UNIT: 1 INTRODUCTION

GEOLOGY (in Greek, Geo means Earth, Logos means Science) is a branch of
science dealing with the study of the Earth. It is also known as earth
science. The study of the earth as a whole, its origin, structure,
composition and the nature of the processes which have given rise to its
present position is called as geology. Geology comprises the following
branches:

1. Crystallography
2. Mineralogy
3. Petrology
4. Geophysics
5. Geochemistry
6. Structural Geology
7. Stratigraphy
8. Physical Geology
9. Geomorphology
10. Paleontology
11. Hydrogeology
12. Engineering Geology
13. Photo Geology
14. Economic Geology
15. Mining Geology

Crystallography: The study of the characters of crystals is known as

crystallography. Crystals are bodies bounded by flat faces ( surfaces),
arranged on a definite plane due to internal arrangements of atoms.

Mineralogy: The study of the characters of minerals ( eg: quartz,

pyroxene, amphibole, mica, chlorite, garnet) is known as Mineralogy. A
mineral is a naturally occurring homogeneous substance, inorganically
formed with a definite chemical composition, with a certain physical
properties and crystalline structures.

Note: Coal, oil etc are considered as minerals THOUGH they arises by
organic matter under exceptional conditions .

Petrology: The study of rocks in all their aspects including their

mineralogies, textures, structures (systematic description of rocks in
hand specimen and thin sections); origin and their relationships to other
rocks.

Geophysics: The section of the earth which include the structure,

physical conditions and evolutionary history of the earth as a whole.
Geochemistry: The study of chemical composition of minerals and rocks
of the earth.

Structural Geology is the study of rock structures such as folds that have
resulted from movements and deformation of the earth’s crust.

Stratigraphy: The study of the stratified rocks especially their sequence

in time, the character of the rocks and correlation of beds at different
localities.

Physical Geology: It deals with the geological processes which bring

about changes in the crust and upon the surface of the earth. It also
deals with the surface features of the earth ( land forms ) or its
topography

Geomorphology: The description and interpretation of land forms.

Palaeontology is the study of ancient life, determination of environment,

evolution of organisms etc..

Hydrogeology-- the study of the geological factors relating to earth’s

water.

Mining Geology deals with the method of mining of rocks and mineral
deposits on earth’s surface and subsurface.

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY: the principles and methods of geology is

adopted for the purpose of civil engineering operations. Broadly speaking,
engg geology has two divisions:

(1) The study of raw materials

(2) The study of the geological characteristics of the area where
engineering operations are to be carried out such as Groundwater
characteristics; the load bearing capacity of rocks; the stability of
slopes; excavation; rock mechanics etc for civil engineer.

SCOPE OF GEOLOGY: In Civil Engineering

• Geology provides necessary information about the construction materials

at the site used in the construction of buildings, dams, tunnels, tanks,
reservoirs, highways and bridges.

• Geological information is most important in planning stage, design phase

and construction phase of an engineering project.

• Geology is useful to know the method of mining of rock and mineral

deposits on earth’s surface and subsurface.
• Geology is useful for supply, storage and filling up of reservoirs with
water.
IMPORTANCE OF GEOLOGY FROM CIVIL ENGINEERING POINT OF
VIEW

• Before constructing roads, bridges, tunnels, tanks, reservoirs and

buildings, selection of site is important from the point of stability of
foundation.

• Geology provides a systematic knowledge of construction materials and

their properties.

• The knowledge about the nature of the rocks in tunneling and

construction of roads.

• The foundation problems of dams, bridges and buildings are directly

related with geology of the area where they are to be built.

• The knowledge of ground water is necessary in connection with

excavation works, water supply, irrigation and many other purposes.

• The knowledge of Erosion, Transportation and Deposition (ETD) by surface

water helps in soil conservation, river control.

• Geological maps and sections help considerably in planning many

engineering projects.

• If the geological features like faults, joints, beds, folds are found, they
have to be suitably treated. Hence, the stability of the rock structures is
important.

• Pre-geological survey of the area concerned reduces the cost of planning

work.

Minerals, Rocks and soils constitute earth materials. They play a vital
role in the site evaluation and operations in civil engineering practice.

Whether it is tunneling, hydro-electric projects, ground water

development, foundation for structures, study of slope stability etc.. a
basic understanding of the earth materials is essential.

