Unit-I Engineering Geology Definition

UNIT-I
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
Definition:-
a. The science which deals with the physical structure and substance of the
earth, their history, and the processes which act on them.
b. The geological features of a district.
c. The geological features of a planetary body.
The importance of geology in civil engineering may briefly as follows:
a. Geology provides a systematic knowledge of construction material, its occurrence,

composition, durability and other properties. Example of such construction materials is
building stones, road metal, clay, limestones and laterite.
b. The knowledge of the geological work of natural agencies such as water, wind, ice and
earthquakes helps in planning and carrying out major civil engineering works. For
example the knowledge of erosion, transportation and deposition helps greatly in
solving the expensive problems of river control, coastal and soil conservation.
c. Ground water is the water which occurs in the subsurface rocks. The knowledge about
its quantity and depth of occurrence is required in connection with water supply,
irrigation, excavation and many other civil engineering works.
d. The foundation problems of dams, bridges and buildings are directly concerned with
the geology of the area where they are to be built. In these works drilling is commonly
undertaken to explore the ground conditions. Geology helps greatly in interpreting the
drilling data.
e. In tunneling, constructing roads, canals, docks and in determining the stability of cuts
and slopes, the knowledge about the nature and structure of rocks is very necessary.
f. Before staring a major engineering project at a place, a detailed geological report

which is accompanied by geological maps and sections, is prepared. Such a report
helps in planning and constructing the projects.
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Physical Geology:
a. Physical Geology uses the scientific method to explain natural aspects of the Earth -
for example, how mountains form or why oil resources are concentrated in some rocks
and not in others.
b. This chapter briefly explains how and why Earth's surface, and its interior, is constantly
changing. It relates this constant change to the major geological topics of interaction of
the atmosphere, water and rock.
Petrology:-
a. Petrology is the branch of geology that studies the origin, composition, distribution and
structure of rocks.
(from the Greek language : petra-"rock" and logos- "study")
b. “Lithology” was once approximately synonymous with petrography, but in current

usage, lithology focuses on macroscopic hand-sample or outcrop-scale description of
rocks while petrography is the specialty that deals with microscopic details.
Branches:
There are three branches of petrology, corresponding to the three types of rocks:
a. Igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary.
1. Igneous petrology focuses on the composition and texture of igneous rocks (rocks
such as granite or basalt which have crystallized from Molten rock or magma).
Igneous rocks include volcanic and plutonic rocks.
2. Sedimentary petrology focuses on the composition and texture of sedimentary

rocks (rocks such as sandstone, shale.
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3. Metamorphic petrology focuses on the composition and texture of metamorphic
rocks such as slate, marble, gneiss, or schist which started out as sedimentary or igneous
rocks but which have undergone chemical, mineralogical or textural changes due to
extremes of pressure, temperature or both).
4. Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of existing rock types, in a process
called metamorphism, which means "change in form". The original rock (protolith) is
subjected to heat (temperatures greater than 150 to 200 °C) causing profound physical
and/or chemical change.
Structural geology:
b. Structural geology is the study of the three-dimensional distribution of rock

units with respect to their deformational histories.
c. The primary goal of structural geology is to use measurements of present-day rock

geometries to uncover information about the history of deformation (strain) in the
rocks, and ultimately, to understand the stress field that resulted in the observed
strain and geometries.
Weathering of Rocks:
a. Weathering breaks down and loosens the surface minerals of rock so they can be
transported away by agents of erosion such as water, wind and ice.
b. There are two types of weathering: mechanical and chemical.
1. Mechanical or physical weathering involves the breakdown of rocks and soils

through direct contact with atmospheric conditions, such as heat, water, ice and pressure.
2. The second classification, chemical weathering involves the direct effect of

atmospheric chemicals or biologically produced chemicals also known as biological
weathering in the breakdown of rocks, soils and minerals.
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River Processes
Sediment in Channels Although most energy in a stream is dissipated by turbulence, a small part
is used in
the important task of eroding and transporting sediment. Poorly understood and yet significantly
important.
Sediment in Channels
• Entrainment - processes that initiates the bursts of motion experienced by any particle
• Competence - the size of the largest particle a stream can entrain under any given set of hydraulic
conditions. Is very difficult to determine however for several reasons:
1. particles are entrained by a combination of fluvial forces
2. flow velocity is neither constant nor easily measured, and,
3. sediment of the same size may be packed together differently
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UNIT-II
MINERALOGY
Introduction:
• A mineral is a naturally occurring substance that is solid and inorganic represent

able by a chemical formula, and has an ordered atomic structure.
• Minerals are broadly grouped into
a) The rock forming minerals and
b) Ore-forming minerals
In civil engineering practice, it is important to have knowledge of the

important rock- forming types.
The ore-forming minerals are to be understood in detail by the mining,

Metallurgical and Mineral Engineering professionals.
• The study of minerals is called mineralogy.
• There are over 4,900 known mineral species; over 4,660 of these have been
approved by the International Mineralogical Association (IMA).
• The silicate minerals compose over 90% of the Earth's crust.
• Minerals are distinguished by various chemical and physical properties.
Formation of minerals:
• Minerals are crystalline solid substances, meaning the atoms making up a mineral
are arranged in an ordered, three-dimensional, structure.
• The distances and angles between an individual atom and the neighbors it is
bonded to are constant.
• The process of mineral formation is known as crystallization. In order for a mineral to

crystallize, ions from the nearby environment must be brought together.
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A second process of mineral formation occurs during cooling of a melt.
• When crystallization of this type takes place in water, we call it freezing.
• Through a very similar mechanism, molten rock-forming liquids, known as magmas

and lavas, cool and crystallize to form minerals and thus rocks.
Study of minerals:
• Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of chemistry,

crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals.
• Specific studies within mineralogy include the processes of mineral origin and
formation, classification of minerals, their geographical distribution, as well as their
utilization.
• As of 2004 there are over 4,000 species of minerals recognized by the IMA. Of these,
perhaps 150 can be called "common," another 50 are "occasional," and the rest are
"rare" to "extremely rare."
Physical properties:
• The physical characteristics of minerals include traits which are used to identify
and describe mineral species. These traits include color, streak, luster, density,
hardness, cleavage, fracture, tenacity, and crystal
• Color .Cleavage
• Streak .Fracture
• Luster .Tenacity
• Density .Habit
• Hardness
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PETROLOGY
Definition of rock:
a. In geology, rock is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of one or more

minerals or mineraloids.
b. For example, the common rock granite is a combination of
I. the quartz, feldspar and biotite minerals. The Earth's outer solid layer, the
lithosphere, is made of rock.
c. Rocks have been used by mankind throughout history. From the Stone Age, rocks have
been used for tools. The minerals and metals found in rocks have been essential to
human civilization.
d. Three major groups of rocks are defined: Igneous, Sedimentary, and

Metamorphic. The scientific study of rocks is called petrology.
Crystallization:
a. Crystallization is also a chemical solid–liquid separation technique, in which

mass transfer of a solute from the liquid solution to a pure solid crystalline phase
occurs.
b. In chemical engineering crystallization occurs in a crystallizer.
Dykes and sills:
• Dyke” and “sill” are geological terms used to describe an intrusion; usually a mass of
igneous or volcanic rocks that forcibly entered, penetrated, and embedded into layers of
another rock or land form. Dykes and sills are often.
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A dike or dyke in geological usage is a sheet of rock that formed in a fracture in a pre-existing rock
body.
• However, when the new rock forms within and parallel to the bedding of a layers
rock, it is called a sill.
• It is a type of tabular or sheet intrusion, that either cuts across layers in a planar
wall rock structures, or into a layer or unlayered mass of rock.
Structure and texture of igneous rocks:
• The texture of igneous rocks depends on the composition of the magma and the
conditions surrounding the magma’s cooling.
• The textures are different in intrusive, vein, and extrusive rocks. Intrusive ro cks are
characterized by
aholocrystalline texture, in which all the rock material is crystallized.
• Also depends on the shape of the crystals of the component minerals.
Structure and texture of Sedimenatry rocks:
• The relationship between rock structure and texture and rock genesis is more pronounced
insedimentary rocks than in igneous rocks.
• Clastic rocks consist of detrital (clastic) grains of various sizes and shapes.
• The grains, which canbe angular, subrounded, or rounded, sometimes lie fre ely without
attachment.
• The structure of clastic rock, which depends on the mutual arrangement of th e grains,
can be random, laminar, or fluidal. With a random structure, the particles do not have an
ordered arrangement.
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Properties of rocks and Minerals:
Physical Properties of Calcite
Chemical
carbonate
Classification
Color usually white but also colorless, gray, red, green, blue, yellow, brown, orange
Streak white
Luster vitreous
Diaphaneity transparent to translucent
Cleavage perfect, rhombohedral, three directions
Mohs Hardness 3
Specific Gravity 2.7
rhombohedral cleavage, powdered form effervesces weakly in dilute HCl,

