Chapter 4

Consolidation
 PO 1 Apply knowledge of mathematics, natural science, engineering
fundamentals and an engineering specialization to wide practical
procedures and practices
 PO 2 Identify and analyse well-defined engineering problems reaching
substantiated conclusions using codified methods of analysis specific to
their field of activity
CO1-PO1
CO2-PO2

CO1 apply physical and engineering properties knowledge to wide

application of soil mechanic.
CO2 evaluate soil behavior including shear strength, compaction and
consolidation from the standpoint of effective stress concept.
At the end of this lecture, students should
be able to:-

•Understand the theory of consolidation

•Understand the laboratory procedures of 1D
consolidation test (Oedometer test).
•Determine the coefficient of volume compressibility, m v
from e – σ’ curve and determine the compression index,
cc and swelling index, c s from e-log σ’ curve.
•Determine the one-dimensional normal compression
line calculation of primary consolidation settlement.
•Determine the pre-compression/pre consolidation
stress, normally consolidated and over-consolidated
soils.
 Consolidation is a process by which soils decrease in volume.
 According to Karl Terzaghi consolidation is any process which
involves decrease in water content of a saturated soil without
replacement of water by air.
 In general it is the process in which reduction in volume takes place
by expulsion of water under long term static loads.
 It occurs when stress is applied to a soil that causes the soil particles
to pack together more tightly, therefore reducing its bulk volume.
 When this occurs in a soil that is saturated with water, water will be
squeezed out of the soil.
 The magnitude of consolidation can be predicted by many different
methods. In the Classical Method, developed by Karl von Terzaghi,
soils are tested with an oedometer test to determine their compression
index.
 This can be used to predict the amount of consolidation.
 Compaction occurs when soil particles are forced into a closer
state of packing with a reduction in volume and the expulsion of
air
 Mechanical energy is required which can be due to self-weight
loading or a surface surcharge
 Vibrations due to traffic movement, heavy machinery and certain
construction operation such as pile-driving can also cause
compaction settlement
 The Process
• In coarse soils (sands and gravels) any volume
change resulting from a change in loading
occurs immediately; increases in pore
pressures are dissipated rapidly due to high
permeability.
• In fine soils (silts and clays) - with low
permeabilities - seepage is slow and therefore
excess pore pressures dissipate slowly.
• Volume changes are rapid to begin with, but
the rate diminishes with time.
 Basic Process & Terminology
• Consider a site with:
• Initial steady-state groundwater conditions.
• An embankment is built, causing undrained loading,
the pore pressure in the soil below increases.
• Seepage flow occur and pore pressures decrease
• Consolidation takes place, settlement occurs, and
continues at a decreasing rate until steady-state
conditions are regained (perhaps many years for fine-
grained soils).
 One Dimensional Consolidation
• A general theory for consolidation, incorporating
three-dimensional flow vectors is complicated
and only applicable to a very limited range of
problems in geotechnical engineering.
• For the vast majority of practical settlement
problems, it is sufficient to consider that seepage
is taking place in one direction only and the
strains in the soil are therefore one-dimension
(usually vertical).
 One Dimensional Consolidation
• One-dimensional consolidation specifically occurs when
there is no lateral strain, e.g. in the oedometer test.
 One Dimensional Consolidation
• One-dimensional consolidation can be assumed to be
occurring under wide foundations.
 Consolidation Settlement
• Consolidation results in a change of thickness of soil
layers, which accumulates as a displacement at the
ground surface or the underside of a foundation.
• The aggregate settlement amount may not be the
simple sum of the changes in layer thicknesses (h1 +
h2 + h3 + ... etc.), especially under flexible loaded
areas where the settlement profile is saucer-shaped.
 The height of the tower is 55.86 m from the ground on the lowest side and 56.70
m on the highest side. The width of the walls at the base is 4.09 m and at the top
2.48 m. The tower has 296 or 294 steps.
 The tower leaned at an angle of 5.5 deg, but after the restoration works between
1990 and 2001 the tower leans at an angle of 3.99 deg. This means that the top of
the tower is 3.9 m from where it would stand if the tower were perfectly vertical.
 The Tower of Pisa was performed in 3 stages over 177 years. Construction of the
1st floor began on August 9, 1173
 The tower began to sink after construction had progressed to the 3rd floor in
1178. This was due to a mere 3-m foundation, set in weak, unstable subsoil, a
design that was flawed from the beginning
 The 7th floor was completed in 1319
 On Feb 27, 1964, the government of Italy requested aid in preventing the tower
from toppling.
 It was found that the tilt was increasing in combination with the softer
foundations on the lower side. Many methods were proposed to stabilize the
tower, including the addition of 800 metric tones of lead counterweights to the
raised end of the base.
 On Jan 7, 1990, after over 2 decades of work on the subject, the tower was
closed to the public. The bells were removed to relieve some weight, and cables
were cinched around the 3rd level and anchored several hundred meters away
 The final solution to prevent the collapse of the tower was to slightly straighten
the tower to a safer angle, by removing 38 cubic meters of soil from underneath
the raised end. The tower was straightened by 45 cm, returning to the exact
position that it occupied in 1838.
 In May 2008, after the removal of another 70 metric tons of earth, engineers
announced that the Tower had been stabilized such that it had stopped moving
for the first time in its history. They stated it would be stable for at least 200
years
• Compaction
Soil particles are forced into a closer or pack condition
where air is expelled and with the reduction of volume.

