• The foundation problems of dams, bridges and
Geology
• deals with study of the earth, geological agents
and processes, identification of rocks and
minerals with adaptation to Philippine
conditions and structural relationship of earth
formations and stratification to the foundations
for engineering.
The importance of geology in civil engineering may
briefly as follows:
• Geology provides a systematic knowledge of
construction material, its occurrence,
composition, durability and other properties.
Example of such construction materials is
building stones, sandstones, clay, limestone
and laterite.
• The knowledge of the geological work of
natural agencies such as water, wind, ice and
earthquakes help in planning and carrying out
major civil engineering works. For example, the
knowledge of erosion, transportation and
deposition helps greatly in solving the
expensive problems of river control, coastal
and soil conservation.
• Ground water is the water which occurs in the
subsurface rocks. The knowledge about its
quantity and depth of occurrence is required in
connection with water supply, irrigation,
excavation and many other civil engineering
works.
buildings are directly concerned with the
geology of the area where they are to be built.
In these works, drilling is commonly
undertaken to explore the ground conditions.
Geology helps greatly in interpreting the drilling
data.
• In tunneling, constructing roads, canals, docks
and in determining the stability of cuts and
slopes, the knowledge about the nature and
structure of rocks is very necessary.
• Before staring a major engineering project at a
place, a detailed geological report which is
accompanied by geological maps and sections,
is prepared. Such a report helps in planning
and constructing the projects.
Relevance of geology in civil engineering
• The feasibility, the planning and design, the
construction and costing
• The safety of a project may depend critically on
the geological conditions where the
construction will take place.
• Some excavated rocks can be used as building
materials
Role of the engineer in the systematic exploration of
a site
5 stages in systematic exploration and investigation of a
new site:
1.) preliminary investigation using published information
and other existing data
2.) a detailed geological survey of the site, possibly with a
photogeology study
3) applied geophysical surveys to provide information
about the subsurface geology
4) boring, drilling and excavation to provide confirmation
of the previous results, and quantitative detail, at
critical points on the site
5) testing of soils and rocks to assess their suitability,
particularly their mechanical properties (soil mechanics
and rock mechanics), either in situ or from samples
Branches of Geology
• Petrology – is the branch of geology that
studies the origin, composition, distribution and
structure of rocks.
There are 3 branches of petrology, corresponding to the
three types of rocks
1.) Igneous petrology focuses on the composition
and texture of igneous rocks (rocks such as granite or
basalt which have crystallized from molten rock or
magma).
2.) Sedimentary petrology focuses on the composition
and texture of sedimentary rocks (rocks such as
sandstone, shale, or limestone which consist of pieces or
particles derived from other rocks or biological or
chemical deposits, and are usually bound together in a
matrix of finer material).
3.) Metamorphic petrology focuses on the composition
and texture of metamorphic rocks (rocks such as slate,
marble, gneiss, or schist which started out as
sedimentary or igneous rocks but which have undergone
chemical, mineralogical or textural changes due to
extremes of pressure, temperature or both).
• Mineralogy – is the study of minerals.
• Crystallography- study of crystals.
• Economic Geology – it deals with the study of
minerals, rocks and materials of economic
importance like coal and petroleum.
• Physical Geology – deals with the various
processes of physical agent such as wind,
water, glaciers and sea waves.
• Stratigraphy- is the study of stratified rocks
and their correlation.
• Paleontology – is the study of fossils (the
ancient remains of plants and animals).
• Structural Geology- the study of structures
founds in rocks; it is also known as tectonic
geology or simply tectonics.
• Historical Geology – the study of both
stratigraphy and paleontology.
 • Mining Geology – it deals with the study of
application of geology to mining engineering in
such a way that the selection of suitable site s
for quarrying and mines can be determined.
• Civil Engineering Geology – deals with all the
geological problems that arise in the field civil
engineering along with suitable treatments.
• Hydrology – deals with the studies of both
quality and quantity of water that are present in
the rocks in different states.
• Resources Engineering – the study of water,
land, solar energy, minerals, forests, etc.
• Photo Geology – deals with the study of aerial
photographs.