Diagnostic curved
Properties
crystal faces and frequent twinning
Chemical
CaCO3
Composition
Crystal System hexagonal
acid neutralization, a low hardness abrasive, soil conditioner, heated for the
Uses
production of lime
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Physical Properties of Hematite
Chemical oxide
Classification
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Color black to steel-gray to silver; red to reddish brown to black
Streak red to reddish brown
Luster metallic, submetallic, earthy
Diaphaneity Opaque
Cleavage None
Mohs Hardness 5 to 6 ½
Specific Gravity 5.0 to 5.3
Diagnostic
red streak, specific gravity
Properties
Chemical
Fe2O3
Composition
Crystal System trigonal
the most important ore of iron, pigment, heavy media separation, radiation
shielding,
Uses ballast,
polishing compounds, a minor gemstone
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Physical
Properties of
Quartz
Chemical
Classificatio silicate
n
Quartz occurs in virtually every color. Common colors are clear, white, gray,
Color
purple, yellow, brown, black, pink, green, red.
Streak colorless (harder than the streak plate)
Luster vitreous
Cleavage none - typically breaks with a conchoidal fracture
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Mohs Hardness 7
Diagnostic conchoidal fracture, glassy luster, hardness

Properties
Chemical SiO2
Compositio
n
Crystal System hexagonal
Uses glass making, abrasive, foundry sand, hydraulic fracturing proppant,

gemstones
Physical Properties of Chromite

Chemical
Classificatio oxide
n
Color dark gray to black, rarely brownish black
Streak dark brown
Luster metallic to submetallic
Diaphaneity opaque
Cleavage none
Mohs Hardness 5.5 to 6
Specific Gravity 4.0 to 5.1 (variable)

Diagnostic
Properties luster, streak
Chemical FeCr2O4
Compositio with magnesium substituting for iron in significant amounts
n
Crystal System isometric
Uses an ore of chromium
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Physical Properties of Fluorite
Chemical
halide
Classification
Color typically purple, green and yellow. Also colorless, blue, red and black.
Streak white
Luster vitreous
Cleavage four directions of perfect cleavage
Mohs Hardness 4
Specific Gravity 3.2
Diagnostic cleavage, hardness, specific gravity, color

Properties
Chemical
CaF2
Composition
Numerous uses in the metallurgical, ceramics and chemical industries. A source

Uses of
fluorine, hydrofluoric acid, metallurgical flux. High clarity pieces are used to
make
lenses for microscopes, telescopes and cameras.
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Physical Properties of Pyrite
Chemical
sulfide
Classification
Color brass yellow - often tarnished to dull brass
Streak greenish black to brownish black
Luster metallic
Diaphaneity opaque
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Cleavage breaks with a conchoidal fracture
Mohs Hardness 6 to 6.5
Diagnostic color, hardness, brittle, greenish black streak

Properties
Chemical
iron sulfide, FeS2
Composition
Texture and structure of metamorphic rocks:
• The structures and textures of metamorphic rocks arise during the recrystalli zation in
thesolid state of primary sedimentary and magmatic rocks.
• The recrystallization occurs under the action of lithostatic pressure, tempera ture.
• Which leads to an ordered arrangement of the mineral Grains?
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GROUND WATER
DEFINITION:
• Groundwater (or ground water) is the water present beneath Earth's surface in soil
pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations.
• A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a

usable quantity of water.
• The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become completely
saturated with water is called the water table.
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USES:
• Groundwater is also often withdrawn for agricultural, municipal, and industrial use
by constructing and operating extraction wells.
• The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater

is hydrogeology, also called GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY.
• Groundwate is often cheaper, more convenient and less vulnerable

r
to pollution than surface.
water
SPRINGS:
• A spring is the result of an aquifer being filled to the point that the water overflows onto
the land surface.
• They range in size from intermittent seeps, which flow only after much rain, to
huge pools flowing hundreds of millions of gallons daily.
Types of springs:
• Seepage or filtration spring. The term seep refers to springs with small flow rates in
which the source water has filtered through permeable earth.
• Fracture springs, discharge from faults, joints, or fissures in the earth, in which
springs have followed a natural course of voids or weaknesses in the bedrock.
CONE OF DEPRESSION:
• A cone of depression occurs in from a an aquifer when groundwater is pumped aquifer

well. In an unconfined depression of the (water table), this is an
actual water levels.
• In confined aquifers (artesian), the cone of depression is a reduction in the pressure

head surrounding the pumped well.
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DIFFERENCE:
• The size and shape (slope) of the cone of depression depends on many factors. The
pumping rate in the well will affect the size of the cone.
• Also, the type of aquifer material, such as whether the aquifer is sand, silt, fractured
rocks etc., also will affect how far the cone extends.
• The amount of water in storage and the thickness of the aquifer also will determine the
size and shape of the cone of depression.
• As a well is pumped, the cone of depression will extend out and will continue to
expand in a radial fashion until a point of equilibrium occurs.
• This usually is when the amount of water released from storage equals the rate of
pumping. This also can occur when recharge to the aquifer equals the amount of water
being pumped.
1. Confinedaquifer
2.Unconfined aqui
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AQUIFERS
What is an aquifer???
• An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock or unconsolidated

materials (gravel, sand, or silt) from which groundwater can be extracted using a water
well.
• The study of water flow in aquifers and the characterization of aquifers is called hydrogeology.
• What is confining layer (aquitard)?
• Geological material through which significant quantities of water can not move,
located below unconfined aquifers, above and below confined aquifers. Also known as a
confining bed.
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Confined aquifer(artesian) :-
• Confined aquifers are those in which an impermeable dirt/rock layer exists that
prevents water from seeping into the aquifer from the ground surface located directly
above.
Unconfined aquifer (water table aquifer):-
• Unconfined aquifers are those into which water seeps from the ground surface directly above the
aquifer.
Unconfined aquifers:
• Natural recharge of the unconfined aquifers is mainly due to the downward seepage (or
percolation) through the unsaturated zone of the excess water over passing the field
capacity of the soil. Recharge can also occur through upward seepage (leakage) from
underlying aquifers.
Confined aquifers:
• A regional confined aquifer is directly recharged by precipitation in the area where the
aquifer crops out, having the same characteristics as an unconfined aquifer.
INFILTRATION GALLERIES:
• Infiltration galleries is a conduit,
• Built in permeable earth, for collecting ground water.
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• We have seen earlier that ground water travels towards lakes, rivers or streams. This
water which is travelling can be intercepted by digging a trench or by constructing a
tunnel with holes on sides at right angle to the direction of flow.
• These underground tunnel used for tapping underground water near rivers, lakes or
streams are called “INFILTRATION GALLERIES”.
• These are also known as Horizontal walls.
Example:-
• Infiltration galleries can be used to collect sub-surface flow from rivers. Water is
taken to a collective well, or sump, and then pumped to a storage tank.
• Infiltration galleries vary in size, from a few meters feeding into spring box, to many
kilometers forming an integral part of unban water supply.
Construction of galleries:
• To ensure a continuous supply of water, infiltration galleries should be built in the