• Consolidation
The squeezing out of porewater from the saturated
cohesive soil due to loading.

• Moisture Movement
Occur in shrinkable or expansive clay with high liquid
limit. Clayey soil will show a shrinkage or expansive
condition due to decrease or increase of water volume.
• Loss of Lateral Support
The lateral support is highly important in cases
whereby the site excavation conducted nearby an
adjacent building, perhaps will induced the shift of
bearing capacity of the existing building.
The excavation process disturbs soil, loosening it and
causing spaces between soil particles to become much
larger
• Effect of Vegetation
Associated with highly plastic clays when draining of
water from the roots of the trees.
The removal of the trees means that more water
confined to the soil, thus create the soil to expand an
swelling occurs.

• Effect of Groundwater Lowering

The water table are lowered due to the pumping of
water or during excavation.
Settlement occurs due to the change of hydrostatic
condition
• Effects of temperature changes
Frost (winter)- occur in silts, fine sands, chalky soils
- frost expansion
- provide open/rubber-filled air gap
Heat (oven, boiler etc) - occur in clay
- cause shrinkage

• Effects of seepage and scouring

Occur in sandy soil (fine dry sand/loess)
Scouring : removal of material by surface water &
streams
Piping : loss of stability at bottom of excavation due to
upward flow of water
Immediate Settlement (Se)
• Due to elastic deformation of soil. Occurs directly after the
application of a load, without a change in the soil moisture
content

Primary Consolidation Settlement (Sc)

• Decrease in volume of saturated cohesive soils due to
expulsion of pore water and takes place during the mechanical
compacting process

Secondary Consolidation Settlement (Ss)

• Long-term decrease in volume due to plastic adjustment of soil
fabric and takes place after the compaction process is
complete and the permanent loads are in place. 

The total settlement of a foundation, St;

St = Se + Sc +Ss
 During secondary consolidation, the weight
placed on soil slowly forces water out of the
spaces between soil particles. As this happens,
soil particles will move close together and
settling will occur. The source of the weight
would be both the structure and the overlying
soil.

 The amount of secondary consolidation which

can be expected increases with the depth of the
affected area. An excavation with backfill 15 feet
deep would experience more secondary
consolidation than an excavation with backfill 8
feet deep.
 A common scenario is when a structure is built
partially on undisturbed soil and partially on
compacted fill. Soil in these two areas will
consolidate at different rates as the weight of the
newly-built structure forces water from between soil
particles. This is called “differential settlement”.

 Settling will be reflected in any part of structure

bearing upon the settled soil. In adequately-
compacted soil, settling will be so minor that
evidence won’t be visible. Extreme differential
settlement will create stresses which are relieved by
cracking. 
The rate of consolidation is affected by:
the soil composition,

levels of moisture saturation,

the amount and nature of the load on the soil

state of consolidation of the soil.

• During the natural process of deposition in fine
grained soils, the water between the particles is
squeezed out by the layers deposited above.
• After a few years, an equilibrium stage is
reached and the compression stopped.
• A soil is said to be fully consolidated when its
volume remain constant under a constant state
of stress.
 The stress strain-strain behaviour of soil, especially
clay is significantly affected by its stress history
 At a given depth, soil is subject to vertical and
horizontal stresses due to the weight of overburden
pressure and any superimposed loading on the surface
 Under the influence of these stresses, the soil will have
been consolidated during the course of time since its
deposition, so that it is presently in a consolidated state
 A normal consolidated soil is a material that has
never been subject to stresses greater than those
presently existing
 An overconsolidated soil is material that, at some
time in its past has been subject to consolidating
stress greater than that presently existing
 For example, where some of the overburden has been
eroded, or where a thick layer of ice once imposed a
surface surcharge before melting
• Terzaghi Model

