the cone
cup comes at a 3 until it come into
distance where it contact with the 4
do not come into end of penetration
contact with the lever.
tip of the cone.

iDeaz
 6. Setting
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS Up the Cone

TESTING PROCEDURE
Penetrometer

Once the height of the

equipment has been set,
make sure that the small
gap is sufficient for the
penetration tin can slide
or move easily without
any contact with the tip
of the cone
penetrometer.
 7. Measuring
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS Cone
Penetration
TESTING PROCEDURE

1
Placed the cup
Push in the 2
locking device in
(containing soil)
order to unlock Push In
at the center of
the cone and
the base @ the
thus, releasing
cone tip is at the
the cone. Cone
center of the cup. 3 Penetrates

iDeaz
 7. Measuring
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS Cone
Penetration
TESTING PROCEDURE
Initial Level Push down carefully
the penetration lever.
The dial gauge needle
5 will move.
The lever
should be just come into
Read the dial
contact with the top end
gauge reading, ie.
of the cone piece.
it will
Do not exert in pushing
corresponds to
the lever as it would
the penetration of
further penetrate the cup.
the cone.
*Refer notes

iDeaz
 ATTERBERG’S LIMITS 7. Measuring
Cone
TESTING PROCEDURE Penetration

*
Release the cone for a period of 5 s (plus or
minus 1 s) if the apparatus is not fitted with an
automatic release and locking device.
After 5s the cone should have, to some extent,
penetrated the smooth surface of the soil.
Record the penetration reading to the nearest
0.1 mm.
Lift out the cone and clean it carefully, to avoid
scratching, then add a little more wet soil and
repeat the test.
 ATTERBERG’S LIMITS 7. Measuring
Cone
TESTING PROCEDURE Penetration

*
If the difference between the first and second
penetration readings is less than 0.5 mm record
the average of the two penetrations.
If the second penetration is more than 0.5 mm and
less than 1 mm from the first, carry out a third test.
If the overall range is then not more than 1 mm
record the average of the three penetrations.
If the overall range is more than 1 mm remove the
soil from the cup, remix and repeat until consistent
results are obtained.
 ATTERBERG’S LIMITS 7. Measuring
Cone
TESTING PROCEDURE Penetration
*
The ideal penetration for a first reading is
between 13 mm to 16 mm.
If it is less than 13 mm, than the test requires a
lot more nos. of tests (more plotting points).
If it is more than 16 mm the nos. of test will be
less and as a results the plotting points will not
look presentable.
 ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE
8. Moisture Content
Determination
Take a moisture content sample
of about 10 g from the cup
around the area penetrated by
the cone.
The moisture content sample
should not be smeared into the
Tapping container but instead dropped
cleanly by tapping the spatula
The soil sample falls into
the moisture content tin held close to the container.

Oven
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE
8. Moisture Content
Determination
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE
9. Remixing & Repeat Test
Transfer the
remainder of the
Repeat the test at least three
soil from the cup more times using the same
to the glass plate
for remixing
sample of soil.
A further increments of
distilled water have been
added.
Proceeding from the drier
state to the wetter.

Glass Plate
 ATTERBERG’S LIMITS 9. Remixing &
Repeat Test
TESTING PROCEDURE
*
The amount of water added shall be such that
a range of penetration values of approximately
15 mm – 25 mm is covered by four or more
test runs and is evenly distributed.
Each time the soil is removed from the cup for
the addition of water the cup and cone must be
thoroughly cleaned, if the soil is to be left for
any length of time it should be covered with a
damp cloth to prevent it drying out.
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS 10. Calculation
TESTING PROCEDURE
Calculate the moisture content of each test
sample.
Each cone penetration (mm) is plotted as
ordinate against the corresponding moisture
content (%) as abcissa, both to linear scale on
a graph.
Plot the relationship between the moisture
content and the corresponding cone
penetration recorded on a linear chart.
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE 10. Calculation

X axis : Moisture Content

Y axis : Cone Penetration
Draw a line of best fit between the points.
 10. Calculation
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE
Graph Plot.
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
11. Results

TESTING PROCEDURE
From the graph, read off the moisture content
corresponding to a cone penetration of 20 mm
to the first decimal place.
Express this moisture content to the nearest
whole number and report it as the liquid limit.
For notification, the plastic limit and plasticity
index are usually reported with the liquid limit.
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS 11. Results

TESTING PROCEDURE

1 Draw the 20 mm line

Intersection of the 20 mm
2 line with the best fit line

Read off the moisture

content value to the
3
nearest whole number;
67% i.e LL = 67
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE (CASAGRANDE)

iDeaz
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE (CASAGRANDE)

Motorized
Casagrande
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE (CASAGRANDE)

ASTM

BS Casagrande Liquid Limit

Equipment with Grooving Tools
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE

Casagrande Method 7. Applying the “Groove”