The Earth's shape is that of an oblate spheroid, with an
average diameter of approximately 12,742 km. The
rotation of the Earth causes the equator to bulge out
slightly so that the equator diameter is 43 km larger than
the pole-to-pole diameter. The largest local deviations in
the rocky surface of the Earth are Mount Everest (8,850
m above sea level) and the Mariana Trench (10,911 m
below sea level). Hence compared to a perfect ellipsoid,
the Earth has a tolerance of about one part in about 584
or 0.17%. For comparison, this is less than the 0.22%
tolerance allowed in billiard balls. Due to the bulge, the
feature farthest from the center of the Earth is actually
Mount Chimborazo in Ecuador. The mass of the Earth is
approximately 5.98 x 1024 kg.
Earth Layers
The Earth is divided into four main layers:
1.) The Crust
• the Earth’s crust is like the skin of an apple. It
is very thin compared to the other three layers.
• the crust makes up 1% of the Earth's volume.
• the crust of the Earth is broken into many
pieces called plates.
• thinnest of all layers.
• Earth’s crust is made up of different types of
rock; igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic
• the crust has the most complicated and
variation in its composition. The most abundant
element in crust is oxygen by weight and by
volume
• the rock crust is approximately
called lithosphere
• discontinuous body of water
called hydrosphere
• on land of masses of the lithosphere and
hydrosphere, all living creatures exist, this
described the biosphere
• enveloped by a layer of air which is
called atmosphere
The crust is only about 8 km thick under the oceans
(oceanic crust) and about 32 km thick under the
continents (continental crust).
2 Types of Crust
1. Oceanic (very dense, made of basalt)
2. Continental (less dense, made of granite)
2.) The Mantle
• The mantle is the layer below the crust.
• The mantle is the largest layer of the Earth
(84% of the Earth's volume)
• The mantle is divided into two regions: the
upper and lower sections.
• The mantle is the second layer of the Earth.
• composed of silicates of iron and magnesium,
sulfide and oxides of silicon and magnesium.
• The temperature at the top of the upper mantle
ranges from 500 to 900 degrees Celsius and it
increases with depth
3.) The Outer Core
The core is believed to have two parts: a solid inner core,
with a radius of 1,220 km, and then a liquid outer core
that extends to a radius of 3,400 km.
The temperature of the outer core ranges from 4400 °Cin
the outer core to 6100 °C near the inner core.
The core of the Earth is like a ball of very hot metals.
• The outer core is liquid.
• The outer core is made up of iron and nickel
are very dense.
4.) The Inner Core
The inner core of the Earth has temperatures and
pressures so great that the metals are squeezed together
and are not able to move.
Physical Structure of the Earth
Lithosphere (geosphere) is the "solid" part of Earth. It has
two parts, the crust and the upper mantle.
Asthenosphere is a solid rock that flows slowly (like hot
asphalt). This is the layer below the lithosphere.
Continental drift was a theory that explained
how continents shift position on Earth's surface.
Alfred Wegener was one of several people who thought
the continents looked like they fit together, so he
proposed the continental drift theory in 1912.
Wegener was a meteorologist and astronomer so
needless to say other scientists thought he was out of his
field of study.
His studies concluded that at one time all the continents
were joined together in one land mass called Pangaea.
1. Laurasia was the name given to the northern
part of Pangaea
2. Gondwanaland was the name given to the
southern part of Pangaea
Scientists thought this theory was outrageous
because even though Wegener had evidence of one
large land mass, he didn’t have the answers to what force
(engine) “floated the plates”. He was laughed at and did
not live to see his theory accepted.
Wegener’s 5 pieces of evidence to prove his
continental drift theory:
1.) Puzzle pieces
The continents, especially South America and Africa,
seemed to fit together like a puzzle.
2.) Fossil evidence
Wegner noticed that plant and animal fossils were
found on different continents.
• Do you think they swam all the way across the
oceans?
NO!
• This would lead people to believe that
the continents were once joined.
3.) Rock evidence
Huge belts of rocks found in Africa and South
America were identical. Not only were they the same,
but they would match up (age, thickness, types) if the
continents were put together.
Matching Mountains
The Appalachian Mountains that disappear off the
coast of Newfoundland match mountains in the British
Isles and Scandinavia which are comparable in age and
structure.
4.) Glacier evidence
There is proof that glaciers moved from Africa, through
the Atlantic Ocean, and then on towards South
America. This would be much easier if the Atlantic
Ocean were not there.