Valve
Load

Piston

Porewater Spring
• Steel springs represent the soil.
• The piston is supported by the spring.
• The valve is closed.
• When load is applied, the condition remains the same.
• The length of the spring is unchanged due to the state
of incompressible of soil and water.
• Terzaghi Model

Porewater
Dissipated
Out from the
Load
Valve
Pushes
Down
Valve Open
Piston

Piston
Porewater Springs
With High Shortened
Pressure
Squeezed
Out
,u
Initially : Finally :
u =  u = 0
’ = 0 ’ = 

 ’

 ’

u Time
ELE
 Oedometer Testing
• The one-dimensional compression and swelling
characteristics of a soil may be measured in the laboratory
using the oedometer test (from the Greek: oidema = a
swelling).
• A cylindrical specimen of soil enclosed in a metal ring is
subjected to a series of increasing static loads, while
changes in thickness are recorded against time.
• From the changes in thickness at the end of each load stage
the compressibility of the soil may be observed, and
parameters measured:
• Compression Index (Cc)
• Coefficient of Volume Compressibility (mv).
• From the changes in thickness recorded against time during
each load stage the rate of consolidation may be observed
and the Coefficient of Consolidation (Cv) measured.
 Oedometer Testing

• The saturated specimen is usually 75 mm diameter and 15-20

mm thick, enclosed in a circular metal ring and sandwiched
between porous stones.
 Oedometer Testing
• Vertical static load increments are applied at regular time intervals
(e.g. 12, 24, 48 hr.).
• The no. and value of the load increments will depend on the type
of soil and on the range of stress anticipated on site. Normally
equal to the in situ vertical stress at the depth from which the
sample was obtained. For soft soils, lower value must be used
• The load is doubled with each increment up to the required
maximum (e.g. 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800 kPa).
• During each load stage thickness changes are recorded against
time.
• After full consolidation is reached under the final load, the loads
are removed (in one or several stages and the specimen allowed
to swell, after which the specimen is removed and its thickness
and water content determined.
• With a porous stone both above and below the soil specimen the
drainage will be 2-way (i.e. drainage path length, d = H/2)
Oedometer set up with manual data acquisition - ELE
 UitM Shah Alam using ELE apparatus

Data Logger

Oedometer set up with computerized

digital data acquisition - ELE
UitM Shah Alam using ELE apparatus

Displacement transducers
 Data Logger

Displacement transducers

Oedometer set up with computerized

digital data acquisition - Controls
 Digital Dial Gauge

Data Logger
 Transducer
Dial Gauge
 Data Logger

Oedometer set up with computerized

digital data acquisition - Tecnotest
Timur Drilling, Kuching using Tecnotest apparatus

Dial Gauges
Data Logger

Oedometer set up with computerized

digital data acquisition - MATEST
Oedometer Cell & Accessories
Oedometer Cell & Accessories

Oedometer Cell & Accessories

Oedometer data & analysis
•the final void ratio after swelling is determined

•The void ratios at the start of each load increment stage may
be obtained by working backwards from the final water
content and thickness reading
•Plotting compression curve

•Determination of compression index, Cc

•Determination of preconsolidation stress

•Determination of the coefficient of volume compressibility, m v

•Calculate amount of consolidation settlement

Specimen Changes
eo = Hv / Hs σ = total load/ area
e1 = H1/Hs of specimen
e1 = eo-e1
e2 = e1- ΔH1/Hs
Δe- ΔH relationship

Equating the two expressions for average

vertical strain,

consolidation change in void ratio

settlement
H e

Ho 1  eo
initial void ratio
initial thickness of
clay layer
Plot e vs σ’

e e

eO Recompression

Normal Curve
e1
Swelling

' '
’O '1

Void Ratio to Effective Stress Curve Swelling & Recompression

Plot e vs log σ’

loading
void ratio

v’ increases &

e decreases
unloading
v’ decreases &
e increases (swelling)

log v’
Plot e vs log σ’

Cr
1
void ratio

Cc ~ compression index

Cc

Cr ~ recompression index 1
(or swelling index)
Cr
1

log v’
Plot e vs log σ’
 From oedometer test results:
• If ´0 and ´1 are stresses at the start at end of a
loading stage and e0 and e1 are the corresponding
voids ratios and the soil swells back the ´0 and eF
The compression index is the slope of the e/log
´ curve (NCL)