Stages involve in testing : 8. Applying the “Blows @
1.Sample preparation Taps”
2.Mixing with water
9. Moisture content
3.Maturing determination
4.Remixing
10. Remixing & Repeat test
5.Setting the equipment
6.Placing soil in the 11. Calculation
Casagrande cup 12. Results
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE
Soil Sample
1. Sample Preparation
The soil sample that are
Size 425 µm
used have to pass the 425
micron sieve.
Soil
Passing Next a representative
Sieve
Size sample is required
425 µm
weighing around 200- 250
g.
Pan

Soil retained on pan

 200 – 250 g
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE
Soil retained on pan
 200 – 250 g
2. Mixing with Water
Then the sample is
Pan transferred to a flat glass
plate,
Distilled water is added and
the soil and water are mixed
thoroughly with two palette
knives until the mass
becomes a thick homogenous
paste.
Glass Plate
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE
3. Maturing
The paste is then transferred to
an air-tight container for 24
hours to allow the water time to
Glass Plate penetrate the soil fully.
For a soil of a low clay content,
such as silty soil, the curing
period may be omitted and the
test can be carried out
Air Tight immediately.
Container
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE
4. Remixing
Remove the soil from the
container after maturing.
Air Tight
Container
Transfer the soil to the glass
plate.
Remix it with pallette knives
for 10 minutes.
It is essential to obtain a
uniform distribution of water
throughout the sample.
Glass Plate
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS 5. Setting up the

TESTING PROCEDURE equipment

Height adjustment screw

1cm

Adjust the drop height of the liquid limit device to 1 cm using the
space block or some grooving tool has an attached tip at the end of
the grooving tool.
Measure the drop height from the block to where the bowl hits the
block.
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE
6. Placing in Casagrande Cup
With the cup of the apparatus
resting on it's base, place a
portion of the sample in the
cup, without entrapping air
ensure the cup is filled and
level.
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS 6. Placing in

TESTING PROCEDURE Casagrande Cup

Soil Level Soil Level

iDeaz

Soil should be levelled

as flat as possible The level of the soil to be placed into the
Casagrande cup have to follow the dotted
line as indicated in the picture by using
the pallete knife.
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS 7. Applying the

TESTING PROCEDURE “Groove”

Grooving tool positioned

at the centre of the cup

Movement of grooving tool

iDeaz
The canal created using
the tip of the grooving tool
The level of the soil to be placed into the
Casagrande cup have to follow the dotted
line as indicated in the picture by using
the pallete knife.
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS 7. Applying the

TESTING PROCEDURE “Groove”

The “Groove” BEFORE applying

the blows @ bumps.

The channel created using

the tip of the grooving tool
The “Groove” mark
and canal
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS 8. Applying the

TESTING PROCEDURE Blows @ Taps

Turn the crank handle at a rate of approximately 2 rotations/s so that the cup
is lifted and dropped, counting the number of bumps.
Continue until the two parts of the sample come into contact at the bottom of
the groove along a distance of 13 mm.
Record the number of bumps required.
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS 8. Applying the
TESTING PROCEDURE Blows @ Taps

The “Groove” AFTER applying the

blows @ bumps.

13 mm

13 mm

The “Groove” mark

and canal is closed at
a length of 13 mm

13 mm
 ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE
9. Moisture Content
Determination
Take a moisture content sample
of about 10 g from the cup
around the area closed “groove”
area.
The moisture content sample
Tapping should not be smeared into the
container but instead dropped
The soil sample falls into
the moisture content tin cleanly by tapping the spatula
held close to the container.

Oven
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE
9. Moisture Content
Determination
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE
10. Remixing & Repeat Test
Transfer the
remainder of the
Repeat the test at least three
soil from the cup more times using the same
to the glass plate
for remixing
sample of soil.
A further increments of
distilled water have been
added.
Proceeding from the drier
state to the wetter.

Glass Plate
 ATTERBERG’S LIMITS 10. Remixing &

TESTING PROCEDURE
Repeat Test

*
The amount of water added shall be such that
a range of blows @ taps @ bumps values of
approximately 35 blows – 15 blows count are
covered by four or more test runs and is evenly
distributed.
Each time the soil is removed from the cup for
the addition of water the cup must be
thoroughly cleaned, if the soil is to be left for
any length of time it should be covered with a
damp cloth to prevent it drying out.
 11. Calculation
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE
X axis : Number of Taps Counts (logarithmic)
Y axis : Moisture Content
Draw a line of best fit between the points.
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
11. Calculation

TESTING PROCEDURE
Graph Plot.
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS 12. Results
TESTING PROCEDURE
From the graph, read off the moisture content
corresponding to the 25 taps of the cup to the
first decimal place.
Express this moisture content to the nearest
whole number and report it as the liquid limit.
For notification, the plastic limit and plasticity
index are usually reported with the liquid limit.
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS 12. Results