end of dry season and should be at least one meter under the dry season water table.
• Excavate a trench to at least 1 m below the water table,
• Lay graded gravel on the base of the trench.
• Lay the pipe or drain blocks on top of the gravel. Cover the top and sides with more
graded gravel.
• Cap the gravel with an impermeable layer of clay to prevent surface water entering
the gallery.
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STRATIGRAPHY
Stratigraphy is a branch of geology which studies rock layers (strata) and layering
(stratification).
It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic
rocks. Stratigraphy includes two related subfields:
1. Lithologic stratigraphy or lithostratigraphy,
2. Biologic stratigraphy or biostratigraphy.
Application of stratigraphy was by William Smith in the 1790s and
early 1800s. Smith, known as the "Father of English geology“.
Created the first geologic map of England and first recognized the significance of strata
or rock layering and the importance of fossil markers for correlating strata.
1) Lithostratigraphy:
Lithostratigraphy, or lithologic stratigraphy, provides the most obvious

visible layering. It deals with the physical contrasts in lithology, or rock type. Such
layers can occur both vertically– in layering or bedding of varying rock types.
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Lithology:
The lithology of a rock unit is a description of its physical characteristics visible at

outcrop, in hand or core samples or with low magnification microscopy, such as
colour, texture, grain size, or composition.
2) Biostratigraphy:
Biostratigraphy is the branch of stratigraphy which focuses on

correlating and assigning relative ages of rock strata by using the fossil
assemblages contained within them.
Biologic stratigraphy was based on William Smith's principle of faunal succession, which
predated, and was one of the first and most powerful lines of evidence for, biological
evolution.
Out crop:
• An outcrop or rocky outcrop is a visible exposure of bedrock or ancient

superficial deposits on the surface of the Earth.
• Outcrops do not cover everywhere on the surface of the earth, these are mostly
covered with a thick and thin layer called alluvium or most common language as soil.
• However, in places where the overlying cover is removed through erosion or

tectonic uplift, the rock may be exposed, or crop out.
• In fact in some areas the soil may spread over for thousands of square km and the
bed block may not be visible anywhere.
• As in the mountains and sub- mountains tracts, exposure of rocks may be

easily seen forming sides of valley or caps of hills.
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• Hence outcrop is simply defined as “An exposure of solid rock on the surface
of the rock”.
Strike :
• Strike is a geographic direction given by the line of intersection of a

horizontal plane with a bedding plane of a layer of rock.
• It is measured in field with the help of a compass.
Dip:
• It is defined as the max angle of inclination with the horizontal. It is expressed both in
terms of degree of inclination and direction of inclination.
• The amount of dip is called angle of inclination, which a bedding plane makes
with a horizontal plane.
True Dip:
• when the dip of the layer is measured in a direction that is essentially at right angles to
the strike of the particular layer, then It is called TRUE DIP.
Apparent Dip:
• When the dip of the layer is measured in any other direction which is not a right
angles to the strike direction is called APPARENT DIP.
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FOLDS
DEFINITION:
• Folds are one of the most common geological structures found in rocks. When a set
of horizontal layers are subjected to compressive forces, they bend either upwards or
downwards.
• The bends noticed in rocks are called folds.
• Folds are described variously as wavy or arch or curvy types founds in rocks.
• In terms of nature too, folds may occur as single local bends or may occur
repeatedly and intricately folded according to the tectonic history of the region.
Types of FOLDS:
Based on different principles, the folds are variously classified on:
1. Symmetrical character.
2. Upward or downward bend.
3. Occurrence of plunge.
4. Bed thickness
5. Behaviour of the fold pattern.
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Anticline and Syncline:
• When beds are bent upwards, the resulting fold is called Anticline. This fold is convex upwards.
• (Anti= Opposite, Cline= Inclination)
• Syncline is just opposite to anticline on its nature, when the beds are bent
downwards the resulting fold is called Syncline.
Symmetrical and Asymmetrical folds:
• When the axial plane divides a fold into two equal halves in such a way that one half is
the mirror image of another, then such fold is called Symmetrical fold.
• If the two halves are not mirror images, then the fold is called Asymmetrical fold. IF the
compressive forces responsible for folding are not of the same magnitude, asymmetrical
folds are formed.
• Open and Closed Folds
• Similar and Parallel Folds
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UNIT-III
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
STRATIGRAPHY:
Stratigraphy is a branch of geology which studies rock layers (strata) and

layering (stratification).
It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks.
Stratigraphy includes two related subfields:

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Application of stratigraphy was by William Smith in the 1790s and early
1800s. Smith, known as the "Father of English geology“.
Lithostratigraphy, or lithologic stratigraphy, provides the most obvious visible layering. It

deals with the physical contrasts in lithology, or rock type. Such layers can occur both
vertically– in layering or bedding of varying rock types.
Lithology:

outcrop, in hand or core samples or with low magnification microscopy, such as color, texture,
grain size, or composition.
2) Biostratigraphy:
Biostratigraphy is the branch of stratigraphy which focuses on correlating and

assigning relative ages of rock strata by using the fossil assemblages contained within them.
Biologic stratigraphy was based on William Smith's principle of faunal

succession, which predated, and was one of the first and most powerful lines of evidence for,
biological evolution.
Out crop:

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of the rock”.
Strike :

Dip:
True Dip:
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Apparent Dip:
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UNIT-IV
EARTH QUAKES
DEFINITION:
• A sudden violent shaking of the ground, typically causing great destruction, as a result
of movements within the earth's crust or volcanic action.
• A sudden release of energy in the earth's crust or upper mantle, usually caused by
movement along a fault plane or by volcanic activity and resulting in the generation of
seismic waves which can be destructive.
Seismic Waves
• Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through the Earth's layers, and are a
result of an earthquake, explosion, or a volcano that gives out low-frequency
acoustic energy.
• Seismic waves are studied by geophysicists called seismologists. Seismic wave

fields are recorded by a seismometer, hydrophone (in water), or accelerometer.ncy
acoustic energy.
• The propagation velocity of the waves depends on density and elasticity of the medium.
• Velocity tends to increase with depth and ranges from approximately 2 to 8 km/s
in the Earth's crust, up to 13 km/s in the deep mantle.
CLASSIFICATION AND CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE:
Based on depth of their origin, earthquake is described as shallow or intermediate

or Deep.
• Earthquake with a focus depth less than 60km are called shallow earthquake.
• If the depth more than 60km but less than 300km, they are called
Intermediate earthquake.
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• Which have focus depth more than 300km, they are called Deep earthquake.
Based on the causes responsible for their occurrence, earthquakes are described
as Tectonic or non Tectonic.
• Tectonic earthquake are exclusively due to internal causes, due to disturbances or

adjustments of geological formations taking place in the earth’s interior, they are less
frequent, but more intensive and hence more destructive in nature.
• The Non Tectonic earthquake on the other hand, is generally due to external or
surfacial causes. This type of earthquake is very frequent, but minor in intensity and
generaly not destructive in nature.
Types:
Among the many types of seismic waves, one can make a broad distinction
between body waves and surface waves.
• Body waves travel through the interior of the Earth.
• Surface waves travel across the surface. Surface waves decay more slowly with
distance than do body waves, which travel in three dimensions.
Includes Primary and Secondary waves:
Primary waves (P-wave):
• Primary waves are compressional waves that are longitudinal in nature. P waves are
pressure waves that travel faster than other waves through the earth to arrive at
seismograph stations first, hence the name "Primary".
• These waves can travel through any type of material, including fluids, and can travel at
nearly twice the speed of S waves. In air, they take the form of sound waves, hence
they travel at the speed of sound. Typical speeds are 330 m/s in air, 1450 m/s in water
and about 5000 m/s in granite.
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Secondary waves(S-Waves):
• Secondary waves (S-waves) are shear waves that are transverse in nature. Following
an earthquake event, S-waves arrive at seismograph stations after the faster-moving P-
waves.
• S-waves can travel only through solids, as fluids (liquids and gases) do not support
shear stresses. S-waves are slower than P-waves, and speeds are typically around 60%
of that of P- waves in any given material.
SEISMIC BELTS AND SHIELD AREAS:
• Seismic belts are those places where earthquakes occur frequently. Shield areas
are those places where earthquakes occur either rarely or very mildly.
• Occurrence of an earthquake in a place is an indication of underground instability there.
• Statistics have revealed that nearly 50% of earthquakes have occurred along
mountain ridges and 40% of earthquakes along steep coasts.
• The study of recorded earthquakes shows that they take place on land most
frequently along two well-defined seismic belts.
1. Circum Pacific Belt which accounts for 68% of earthquake occurrence.
2. Mediterranean belt accounts 21% of earthquake which extends east-west from