The swelling index is the slope of the swelling-

recompression line (SRL)
Preconsolidation pressure p
p’ is the maximum
vertical effective stress
the soil element has
ever been subjected to
void ratio

 p’ log v’
preconsolidation pressure
tangent projection from h to
bisector
pt of max curvature

= horiz projection from a

= bisector

= tangent at a

= preconsolidation pressure
OCR = ’c / ’
 Preconsolidation pressure p
 Casagrande (1936) suggested a simple
graphic contruction to determine
preconcolidation pressure

1. By visual observation, establish point a, at

which the e-log σ’ plot has a maximum radius
of curvature
2. Draw a horizontal line ab
3. Draw the line ac tangent at a
4. Draw the line ad, which is the bisector of the
angle bac
5. project the straight-line portion gh to intersect
line ad at f. The abscissa of point f is the
preconsolidation pressure, σ’c
Coefficient of volume compressibility, mv

~ denoted by mv

~ is the volumetric strain in a clay element per

unit increase in stress no
units

V
change in volume

original volume
i.e.,
mv  V

kPa-1 or MPa-1 kPa or MPa
mv = e . 1
’ 1 + eo

Where, e = slope of the e/σ’ curve

’
 Amount of consolidation settlement

sC = mv ’ H

sC = CC log( ’/ ’) H
1 O

1 + eO
Example 1
Readings from an oedometer test on a saturated clay :

Applied 0 25 50 100 200 400 800

Stress
(kPa)
Thickness 19.60 19.25 18.98 18.61 18.14 17.68 17.24
(mm)

At the end of the last loading period, all the load has been
removed and the sample is allowed to swell (expand) for
24 hours. In the end the thickness of the sample is
recorded at 17.92 mm and the final water content is
31.8%. Given the specific gravity is 2.66.
Example 1 (…continue)
(a) Calculate the void ratio at the end of each loading stage.

Firstly determine the final void ratio (end of stage).

Sr = 1.0 (Soil in a fully saturated condition)

m = 31.8% and Gs = 2.66

Use, Sr e = mGs
e = mGs
= (0.318) (2.66) = 0.846
Example 1 (…continue)
(a)
Stage 0 – 800 kPa (Swelling Stage)
Calculate the change in void ratio.
Thickness at 0 kPa = 17.92 mm and e = 0.846
Thickness at 800 kPa = 17.24 mm
e = h (1 + eo)
ho
= (17.92 – 17.24) (1 + 0.846)
17.92
= 0.68 (1.846) = 0.070
17.92
Example 1 (…continue)
(a)
Before calculating on the next stage, calculate the void
ratio at the 800 kPa stage.

e = 0.846 Void ratio value from the swelling stage, ie. 0 kPa

e = 0.070 e from the 0 kPa – 800 kPa stage

e = e - e NEW e, Void ratio value for the 800 kPa stage

= 0.846 – 0.070
= 0.776
Example 1 (…continue)
(a) New ‘e’ Value

Stage 800 – 400 kPa

Calculate the change in void ratio.
Thickness at 800 kPa = 17.24 mm and e = 0.776
Thickness at 400 kPa = 17.68 mm
e = h (1 + eo)
ho
= (17.24 – 17.68) (1 + 0.776)
17.24
= - 0.44 (1.776) = - 0.045
17.24
Example 1 (…continue)
(a)
Before calculating on the next stage, calculate the void
ratio at the 400 kPa stage.

e = 0.776 Void ratio value from the 800 kPa stage

e = - 0.045 e from the 800 kPa – 400 kPa stage

NEW e, Void ratio value for the 400 kPa stage

e = e - e
= 0.776 – ( - 0.045 )
= 0.821
Example 1 (…continue) Again,
(a) New ‘e’ Value
Stage 400 – 200 kPa
Calculate the change in void ratio.
Thickness at 400 kPa = 17.68 mm and e = 0.821
Thickness at 200 kPa = 18.14 mm
e = h (1 + eo)
ho
= (17.68 – 18.14) (1 + 0.821)
17.68
= - 0.46 (1.821) = - 0.047
17.68
Example 1 (…continue)
(a)
Before calculating on the next stage, calculate the void
ratio at the 200 kPa stage.

e = 0.821` Void ratio value from the 400 kPa stage

e = - 0.047 e from the 400 kPa – 200 kPa stage

NEW e, Void ratio value for the 200 kPa stage

e = e - e
= 0.821 – ( - 0.047 )
= 0.868
Example 1 (…continue)
(a)
Repeat the process for the other stages;
0 kPa – 800 kPa 
800 kPa – 400 kPa 
400 kPa – 200 kPa 
200 kPa – 100 kPa X
100 kPa – 50 kPa X
50 kPa – 25 kPa X
25 kPa – 0 kPa X
Example 1 (…continue)
(a)
The best way to represent your calculation
is by means of a table.