Glacial Striations…Scratches glaciers leave on rocks as
they travel.
5.) Climate evidence
• Warm weather plants have been found in the
Arctic… but it’s not warm there!
• Glacier deposits have been discovered
in tropical and desert locations…it’s not cold
there, either!
• The continents had to have been at different
locations in the geological past.
Plate tectonics
Plates are driven by cooling of Earth (convection)
Gravity provides additional force to move plates.
What are the tectonic plates?
Lithospheric plate (Lithosphere)
• The 100-km-thick surface of the Earth;
• Contains crust and part of the upper mantle;
• It is rigid and brittle;
• Fractures to produce earthquakes.
Asthenosphere
• Is the hotter upper mantle below the
lithospheric plate;
• Can flow like silly putty; and
• Is a viscoelastic solid, NOT liquid!!
Plate Tectonics
Three Basic Types of Plate Boundaries
1. divergent
2. convergent
3. transform
Tectonic Plates
There are a dozen large lithospheric plates (smaller
plates not shown).
Some plates have continents; some don’t. All are in
motion.
Earthquakes & Plate Boundaries
The earthquakes coincide with plate boundaries, and the
deepest quakes are in subduction zones.
Earth processes which are also known as geological
processes are dynamic processes at work in Earth's
landforms and surfaces. The mechanism involved,
weathering, erosion, and plate-tectonics-combined
processes that are in some respects destructive and in
others constructive.
Two division of geological processes:
1.) Exogenous processes
2.) Endogenous processes
Exogenous Processes
• occur on or near the surface of Earth
• usually influenced or driven by gravity, water,
wind, and organisms
• in extreme cases, it can wipe out majority of
the organism inhibiting that area
Endogenous Processes
• takes place within or the interior of Earth
• the driving force is the thermal energy of the
mantle
• responsible for earthquakes, development of
continents, mountain building, volcanic
activities, etc.
Weathering
 • It breaks down rocks that are either stationary
or moving.
• It refers to the group of destructive processes
that change the physical and chemical
character of rock at/or near the Earth's surface.
Types of weathering
1. Mechanical /Physical
2. Chemical
3. Biological
Mechanical/physical weathering
• processes that break rock into smaller pieces
• physical change of rock with little or no
chemical change
Types of mechanical weathering
1.) frost wedging - is a form of physical weathering that
involves the repeated freezing and thawing of water in
areas with extremely cold weather.
2.) frost heaving - is an upward movement of the sub-
grade resulting from the expansion of accumulated soil
moisture as it freezes.
3.) rock abrasion - is a mechanical scraping of a rock
surface by friction between rocks and moving particles
during their transport by wind, glacier, waves, gravity,
running water or erosion.
4.) exfoliation - is a form of mechanical weathering in
which curved plates of rock are stripped from rock below.
5.) thermal expansion and contraction - as many
substances is heated, it expands. As it cools, it contracts.
In materials like rocks with many crystals, this expansion
and contraction can cause mechanical fracturing.
Chemical Weathering
- is the weakening and subsequent disintegration of rock
by chemical reactions. These reactions include oxidation,
hydrolysis, and carbonation.
Oxidation - is the reaction of rock minerals with oxygen,
thus changing the mineral composition of the rock.
Hydrolysis - is a chemical reaction caused by water.
Water changes the chemical composition and size of
minerals in rock, making them less resistant to
weathering.
Carbonation - is the process of rock minerals reacting
with carbonic acid.
Biological Weathering
- is weakening and subsequent disintegration of rock by
plants, animals and microbes.
Agents:
1. plants
2. animals
3. microbes (microbial activity)
Works of Rivers
The erosional works of stream/rivers, curves and shapes
the landscape through which they flow.
3 Main types of processes that occur in a river:
1. erosion
2. transportation
3. deposition
Erosion - is geological process in which earthen
materials are worn away and transported by natural
forces such as wind or water. The 3 types of erosion are:
headward erosion - makes river longer
vertical erosion - makes river channel deeper
lateral erosion - makes river wider
Four main processes of erosion that occurs in rivers:
1. hydraulic action - is where the pressure of water
breaks away rock particles from the river bed and banks.
The force of the water hits river banks and then pushes
water into cracks.
2. abrasion/corrasion - is the process wherein the
sediments carried by a river scouts the bed and banks.