Portugal, Himalayas and Burma with a branch through Tibet and China.
RICHETER SCALE:
• The Richter magnitude scale (also Richter scale) assigns a magnitude number
to quantify the energy released by an earthquake.
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• The Richter scale, developed in the 1930s, is a base-10 logarithmic scale, which
defines magnitude as the logarithm of the ratio of the amplitude of the seismic waves
to an arbitrary, minor amplitude.
• In 1935, the seismologists Charles Francis Richter and Beno Gutenberg, of the
California Institute of Technology, developed the (future) Richter magnitude scale,
specifically for measuring earthquakes in a given area of study.
• The Richter scale was succeeded in the 1970s by the Moment Magnitude Scale
(MMS). This is now the scale used by the United States Geological Survey to
estimate magnitudes for all modern large earthquakes.
• An Earthquake of magnitude 5 may cause damage within radius of 8km, but that of
magnitude 7 may cause damage in a radius of 80km, and that of 8 over a radius of
250km.
CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDINGS IN SEISMIC AREAS-
PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES:
• Buildings should be Founded on hard bedrock only and never on loose soils or
Fractured rocks, this is because lose ground settles due to earthquake vibrations.
• Buildings situated in cuttings on hill slides, near sheet slopes always suffer more
when an earthquake occurs.
• For large Buildings, raft types of foundations are desirable. Square

foundations are more stable.
• Different parts of a building should be well tied together so that the whole structure
behaves like a single unit to the Vibrations.
• Only rich cement mortar and reinforced concrete should be used.
• Buildings with irregular shapes with wings, Verandas, Porches and all structures
should be avoided.
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• Buildings should have RCC roofs and they should be designed not to yield to lateral stress.
• Resonance is the important factor, If the period of vibration of a structure is the same
as that of the foundation rock it will collapse because of the resonance effect.
CIVIL ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS IN SEISMIC AREAS:
• Seismic areas are the places which experience earthquakes frequently.
• Therefore constructions in seismic and a seismic areas differ in terms of their design.
• So a civil engineer should only think of making his constructions immune to earthquakes.
It is possible to find the difficulties by predicting some crucial factors:
a. The exact place of earthquake occurrence.
b. II.The duration of the earthquake.
c. III.The direction of movement of the ground at the time of earthquake.
BASICS OF A DAM:
a. In a way ,the success of dam is not only related to its own safety and stability
but also depends on the success of associated reservoirs.
b. If in a dam construction the dam stands firmly and the reservoir leaks , then the dam
is to be treated as a failure because the purpose for which it has been constructed has
not been served.
c. Therefore care is needed in construction of dam and reservoir.
40
41
The important geological considerations in the selection of dam site are as
follows: The geological considerations are :
1. Narrow river valley
2. Occurrence of bed rock at a shallow depth
3. Competent rocks to offer a stable foundations
BEDROCK AT SHALLOW DEPTH
a. To ensure the stability and safety of a dam, the dam has to rest on very strong
and very stable rocks(i.e bedrock).
b. If the bedrock is available at shallow depth then the cost for the foundation of dam is less.
c. If in any case the bedrock is at greater depth then the cost is high as it needs lot of
excavation and concrete filling.
d. Therefore to ensure the bedrock has actually reached bores should be drilled for 20’
or more through the rocks.
e. Competent rocks for safe foundation.
f. If igneous rocks occur at the site selected for dam, then they will offer a safe foundation.
g. If sedimentary rocks occur like shale, poorly cemented sandstones and limestone
then they shall naturally be undesirable to serve as foundation rocks.
h. In metamorphic rocks the rocks like marbles, like quartzites can bear a granulose
structure and they are not porous and permeable, therefore metamorphic rocks are
unsuitable for dam sites.
i.
42
DAMS AND RESERVOIRS AND THEIR
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
DAMS
• A dam is a barrier that impounds water or underground streams.
• Generate electric power.
• Manage or prevent water flow into specific land regions.
• Evenly distributed between locations.
BENEFITS OF DAMS
1. Power generation
2. Water supply
3. Stabilize water flow / irrigation
4. Flood prevention
5. Land reclamation
6. Recreation and aquatic beauty
7. Navigation
DISADVANTAGES OF DAMS
1. Seepage and evaporation
2. Groundwater table effects
3. Sedimentation behind dams
4. Erosion downstream by sediment-starved waters
5. Clogging of rivers by side-canyon floods
43
44
RESERVOIR
The dams constructed across the rivers create artificial lakes which are known as reservoirs.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF DAMS
1. Biological, chemical and physical properties of rivers
2. Blocks fish migrations
3. Traps sediments
4. Changes in temperature, chemical composition, dissolved oxygen levels and the

physical properties of a reservoir are often not suitable to the aquatic plants and animals.
5. Reservoirs often host non-native and invasive species (e.g. snails, algae, predatory fish)
6. Species in the area
7. Water quality
8. Fertility of the land
9. Problems of pollution
10. Social impacts
11. Soil Erosion
12. Species Extinction
13. Spread of Disease
45
46
CHANGES TO EARTH'S ROTATION
Nasa geophysicist Dr. Benjamin Fong Chao found evidence that large dams cause
changes to the earth's rotation, because of the shift of water weight from oceans to
reservoirs. Because of the number of dams which have been built, the Earth's daily
rotation has apparently sped up by eight-millionths of a second since the 1950s. Chao
said it is the first time human activity has been shown to have a measurable effect on the
Earth's motion.
EXAMPLES OF GEO HAZARDS
Geo hazard includes :
1. Earthquakes
2. Landslides
3. Tsunamis
4. Avalanches
5. Floods
6. Volcanoes
EARTHQUAKES
a. Earthquake is a sudden vibration that occurs on the surface of the earth with a release
of large amount of energy.
b. The point of originating of earthquake is known as focus or hypocenter
c. The point on the earth’s surface which lies vertically above the focus is known as
epicentre.
Classification of earthquakes
Based on their mode of origin :
Earthquakes occurring due to surface causes due to volcanic causes due to tectonic causes.
47
48
Based on depth of focus:
a. Shallow focus earthquakes(<55km)
b. Intermediate focus earthquakes(55-300km)
c. Deep focus earthquakes(300-650km)
CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES
Earthquakes occur due to:
1. Tsunamis
2. Occurrence of landslides
3. Avalanches
4. Volcanic eruptions
5. Man-made explosions
6. Meteorites
LANDSLIDES
If a mass of earth or rock moves along a definite zone or surface the failure is
called as Landslide.
The foremost force responsible for the occurrence of landslide is due to the
action of gravity.
CAUSES OF LANDSLIDES
Natural causes
1. Due to ground water pressure
2. Due to melting of glaciers and heavy rainfall
3. Due to volcanic eruptions.
49
□
Human causes
1. Due to heavy machinery equipments and traffic flow.
2. Blasting of rocks weakens the stability of slope
TSUNAMI
1. A Tsunami is a giant wave (or series of waves) created by an undersea

earthquake, volcanic eruption and landslide.
2. Tsunamis are often called as tidal waves but this is not accurate description because
tides have little effect on giant tsunami waves.
VOLCANOES
A Volcano is a vent (hole) in the earth’s crust through which lava, steam, ashes and
etc., are expelled.
AVALANCHES
1. An Avalanche is any amount of snow sliding down a mountainside.
2. Another term for avalanche is snow slide.
FLOODS
A Flood is an overflow of water that submerges the land which is usually dry.
EFFECTS OF GEOHAZARDS
1. A great loss of plant, human and animal life.
2. Destruction and damage to the buildings.
3. Disruption of civic facilities like electricity, water, telephones.
4. Loss of communication such as road, rail, water and air transportation.
5. Increase in infectious diseases due to the pollution created by this hazards.
50
51
WATER TIGHTNESS AND INFLUENCING FACTORS
WATER- TIGHTNESS:
It is the process which is implemented after the effect of weathering in order to