Make sure to start your calculation from the bottom to

the top.

Refer to the tabulated values next page.

 Example 1 (…continue)
(a)
Data obtained from question

Finish at Top

Start at
Bottom
(-)
(-)
(-)

(-)
Example 1 (…continue)
(b) Plot the void ratio against the applied stress.
Example 1 (…continue)
(c) Determine the coefficient for volume compressibility
(mv) for the stress range 220 kPa – 360 kPa.

Refer to the plotted graph (b).

From the graph;

For ’o = 220 kPa , eo = 0.858
& ’1 = 360 kPa , e1 = 0.825
Example 1 (…continue)
(b) Plot the void ratio against the applied stress.

e0

e1

’O ’1
Example 1 (…continue)
(c)
For ’o = 220 kPa , eo = 0.858
& ’1 = 360 kPa , e1 = 0.825

mv = e . 1
’ 1 + eo

= (0.858 – 0.825) 1 x 103

(360 – 220) 1.858

= 0.127 m2/MN
Example 1 (…continue)
(d) Plot the void ratio against the log applied stress.
Example 1 (…continue)
(e) Determine value of the compressibility index (Cc).

Refer to the plotted graph (d).

Cc is the slope straight portion in the graph.

From the graph or tabulated data;

For log ’o = log 200 kPa , eo = 0.864
& log ’1 = log 800 kPa , e1 = 0.772
 Cc is the slope straight
portion in the graph

eO

e1
Log ’O Log ’1

200 800
Example 1 (…continue)
(e) From the graph or tabulated data;

For log ’o = log 200 kPa , eo = 0.864

& log ’1 = log 800 kPa , e1 = 0.772

Cc = eo – e1
log ’1 - log ’o
= (0.864 – 0.772)
log 800 – log 200
= 0.153
Example 1 (…continue)
(f) Obtain the value of pre consolidation pressure (’p)
from the graph plotted in (d).

Using the Casagrande method,

The ’p = 43 kPa

 2
1 P

6 4

5 3

Pre consolidation pressure

43
Example 1 (…continue)
(g) Use the data obtain in (c) and (e) to obtain and
compare the value of ‘consolidation settlement’ for 4 m
thick of clay for an average stress changes between 220 -
360 kPa.

in (c); mv = 0.127 m2/MN

Use this equation;

sC = mv ’ H
= (0.127) (360 – 220) (4) 103
= 71 mm
 An Alternative Method

Example 1 (…continue)
(g) in (e); CC = 0.153

Use this equation;

sC = CC log(1’/O’) HO
1 + eO
= 0.153 log(360/220) (4) 103
1.858
= 70 mm
 Example 2
 The following readings were obtained from an oedometer test on a
specimen of saturated clay. the load being held constant for 24 hours
before the addition of the next increment
Pressure 0 25 50 100 200 400 800 0
(kN/m2)

Sample 17.32 17.20 16.84 16.48 16.18 15.85 15.50 15.85

thickness (mm)

 At the end of test the water content was 30%. Gs = 2.66

 i/calculate and tabulate the void ratio at the end of each pressure stage
 ii/ plot the e – σ’ curve
 iii/determine the values of mv for the stress increments of 100 – 200
kN/m2
 iv/ calculate the value of consolidation settlement for a 5 m thick of the
above soil under the same stress condition
 Example 3
 In a consolidation test, the pressure increment was maintained for
24 hours and the changes in thickness were recorded as follows:
Pressure (kN/m2) 0 50 100 200 400 800 0

Sample thickness (mm) 20 19.65 19.52 19.35 19.15 18.95 19.25

 After 24 hours, the water content was 27%. Gs = 2.65

 i/ calculate and tabulate the void ratio at the end of each pressure
stage and plot the void ratio vs log effective stress using log scale
graph
 ii/ determine the values of Cc (compressibility index) from the
plotted graph
 iii/ calculate the value of consolidation settlement for a 8 m thick of
the above soil for the stress increments of 80 – 200 kN/m2
At the end of this lecture, students should be able
to:-

Understand the Terzaghi time rate consolidation theory

Determine the coefficient of consolidation (cv) using root-

time and log time methods, degree of consolidation and

time factor, Tv.
Understand the soil stabilization method using pre loading
and vertical drains
 The results of oedometer test can be used to obtain a
value for the coefficient of consolidation, cv
 The test must be continued to almost complete
consolidation so that degrees of consolidation and time
factors can be related
 This can be accomplished using either a square-root-
of-time method or log-time method
 Square root of time method

 A plot of deformation against the square

root of time is made for the incremental
loading

 Draw line AB through the early portion

of the curve

 Draw a line AC such that OC = 1.15OB.