Loads carried by a river will grind against its beds and
sides.
3. attrition - is the process where eroded rocks collide
and break into smaller fragments.
4. corrosion - is the process which dissolves rock by
chemical processes. Carbon dioxide dissolves in the river
to form a weak acid; minerals like limestone can be
dissolve in water.
Transportation of material in a river begins when friction
is overcome. Material that has been loosened by erosion
may be then transported along the river.
Types of transportation
1. suspension/suspended load - is made up of very fine
particle such as clay and silt; faster-flowing, turbulent
rivers carry more suspended material; turbulence in the
water is crucial in holding a load of sediments.
2. solution/solution load - it is when dissolved materials is
carried by a river
3. saltation - smaller and lighter rock fragments and sand
hop and bounce along the river.
4. traction - it is when large and heavier materials are
dragged and rolled along the bed.
Deposition - is a process where a material being
transported by a river is deposited; it occurs when a river
loses energy.
River's speed decreases when:
• it enters a lake
• it enters a calm sea
• it enters a gently sloping plain
Works of Wind
Air in motion is called wind. Wind is the major agents of
the change in the surface of the earth.
Wind erosion is generally caused by two erosion
processes:
1. deflation - is the removal of particles of dust and sand
by winds.
2. abrasion - is the process of erosion produced by the
suspended particles that impact on solid objects.
Transportation
The total sediment load carried by a wind can be divided
into three parts:
1. suspension - for silt and clay; light and fine loose
materials kept in air; dust cloud
2. saltation - medium size particles; through series of
bounces
3. surface creep - particle of large size; through rolling
and creeping
Work of Sea
Processes at work in the sea:
1. erosion - rocks are worn down and broken into smaller
rocks
2. transportation - rocks and sand are moved from one
area to another by waves and sea currents
3. deposition - material is deposited in some areas,
forming beaches, and sand dunes
How waves erode
hydraulic action - force of moving water
compressed air - air gets trapped in rock, the pressure of
the air can crack the rock
abrasion - rocks and stone can be thrown against
coastline wearing it away
attrition - rocks and stone are worn down themselves
Earthquake
The shaking of the surface of the Earth, resulting from the
sudden release of energy in the Earth's lithosphere that
creates seismic wave.
How does earthquake happen?
SURFACE FAULTING
Earthquakes are usually caused when rock underground
suddenly breaks along a fault. This sudden release of
energy causes the seismic waves that make the ground
shake.
Earthquake Severity or Size
• Magnitude
measures the energy released at the source of the
earthquake.
• Intensity
measures the strength of shaking produced by the
earthquake at a certain location
Seismic waves
An earthquake generates a series of waves that
penetrate the Earth. Seismic waves travel either through
the Earth interior or near Earth's surface with a
characteristics speed and style of motion.
Body waves - travel through the Earth's interior
1. P-waves
2. S-waves
Surface waves - travel along the surface of the Earth
1. love wave
2. Rayleigh wave
Primary wave (P-wave) - this is the fastest kind of seismic
wave, and, consequently, the first to arrive at a seismic
station. The P-wave can move through solid rock and
fluids, like water or a liquid layer of the Earth. It pushes
and pulls the rock, that's why it is also known as
compressional waves
Secondary wave
An S-wave is slower than a P-wave and can only move
through solid rock, not through any liquid medium. S-
wave travel in the same direction, but instead of being a
compressive wave, they oscillate with a shearing
behavior at right angles to the direction of motion.
Earthquake are measured using seismographs, which
monitor the seismic waves that travel through the Earth
after an earthquake strikes.
Effects of Earthquake
 • Buildings, other types of structures, and
infrastructure are all subject to damage or
collapse from ground shaking
• Loss of life
• Tsunami
• Landslides
• Liquefaction phenomena

Prospecting

• search for economically exploitable mineral

deposits
• work of finding the deposits
• the first stage of territory geological analysis
• before a mineral deposit can be worked, it
must be first found and its industrial
possibilities must be made clear

Ore minerals
A certain kind of mineral can be smelted more readily
than others. It tends to be concentrated in small, localized
rock masses that form as a result of special geologic
processes, such as local concentrations are called
mineral deposits.
Groundwater
Groundwater can be found in the aquifer.