TESTING PROCEDURE

1
Draw the 25 taps line

3 2
Intersection of the
25 taps line with
Read off the moisture the best fit line
content value to the
nearest whole number;
72.5% i.e LL = 73

25
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE
(Plastic Limit)

Plastic Limit test 6. Create ball shape

Stages involve in testing : 7. Hand drying
1.Sample preparation 8. Dividing samples
2.Mixing with water 9. Rolling and threading
3.Maturing 10. Determine the crumbling
4.Remixing point
5.Dry 11. Moisture content
calculation
*Step 1 – 3 from LL test 12. Results
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS (Plastic Limit)

TESTING PROCEDURE
4. Remixing
Remove 20 g of the soil from
the container after maturing.
Air Tight
Container
Transfer the soil to the glass
plate.
Remix it with pallette knives
for 10 minutes.
It is essential to obtain a
uniform distribution of water
throughout the sample.
Glass Plate
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE
(Plastic Limit)

5. Dry
Allow the soil to dry partially
on the plate until it becomes
plastic enough to be shape it
into a ball.

Glass Plate
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE
(Plastic Limit)

6. Create ball shape

Glass Plate
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE
(Plastic Limit)

7. Hand drying
Mould the ball of the soil
between the fingers and roll it
between the palms of the hand
until the heat of the hands has
dried.
The soil sufficient for slight
Glass Plate
cracks to appear on it surface.
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS (Plastic Limit)

TESTING PROCEDURE
8. Dividing samples
Devide the sample in two sub
sample of about 10 g each and
carry out a separate
Glass Plate determination on each portion.
Each portion, futher divide into
10 g
4 more smaller parts.
10 g
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE
(Plastic Limit)

9. Rolling and threading

Mould the soil in the finger to
equalize the distribution of moisture,
then form the soil into the tread about
6 mm diameter between first finger
and thumb of each hand.
Roll the tread to reduce to about 3 mm
in 5 to 10 complete, forward and
backward movement of the hand.
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS (Plastic Limit)
TESTING PROCEDURE
10. Crumbling point
Mould it between the fingers to dry it
further. The first crumbling point is
the plastic limit.

3 mm diameter

Cracking
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS (Plastic Limit)
TESTING PROCEDURE
 ATTERBERG’S LIMITS (Plastic Limit)
TESTING PROCEDURE
11. Moisture Content
Determination
Take a moisture content sample
of all the samples.

The soil sample falls into

the moisture content tin

Oven
 ATTERBERG’S LIMITS (Plastic Limit)

TESTING PROCEDURE
11. Moisture Content
Determination
Take a moisture content sample
of all the samples.

The soil sample falls into

the moisture content tin

Oven
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS (Plastic Limit)

TESTING PROCEDURE
12. Results
Moisture content results.
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS Classification

TESTING PROCEDURE
Moisture content results from
LL.
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE
Classification

Moisture content results from

LL.
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS Classification
TESTING PROCEDURE
Moisture content results from
LL.
ATTERBERG’S LIMITS
TESTING PROCEDURE
Classification
 CLASSIFICATION

The range of water content over which a soil

has a plastic consistency is termed the
Plasticity Index (IP or PI).

IP = Liquid Limit - Plastic Limit

= wL – wP
Plasticity Index = Liquid Limit – Plastic Limit

Shrinkage Plastic Liquid water content

0
limit limit limit
CLASSIFICATION
FIELD IDENTIFICATION
Particle size : by implementing visual
examination and ‘feel’.
Grading : either the soil is well graded/
poorly graded/uniform graded.
Compactness : sometimes regarded as ‘field
strength’ and can be reported as loose/
dense/slightly cemented.
Structure : either the soil is classified as
homogenous/inter-stratified/intact/fissured.
FIELD IDENTIFICATION
Cohesion, Plasticity & Consistency : this
method can be used for identifying soil
particles by hand squeezing. Soil can be
classified as either; very soft / soft / firm /
very firm / hard / crumbly.
Dilatancy : dilatancy will exhibits a glossy
water film marking on the surface of the
‘pat’.
FIELD IDENTIFICATION
Dry strength : can be identified by ‘breaking’
the soil.
Weathering : can be classified into
unweathered / slightly weathered /
moderately weathered / highly weathered /
fully weathered.
FIELD IDENTIFICATION
FIELD IDENTIFICATION

.
FIELD IDENTIFICATION

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FIELD IDENTIFICATION

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FIELD IDENTIFICATION

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FIELD IDENTIFICATION

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FIELD IDENTIFICATION

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FIELD IDENTIFICATION

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FIELD IDENTIFICATION

.
FIELD IDENTIFICATION

.
FIELD IDENTIFICATION

.
Do make a lot of practice on the tutorials questions.
Practice makes better.
End of Week 4 & End of Topic 1
Week 5 : Flow of water through soil.
Wasslam & Thank You.