The abscissa of point D, which is the
intersection of AC and the consolidation
curve, gives the square root of time for
90% consolidation (√t90)
 For 90% consolidation, T90 = 0.848 (table 10.1)

or

Hdr = average longest drainage path during consolidation

 The true zero for the primary compression is
obtained by projecting the straight portion of
the curve back to the thickness axis at zero
time, point F
 The following ratios are sometimes used to
show the relative amounts of initial, primary
and secondary compression
OF = amount of initial compression
FD = amount of primary compression =
FA/0.9
DG = amount of secondary compression
OG = total amount compression
 Initial compression ratio,

 Primary compression ratio,

 Secondary compression ratio,

Example 4
Example 4
Example 4
Log time method
• The general shape of
the plot of
deformation of the
specimen against time
for a given load
increment is shown
here
•From the plot, we can
observe 3 distinct
stages (stage I, II and
III)
 Stage I
Initial compression, which is caused mostly by preloading

 Stage II
primary consolidation, during which excess pore pressure is gradually
transferred into effective stress because of the expulsion of pore water

 Stage III
secondary consolidation, which occurs after complete dissipation of the excess
pore water pressure, when some deformation of the specimen takes place
because of the plastic readjustment of soil fabric
 A plot of deformation against the logarithm
of time is made for the incremental loading
 The curve comprises 3 parts: a parabolic
initial curve, a middle straight-line portion
and a final curve
 Point F (U=0) must be located by selecting 2
points P and Q on the curve for which the
values of t are in a ratio of 1:4.
 Vertical distances PQ and FP are equal,
enabling F to be located
 OF therefore equals the amount of initial
compression
 Point E, representing U=1.0, located at the
intersection of the projections of this final
straight portion and the middle straight
portion
 FD equals the amount of primary
compression
 U=50 can be found. FH=HD=½FD
 For 50% consolidation, Tv50 = 0.197 (table 10.1)

d = average longest drainage path during consolidation

 Once cv has been determined the time required for a given

amount of consolidation to occur can be calculated:
 In Malaysia, soft soil deposits are widespread all over the country
and mostly found in the coastal area. In general, soft soil posses
low strength and high compressibility and thus having low bearing
capacity.
 The soil needs to be improved to avoid excessive settlement and
prevent stability failure that affecting the safety of the
infrastructure.
 Preloading is one of the most effective and economical methods to
reduce settlement and improve the bearing capacity of the soft
soil.
 The preloading method is usually combined with vertical drain.
Vertical drains
•Act as free draining water
channel surrounded by a
thin filter jacket which
prevents the surrounding
soil from entering the core
•It will accelerates the rate
of consolidation
•2 types – sand drains and
sand wicks
When load such as an embankment acts on soft ground, the ground
settles. The time required for the completion of settlement is proportional
to the square of drainage distance of the excess pore water in the
ground. Drain methods are ground improvement methods which facilitate
consolidation settlement and improvement of ground strength by
shortening the drainage distance.
 In this chapter, we’ve discussed the fundamental concepts and
theories for estimating elastic and consolidation (primary and
secondary) settlement.
 Elastic settlement is primarily a function of the size and rigidity of
the foundation, the modulus of elasticity, the Poisson’s ratio of the
soil and the intensity of load on the foundation.
 Consolidation is a time-dependent process of settlement of
saturated clay layers located below the groundwater table by
extrusion of excess water pressure generated by application of
load on the foundation.
 In some cases, the actual and predicted maximum settlements agree remarkably
but in many others, the predicted settlements deviate to a large extend from the
actual settlements observed. This may caused by the following reasons:
- improper evaluation of soil properties
- nonhomogeneity and irregularity of soil profiles
- Error in the evaluation of the net stress increase with depth

 The variation between the predicted and observed time rate of settlement may
also be due to;
- improper evaluation of cv
- presence of irregular sandy seams with the clay layer, which reduces the length
of the maximum drainage path, Hdr