preventing the leakage of water through fractured rock and bed rocks which are located
below the surface and covered with loose soil.
a.
If the dam is constructed without proper water-tightening, the impounded water
in the reservoir covers large area and percolates over it.
b.
Due to higher level of the water in reservoir, hydrostatic pressure is formed, which
makes the leakage of water more effective on sides and floor of the reservoir.
INFLUENCING FACTORS:
1.
Buried river channels
2.
Influence of rock type
3.
Influence of geological structures
4.
Scope of preventing leakage
5.
Influence of water table.
GEOLOGICAL FACTORS EFFECTING WATERTIGHTNESS CONTENTS:
1. Water tightness introduction
2. Factors affecting water tightness
3. Factors affecting life of a reservoir
52
WATER TIGHTNESS:
Water at the site of reservoir and dam tends to percolate to underground through fractures
and voids, this leakage may results in decrease in water level at reservoir so a reservoir must
be made with sufficient water tightness.
• Factors effecting water tightness
• Buried river channel
• Types of rocks
• Geological structures
• Water table
• Presence of impermeable of permeable layer on the surface
BURIED RIVER CHANNEL:
This is generally present as a glaciers below the surfaces it may not decrease the water tightness.
ROCK TYPE:
• Generally faults and fractures present in igneous and metamorphic rocks so rock
used in construction of reservoir should have less fractures
• Geological structures, water table and some other factors may not have much
effect as above.
53
54
ELECTRICAL METHODS
INDEX :
• Electro resistivity method.
• Electromagnetic method.
• Self potential method.
ELECTRO RESISTIVITY METHOD:
• The formation of electrical resistivites of sub-surface differ from one another if

they are homogenous.
• These resistivities are studied by means of resistivity method.
• They are two types of resistivity investigations
1) Profiling
2) Sounding
ELECTRO MAGNETIC METHOD :
In the principles of electromagnetic field an alternating magnetic field is formed in

ground with help of an appropriate source. The formed electromagnetic field induces eddy
currents in conductive ore bodies in sub-surface and these produces secondary
electromagnetic fields. The magnetic element of secondary electromagnetic field is examined
at surface to find underground ore deposits.
55
56
Important electromagnetic methods are
1) Dip angle method
2) Enslin method
3) Sling ram method
4) Sandburg method.
5) Turram method.
SELF POTENTIAL METHOD :
Self potential method is also known as spontaneous polarization method which is based
on electrical potentials naturally present in earth. Pyrite , Pyrhotieans sulphideores which
indicates spontaneous polarization. Apart from these graphite produces strong SP method.
ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRO RESSISTIVITY METHODS :
• In the exploration of ground water.
• Exploration of petroleum.
• Finding highly conductive bodies such as sulphide ore bodies and graphite.
ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRO MAGNETIC METHOD :
• Finding ore deposits.
• Exploration of soil.
• Ground water studies where overburden is of high resistivity.
57
GROUND SUBSIDENCE
INTRODUCTION:
• Small scale vertical movements
• Causing substantial economic losses and societal disruption
• Human induced and natural
• Occurring on time-scales of a few decades
SUBSIDENCE AND UPLIFT:
• Subsidence: The lowering of the land surface due to
□ Creation of cavities in solid rock by mining, combustion of coal or

dissolution of soluble material
□ The removal of fluids (water or oil) from the pore spaces of

unconsolidated or poorly consolidated sediments
• Uplift: changed land conditions due to expansive soils
SUBSIDENCE:
• Underground mining is the most widespread cause of subsidence by direct removal
• Removal causing changes in local or regional groundwater system either by natural

or anthropogenic causes
ADVANTAGE SOF SELF POTENTIAL METHOD:
• Exploration of economic mineral deposits.
• Finding areas of corrosion.
• In bore holes of investigation.
58
DAMS
Dam is a solid barrier constructed at a suitable location across a river valley to store
flowing water and used for
• Hydropower
• Irrigation
• Water for domestic consumption
• For drought and flood control
• Other additional utilization is to develop fisheries
TYPES OF DAMS
There are four types of dams. They are
• Arch dam
• Gravity dam
• Buttress dam
• Earth dam
ARCH DAM:
• This type of dams are concrete dams which are curved or convex upstream in
plan. It is dependent upon the arch action for its strength.
• Arch dam is thinner and requires less material for construction compared to other dams.
• Arch dams are built across narrow deep river gorges.
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60
GRAVITY DAM
• Gravity dams are the dams which resist the horizontal thrust of water entirely
by their own weight
• they use their weight to hold back the water in the reservoir
• Made of earth or rock fill or concrete
BUTTRESS DAM
• Buttress dams are dams in which the face is held up by a series of supports.
• Buttress dams can take many forms – the face may be flat or curved.
• Usually buttress dams are made of concrete and may be reinforced with steel bars.
EARTH DAMS
• Earth dams are trapezoidal in shape
• Earth dams are constructed where the foundation rocks are weak to support
• Earth dams are relatively smaller in height and broad at the base
• They are mainly built with clay, sand and gravel. Hence they are also known
as Earth fill dam or Rock fill dam
61
DEFINITION:
Seismic Waves
acoustic energy.

acoustic energy.

or Deep.
62
63

Types:
64
65
waves.

RICHETER SCALE:
66
67
250km.

should be avoided.
68
69
d. II.The duration of the earthquake.
e. III.The direction of movement of the ground at the time of earthquake.
BASICS OF A DAM:
d. In a way ,the success of dam is not only related to its own safety and stability
e. If in a dam construction the dam stands firmly and the reservoir leaks , then the dam is
to be treated as a failure because the purpose for which it has been constructed has not
been served.
f. Therefore care is needed in construction of dam and reservoir.
70
71
j. To ensure the stability and safety of a dam, the dam has to rest on very strong
k. If the bedrock is available at shallow depth then the cost for the foundation of dam is less.
l. If in any case the bedrock is at greater depth then the cost is high as it needs lot of
m. Therefore to ensure the bedrock has actually reached bores should be drilled for 20’
n. Competent rocks for safe foundation.
o. If igneous rocks occur at the site selected for dam, then they will offer a safe foundation.
p. If sedimentary rocks occur like shale, poorly cemented sandstones and limestone
q. In metamorphic rocks the rocks like marbles, like quartzites can bear a granulose
r.
72
DAMS
BENEFITS OF DAMS
8. Power generation
9. Water supply
11. Flood prevention
12. Land reclamation
14. Navigation
73
74
RESERVOIR
16. Traps sediments
20. Water quality
23. Social impacts
24. Soil Erosion
75
76
Earth's motion.
7. Earthquakes
8. Landslides
9. Tsunamis
10. Avalanches
11. Floods
12. Volcanoes
EARTHQUAKES
d. Earthquake is a sudden vibration that occurs on the surface of the earth with a release
e. The point of originating of earthquake is known as focus or hypocenter
f. The point on the earth’s surface which lies vertically above the focus is known as
epicentre.
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78
d. Shallow focus earthquakes(<55km)
e. Intermediate focus earthquakes(55-300km)
f. Deep focus earthquakes(300-650km)
7. Tsunamis
9. Avalanches
12. Meteorites
LANDSLIDES
action of gravity.
Natural causes
79
□
Human causes
TSUNAMI

VOLCANOES
etc., are expelled.
AVALANCHES
FLOODS
80
81
WATER- TIGHTNESS:

c.
d.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
82
WATER TIGHTNESS:
• Types of rocks
• Water table
ROCK TYPE:
effect as above.
83
84
ELECTRICAL METHODS
INDEX :

1) Profiling
2) Sounding

85
Important electromagnetic methods are
6) Dip angle method
7) Enslin method
8) Sling ram method
9) Sandburg method.
10) Turram method.
86
87
GROUND SUBSIDENCE
INTRODUCTION:


SUBSIDENCE:

88
FOLDS
DEFINITION:
• Folds are one of the most common geological structures found in rocks. When a set
of horizontal layers are subjected to compressive forces, they bend either upwards or
downwards.
• The bends noticed in rocks are called folds.
• Folds are described variously as wavy or arch or curvy types founds in rocks.
• In terms of nature too, folds may occur as single local bends or may occur
repeatedly and intricately folded according to the tectonic history of the region.
Types of FOLDS:
Based on different principles, the folds are variously classified on:
4. Symmetrical character.
5. Upward or downward bend.
6. Occurrence of plunge.
6. Bed thickness
7. Behaviour of the fold pattern.
89
Anticline and Syncline:
• When beds are bent upwards, the resulting fold is called Anticline. This fold is convex upwards.
• (Anti= Opposite, Cline= Inclination)
• Syncline is just opposite to anticline on its nature, when the beds are bent
downwards the resulting fold is called Syncline.
Symmetrical and Asymmetrical folds:
• When the axial plane divides a fold into two equal halves in such a way that one half is
the mirror image of another, then such fold is called Symmetrical fold.
• If the two halves are not mirror images, then the fold is called Asymmetrical fold. IF the
compressive forces responsible for folding are not of the same magnitude, asymmetrical
folds are formed.
• Open and Closed Folds
• Similar and Parallel Folds
90
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
STRATIGRAPHY:
Stratigraphy is a branch of geology which studies rock layers (strata) and

layering (stratification).
It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks.
Stratigraphy includes two related subfields:

91
Application of stratigraphy was by William Smith in the 1790s and early
1800s. Smith, known as the "Father of English geology“.
Lithostratigraphy, or lithologic stratigraphy, provides the most obvious visible layering. It

deals with the physical contrasts in lithology, or rock type. Such layers can occur both
vertically– in layering or bedding of varying rock types.
Lithology:

outcrop, in hand or core samples or with low magnification microscopy, such as color, texture,
grain size, or composition.
2) Biostratigraphy:
Biostratigraphy is the branch of stratigraphy which focuses on correlating and

assigning relative ages of rock strata by using the fossil assemblages contained within them.
Biologic stratigraphy was based on William Smith's principle of faunal

succession, which predated, and was one of the first and most powerful lines of evidence for,
biological evolution.
Out crop:

92
93


of the rock”.
Strike :

Dip:
True Dip:
94
95
Apparent Dip:
96
UNIT-V
TUNNELS
DEFINITION:
Seismic Waves
acoustic energy.

acoustic energy.

or Deep.
97
98

Types:
99
waves.

RICHETER SCALE:
100
250km.

should be avoided.
101
f. II.The duration of the earthquake.
g. III.The direction of movement of the ground at the time of earthquake.
BASICS OF A DAM:
g. In a way ,the success of dam is not only related to its own safety and stability
h. If in a dam construction the dam stands firmly and the reservoir leaks , then the dam is
been served.
i. Therefore care is needed in construction of dam and reservoir.
102
103
s. To ensure the stability and safety of a dam, the dam has to rest on very strong
t. If the bedrock is available at shallow depth then the cost for the foundation of dam is less.
u. If in any case the bedrock is at greater depth then the cost is high as it needs lot of
v. Therefore to ensure the bedrock has actually reached bores should be drilled for 20’
w. Competent rocks for safe foundation.
x. If igneous rocks occur at the site selected for dam, then they will offer a safe foundation.
y. If sedimentary rocks occur like shale, poorly cemented sandstones and limestone
z. In metamorphic rocks the rocks like marbles, like quartzites can bear a granulose
104
105
DAMS
BENEFITS OF DAMS
15. Power generation
16. Water supply
21. Navigation
106
107
RESERVOIR
29. Traps sediments
33. Water quality
36. Social impacts
37. Soil Erosion
108
109
Earth's motion.
13. Earthquakes
14. Landslides
15. Tsunamis
16. Avalanches
17. Floods
18. Volcanoes
EARTHQUAKES
g. Earthquake is a sudden vibration that occurs on the surface of the earth with a release
h. The point of originating of earthquake is known as focus or hypocenter
i. The point on the earth’s surface which lies vertically above the focus is
known as epicentre.
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111
g. Shallow focus earthquakes(<55km)
h. Intermediate focus earthquakes(55-300km)
i. Deep focus earthquakes(300-650km)
13. Tsunamis
15. Avalanches
18. Meteorites
LANDSLIDES
action of gravity.
Natural causes
112
113
□
Human causes
TSUNAMI

VOLCANOES
etc., are expelled.
AVALANCHES
FLOODS
114
115
WATER- TIGHTNESS:

e.
f.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
116
WATER TIGHTNESS:
• Types of rocks
• Water table
ROCK TYPE:
effect as above.
117
ELECTRICAL METHODS
INDEX :

1) Profiling
2) Sounding

118
Important electromagnetic methods
are 11)Dip angle method
12) Enslin method
13) Sling ram method
14) Sandburg method.
15) Turram method.
119
120
GROUND SUBSIDENCE
INTRODUCTION:


SUBSIDENCE:

121
122
DAMS
• Hydropower
• Irrigation
TYPES OF DAMS
• Arch dam
• Gravity dam
• Buttress dam
• Earth dam
ARCH DAM:
123
GRAVITY DAM
by their own weight
BUTTRESS DAM
EARTH DAMS
124
waves.

RICHETER SCALE:
125
126
250km.

should be avoided.
127
h. II.The duration of the earthquake.
i. III.The direction of movement of the ground at the time of earthquake.
BASICS OF A DAM:
j. In a way ,the success of dam is not only related to its own safety and stability
k. If in a dam construction the dam stands firmly and the reservoir leaks , then the dam is
been served.
l. Therefore care is needed in construction of dam and reservoir.
128
11. Occurrence of bed rock at a shallow
depth 12.Competent rocks to offer a stable
foundations
aa. To ensure the stability and safety of a dam, the dam has to rest on very strong and
very stable rocks(i.e bedrock).
bb. If the bedrock is available at shallow depth then the cost for the foundation of dam is less.
cc. If in any case the bedrock is at greater depth then the cost is high as it needs lot of
dd. Therefore to ensure the bedrock has actually reached bores should be drilled for 20’
ee. Competent rocks for safe foundation.
ff. If igneous rocks occur at the site selected for dam, then they will offer a safe
foundation. gg. If sedimentary rocks occur like shale, poorly cemented sandstones and
limestone then they

shall naturally be undesirable to serve as foundation rocks.
hh. In metamorphic rocks the rocks like marbles, like quartzites can bear a granulose
129
DAMS
BENEFITS OF DAMS
22. Power generation
23. Water supply
28. Navigation
130
131
RESERVOIR
42. Traps sediments
46. Water quality
49. Social impacts
50. Soil Erosion
132
Earth's motion.
19. Earthquakes
20. Landslides
21. Tsunamis
22. Avalanches
23. Floods
24. Volcanoes
EARTHQUAKES
j. Earthquake is a sudden vibration that occurs on the surface of the earth with a release
k. The point of originating of earthquake is known as focus or hypocenter
l. The point on the earth’s surface which lies vertically above the focus is known as
epicentre.
133
134
j. Shallow focus earthquakes(<55km)
k. Intermediate focus earthquakes(55-300km)
l. Deep focus earthquakes(300-650km)
19. Tsunamis
21. Avalanches
24. Meteorites
LANDSLIDES
action of gravity.
Natural causes
135
□
Human causes
TSUNAMI

VOLCANOES
etc., are expelled.
AVALANCHES
FLOODS
136
137
WATER- TIGHTNESS:

g.
h.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
138
WATER TIGHTNESS:
• Types of rocks
• Water table
ROCK TYPE:
effect as above.
139
UNIT-5
ELECTRICAL METHODS
INDEX :

1) Profiling
2) Sounding

140
141
Important electromagnetic methods
are 16)Dip angle method
17) Enslin method
18) Sling ram method
19) Sandburg method.
20) Turram method.
142
143
GROUND SUBSIDENCE
INTRODUCTION:


SUBSIDENCE:

144
145
UNIT -6
DAMS
• Hydropower
• Irrigation
TYPES OF DAMS
• Arch dam
• Gravity dam
• Buttress dam
• Earth dam
ARCH DAM:
146
GRAVITY DAM
by their own weight
BUTTRESS DAM
EARTH DAMS
147
Tunnels:
Tunnels may be defined as underground routes or passages driven through the ground without disturbing the
overlying soil or rock cover. Tunnels are driven for a variety of purposes and are classified accordingly.
Chief classes of tunnels are:

1. Traffic Tunnels,
2. Hydropower tunnels and
3. Public utility tunnels.
Tunnelling has been practiced on a large scale during last two centuries in all big countries for ensuring
better and faster communications through roads and railways. At places such as in high mountains tunnelling
becomes an absolute necessity for connecting two countries or two different places of the same country.
Metros which are symbolic of great progress achieved by advanced countries are a version of tunnelling and
in fact may involve a good length of tunnels as their essential component. It (tunnelling) has been one of the
most challenging jobs for the engineers.
Excavations below the ground for whatsoever purpose need very sound knowledge about the soil and rocks
to be excavated on the one hand and keep the excavations so created (the tunnels) safe and stable at
economically viable costs for the entire life of these projects on the other hand. Like buildings, roads,
railways and many other construction jobs, tunnelling projects are included in the most important
developmental activities of the big nations.
Geological information is an integral part of all the processes involved in preparing designs, executing
excavations and construction of all types of tunnels.
1. Traffic Tunnels:
c. This group includes all tunnels which are excavated to divert the traffic load of whatsoever type
from surface to subsurface routes for a short length with a view of facilitating the flow of traffic at
a desired speed, maximum convenience and at minimum cost. The railway tunnels, the highway
tunnels and the pedestrian tunnels are main sub groups of traffic tunnels. A few navigational
tunnels also fall under this category.
d. A traffic tunnel is usually adopted as a convenient and cost-effective alternative to provide a direct
transportation link between two places separated by such inconvenient obstacles as mountains,
hills, water-bodies or even densely populated areas in the metropolitan cities.
e. Traffic tunnels may vary in length from a few meters to many kilometers and have been excavated
in almost all major countries of the world. Reduction in distance which in turn saves considerable
time and hence cost in travelling is the most common and important objective in driving tunnels
compared to having surface traffic links.
148
f. Among the hundreds of traffic tunnels in different parts of the world, the following are just
a few examples:
g. a. The Simplon Tunnel – It is a single-track railway tunnel, 19.370 km long and connects Brig in
Switzerland with Chiasso in Itlay. Its construction started in 1895 and it was finally completed in
1921, thus taking more than 25 years for the job. The Simplon Tunnel passes through complex
sequence of gneisses, limestones and shales under an average cover of 2 km in the Alps.
h. b. The Hokoriku Tunnel in Japan is a double track railway tunnel driven through sandstones and
granites. It is 13.87 km in length.
i. c. The Mont Blanc Tunnel links France and Itlay and is a 12.6. km. long highway tunnel passing
through complex rocks. It was completed in 1965.
j. Another tunnel starting in Italy and joining it with Switzerland is the St. Bernard Tunnel which is
6.60 km long.
k. d. The Jawahar Tunnel is a double tube highway tunnel on the National Highway in India and
allows highway traffic even during extreme winters under the snow-clad Himalayan Mountains
(Pir Panjal) at Banihal in Jammu and Kashmir, India. The tubes have lengths of 2430 meters and
pass through panjal lavas, agglometeratic slates and Triassic limestones. It was completed in 1956,
and has resulted in reducing the distance on the National Highway between Jammu and Srinagar
to the tune of 20 kms.
l. 2. The Hydropower Tunnels:
During twentieth century most of the tunnelling has been in connection with hydropower generation. Such
tunnels are aptly called “hydropower” tunnels. In most cases these are driven through rocks for the purpose
of conveying water under gravity from one point to another, as for example, to cross a hill. In such cases
they are called discharge tunnels.
3. The Public Utility Tunnels:

This group includes a variety of underground excavations made for specific purposes such as for disposal of
urban waste (sewage tunnels), for carrying pipes, cables and supplies of oil, water etc. A recent development
is construction of underground parking places and storage chambers to overcome space shortage in
cosmopolitan cities.
Geologically speaking, only two classes of tunnels are recognized – tunnels driven through rocks (rock
tunnelling) and tunnels driven through soil, loose sediments or saturated ground (soft-ground tunnelling).
Geological Investigations for Tunnels:

Objects:
Geological investigations are very essential in tunnelling projects.
149
These determine to a large extent solutions to following engineering problems connected with
tunnelling:
(a) Selection of Tunnel Route (Alignment):
There might be available many alternate alignments that could connect two points through a tunnel.
However, the final choice would be greatly dependent on the geological constitution along and around
different alternatives: the alignment having least geologically negative factors would be the obvious choice.
(b) Selection of Excavation Method:

Tunnelling is a complicated process in any situation and involves huge costs which would multiply
manifolds if proper planning is not exercised before starting the actual excavation. And the excavation
methods are intimately linked with the type of rocks to be excavated. Choice of the right method will,
therefore, be possible only when the nature of the rocks and the ground all along the alignment is fully
known. This is one of the most important aim and object of geological investigations.
(c) Selection of Design for the Tunnel:

The ultimate dimensions and design parameters of a proposed tunnel are controlled, besides other factors, by
geological constitution of the area along the alignment. Whether the tunnel is to be circular, D-Shaped,
horse-shoe shaped or rectangular or combination of one or more of these outlines, is more often dictated by
the geology of the alignment than by any other single factor.
Thus, in self-supporting and strong rocks, either, D-shape or horse-shoe shape may be conveniently adopted
but these shapes would be practically unsuitable in soft ground or even in weak rocks with unequal lateral
pressure. In those cases circular outline may be the first choice.
(d) Assessment of Cost and Stability:

These aspects of the tunnelling projects are also closely interlinked with the first three considerations. Since
geological investigations will determine the line of actual excavation, the method of excavation and the
dimensions of excavation as also the supporting system (lining) of the excavation, all estimates about the
cost of the project would depend on the geological details.
Similarly tunnels passing through hard and massive rocks even when left unsupported may be regarded as
stable. However, those passing through difficult grounds, although these might have been massively
strengthened by secondary support system, might still collapse or bulge at places or even completely fail, if
geological situation is not perceived properly.
(e) Assessment of Environmental Hazards:

The process of tunnelling, whether through rocks or through soft ground, and for whatsoever purpose,
involves disturbing the environment of an area in more than one way. The tunnelling methods might involve
150
vibrations induced through blasting or ground cutting and drilling, producing abnormal quantities of dust
and last but not the least, interference with water supply system of the nearby areas.
A correct appreciation of geological set up of the area, especially where tunnel alignment happens to be
close to the populated zones, would enable the engineer for planning and implementing plans aimed at
minimizing the environmental hazards in a successful manner.
Methods:
The geological information required for tunnelling projects may not always be similar to that required for
other civil engineering projects. As a matter of practice, the desired geological details for a tunnel project are
obtained in three stages using specific methods in each stage. These stages are – preliminary surveys,
conducted well before the actual planning of the project; detailed surveys which are conducted almost
simultaneously with planning and concurrent explorations which are undertaken during the construction.
A. Preliminary Surveys:
These are conducted by the routine geological, geophysical and geochemical methods. In modern practice
and for major tunnelling projects such fast techniques as aerial photography and seismic surveying are
commonly adopted in combination with the routine surface methods.
Following geological characters are broadly established for the entire area in which the tunnel project
is to be located as a result of preliminary surveys:
(a) The general topography of the area marking the highest and the lowest points, occurrence of valleys,
depressions, bare and covered slopes, slide areas, and in hilly regions and cold climates, the snow-line.
(b) The lithology of the area, meaning thereby, the composition, attitude and thickness of rock formations
which constitute the area.
(c) The hydrological conditions in the area, such as depth of water table, possibility of occurrence of major
and minor aquifers of simple type and of artesian type and the likely hydrostatic heads along different
possible routes or alignments.
(d) The structural condition of the rock, that is, extent and attitude of major structural features such as
folding, faulting, unconformities, jointing and shearing planes, if developed. Existence of buried valleys is
also established during the preliminary surveys.
In addition, such surveys would also reveal occurrence of reserves of rocks that could be beneficially used
for construction programmes (lining etc.) in the tunnel project.
151
It is obvious that with the help of above information, the engineers could propose a number of alternative
tunnel routes to connect the two places, and in most cases, even decide about the general run of the tunnel.
B. Detailed Surveys:
Once the general run of the tunnel has been decided, planning for its construction begins. Such plans require
fairly accurate data about the rocks or the ground to be excavated for passing through.
Such data are obtained by:

(i) Bore-hole drilling, along proposed alignments and up to desired depths; the number of bore-holes may
run into dozens, scores or even hundreds, depending upon the length of the tunnel; rock samples obtained
from bore holes are analysed for their mechanical and geochemical properties in the laboratories;
(ii) Drilling exploratory shafts and adits, which allow direct approach to the desired tunnel for visual
inspection in addition to the usual advantages of drilling;
(iii) Driving pilot tunnels, which are essentially exploratory in nature but could better be used as a main
route if found suitable by subsequent enlargement.
The actual number of bore holes and shafts and adits and their depth and length are decided by the length
and location of the proposed tunnel. For tunnels with little overburden, these may be driven close to the
proposed tunnel. For very long and deep tunnels, economic considerations limit their number.
Information supplied by them has to be corroborated with that obtained by indirect methods such as seismic
surveys. The shafts and adit borings are costly affairs but are very necessary. Often some of these could be
merged with the main project subsequently as useful elements, such as for ventilation and allied purposes.
Sample of rocks obtained by direct methods from underground locations are tested in the laboratories
for their:
(i) Mineralogical composition;
(ii) Strength values;
(iii) Modulus of elasticity;
(iv) Porosity and permeability and
(v) General chemical character.
152
Geological Profile of Tunnels:
When all the geological information gathered from preliminary and detailed surveys is plotted along a
longitudinal section, the axis of the proposed tunnel being the section line, a geological profile is obtained. It
is the most important geological record available with the project engineer and in fact his single most
important guideline in the tunnel project.
Such a profile generally provides information regarding the following aspects of the proposed route:
(i) Location and depth of exploratory bore holes and shafts etc.
(ii) Types of rocks and their geochemical characters such as whether consolidated or unconsolidated,
fissured and decayed or fresh;
(iii) Structure of rocks, that is, whether stratified, or massive, horizontal or inclined, and if inclined, degree
and direction of inclination; folding and faulting with full details.
(iv) Hydrological conditions along the profile line; whether the line is above or below the water table and its
relation to any aquifer that is likely to be intercepted;
(v) Ground temperature conditions, projected down to the tunnel axis based on calculations and
observations.
Exploration during Construction of Tunnels:

Geological explorations in tunnelling projects do not end at the planning stage. These are carried out to
supplement the information already available even during actual construction. Many important modifications
in the construction programme may become necessary on the basis of such information. In fact
investigations made by driving pilot tunnels form an integral part of tunnel driving process in long tunnels.
The necessity of exploration during construction arises from the fact that rocks are essentially heterogeneous
and anisotropic materials that may show variations in properties in different directions and within short
distances. Hence advance knowledge, as obtained by explorations and interpolations not directly involving
the rocks to be attacked and excavated, is never perfect.
In principle, exploration during construction involves driving of small sized pilot-headings, openings of
suitable lengths and similar methods ahead of the full section of the tunnel. In all these methods actual rock
conditions are fully exposed for visual observation and direct testing for their petrological characters,
structural arrangement and hydrological properties. This enables the project engineer to adopt the fittest
method for excavation of the full section and for the safe and economical design of lining as and if required.
153
Soft Ground Tunneling:
Tunnelling in unconsolidated rocks or loose sediments or shales and clays, which require immediate support
after excavation, is known as Soft Ground Tunnelling. It is comparatively complicated than tunnelling in
solid rocks because of inherent structural weakness of the ground.
Geological Investigations:
In soft ground tunnelling, the emphasis of geological investigations is primarily on the following
objects:
(i) Preparation of geological profile along the centre line of the proposed tunnel;
(ii) Thorough study of lithological characters and mode of origin of the sediments;
(iii) Precise establishment of groundwater regime and assessment of its possible effects on tunnel line.
The geological profile would give an idea of various types of soils that are to be encountered along the
proposed tunnel. This profile would have a direct bearing upon the length of the line, design of tunnel,
method of construction and type and extent of safety measures that would be needed.
Similarly, some sediment, e.g. those of glacial origin, is known to be dangerous for tunnelling.
Geomorphological details associated with such deposits such as buried valleys must be ascertained in
advance otherwise these would often be the cause of much serious trouble when tunnelling work force
encounters them suddenly and unexpectedly.
Ground water conditions effect soft-ground tunnelling more than any other single factor. Many tunnelling
hazards like failure of roofs, swelling or squeezing of ground etc. are all intimately related to groundwater
conditions. Thus, hard, dry and compact clays might be quite safe and easy for excavation along tunnel line
but when the same formations happen to be overlain by saturated sands and gravels, these might become the
most plastic and difficult formations to tunnel.
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Unit-I Engineering Geology Definition

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Unit-I Engineering Geology Definition

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UNIT-I

b. The geological features of a district.

c. The geological features of a planetary body.

The importance of geology in civil engineering may briefly as follows:

a. Geology provides a systematic knowledge of construction material, its occurrence,

f. Before staring a major engineering project at a place, a detailed geological report

(from the Greek language : petra-"rock" and logos- "study")

b. “Lithology” was once approximately synonymous with petrography, but in current

a. Igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary.

2. Sedimentary petrology focuses on the composition and texture of sedimentary

b. Structural geology is the study of the three-dimensional distribution of rock

c. The primary goal of structural geology is to use measurements of present-day rock

b. There are two types of weathering: mechanical and chemical.

1. Mechanical or physical weathering involves the breakdown of rocks and soils

2. The second classification, chemical weathering involves the direct effect of

1. particles are entrained by a combination of fluvial forces

2. flow velocity is neither constant nor easily measured, and,

3. sediment of the same size may be packed together differently

• A mineral is a naturally occurring substance that is solid and inorganic represent

• Minerals are broadly grouped into

a) The rock forming minerals and

In civil engineering practice, it is important to have knowledge of the

The ore-forming minerals are to be understood in detail by the mining,

• The study of minerals is called mineralogy.

• The silicate minerals compose over 90% of the Earth's crust.

• Minerals are distinguished by various chemical and physical properties.

• The process of mineral formation is known as crystallization. In order for a mineral to

• When crystallization of this type takes place in water, we call it freezing.

• Through a very similar mechanism, molten rock-forming liquids, known as magmas

• Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of chemistry,

a. In geology, rock is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of one or more

b. For example, the common rock granite is a combination of

d. Three major groups of rocks are defined: Igneous, Sedimentary, and

a. Crystallization is also a chemical solid–liquid separation technique, in which

b. In chemical engineering crystallization occurs in a crystallizer.

Dykes and sills:

Structure and texture of igneous rocks:

aholocrystalline texture, in which all the rock material is crystallized.

• Also depends on the shape of the crystals of the component minerals.

Structure and texture of Sedimenatry rocks:

Physical Properties of Calcite

Diaphaneity transparent to translucent

Cleavage perfect, rhombohedral, three directions

Specific Gravity 2.7

rhombohedral cleavage, powdered form effervesces weakly in dilute HCl,

Crystal System hexagonal

Streak red to reddish brown

Luster metallic, submetallic, earthy

Specific Gravity 5.0 to 5.3

Crystal System trigonal

Diagnostic conchoidal fracture, glassy luster, hardness

Crystal System hexagonal

Uses glass making, abrasive, foundry sand, hydraulic fracturing proppant,

Physical Properties of Chromite

Mohs Hardness 5.5 to 6

Specific Gravity 4.0 to 5.1 (variable)

Crystal System isometric

Uses an ore of chromium

Diaphaneity transparent to translucent

Cleavage four directions of perfect cleavage

Specific Gravity 3.2

Diagnostic cleavage, hardness, specific gravity, color

Crystal System isometric