Thus, study of minerals, rocks and soils forms the first step in civil engg
point of view. Hence, a civil engineer should know the introduction of
Geology and its branches and importance of a few branches such as
Physical Geology, Petrology; Structural Geology and so on ……
 IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL GEOLOGY, PETROLOGY & STRUCTURAL
GEOLOGY

IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL GEOLOGY: It deals with the geological

processes which bring about changes in the crust and upon the surface of
the earth. It also deals with the surface features of the earth ( land
forms ) or its topography. The earth is concentrically divided into a
number of spheres viz., (1)
Atmosphere ; (2) Hydrosphere and (3) Lithosphere .

The outermost sphere is Atmosphere which consists of several gases and

vapours and envelopes the earth. Atmosphere is essentially a mixture of N2
and O2 with smaller quantities of vapour, CO2 etc… Geologically
atmosphere is important as the medium of climate and weather.
Hydrosphere includes the natural waters of the earth ie., oceans, seas,
lakes, rivers, streams and underground water. Lithosphere is the outer
part of the earth’s crust consisting of rocks and minerals.

The geological processes include Denudation, Deposition, Earth

movements, Igneous activity and metamorphism.

Denudation: The sum of the processes which result in the general lowering
of the land surfaces or when erosion takes place, fresh country rock surfaces will
be exposed and this process is called DENUDATION. Denudation consists of
weathering, transportation and erosion.

Weathering is the process by which rocks are broken down and decomposed
by the action of external agencies such as wind, rain, temperature
changes. Weathering is the initial stage in the process of denudation.

Transportation is the main agency by which materials are moved by means

of Gravity, running water ( rivers, streams ); Ice ( glaciers ); Wind etc..

Erosion: Mechanical disintegration or chemical decomposition of rocks

and their subsequent displacement is called as erosion or erosion is
the destructive process due to the effect of the transporting agents. The
chief agents of erosion are running water, wind etc..

Deposition : The material is transported mechanically and deposit (eg:

sand ).

Earth movements include the uplift and depressions of land areas &
sea floors.
Igneous activity includes emission of lavas, gases, other volcanic
products etc

Metamorphism: The process by which changes are brought about in

rocks within the earth’s crust by the agencies of Heat, Pressure and
Chemical fluids.

Thermal metamorphism : heat alone acts

Dynamic metamorphism : involves stress to break up the rocks
Regional/Dynamothermal metamorphism: Both heat & pressure involves
Retrograde metamorphism : produces lower grade metamorphic rocks
Auto Metamorphism : chemical adjustment in newly solidified
igneous rocks, brought about by a decrease in
temperature .

Geological works of Rivers

A river is one of the major geological agent which carries out its work.
The work is mainly divided into three stages, namely
1. River Erosion
2. River Transportation
3. River Deposition

River Erosion: Erosion means mechanical disintegration or chemical

decomposition of rocks are transported from the site with the help of
natural agencies like wind and running water (or) subsequent
displacement. River is a powerful eroding agent and carries out its work in
different ways such as hydraulic action, solution and abrasion / attrition
etc.

• Hydraulic action: The physical breakdown of rocks take place

naturally and greater the movement greater will be the erosion. In the
initial and youth stages, the rivers acquire more considerable kinetic
energy. When such water dashes against rock forcefully, it will break and
this will be more effective if

1. The rocks are already weathered.

2. They are porous and are not well cemented.
3. Those posses fractures, cracks etc.
• Solution: This process, is a part of hydraulic action which
involves only chemical decay of rocks. This is an invisible process and
very effective under favourable conditions.

• Attrition: This is a mechanical weathering process. When the rock

fragments hit the rocks which are already exposed, abrasion take place.
Thus the rock fragments during abrasion undergo wear and tear which is
called attrition.

During transportation, heavier and larger materials move slowly while finer
and lighter material move fast.. When attrition take place the angular edges
disappear and spherical, ellipsoidal stones etc are formed after a long
journey.

River Transportation: A river transports its material physically as

well as in a solution form. The transport system is divided into three
groups.
1. Bed load comprises heavier particles of sand, pebbles, gravels etc..
which are transported mainly by their rolling, skipping, along the
bottom of stream.

2. Suspended load consists of silt, fine sands, clay etc.. and such
load is carried by river in its body of water in suspension. As the
river is moved, the load is also carried along with it. Thus load is
transported continuously without break till conditions are
favourable. This type of natural suspension and separation of
sediments account to their size is called Sorting.

3. Dissolved load: Material is transported in a solution condition. The

ability to transport the sediments is influenced by river velocity,
density etc..

River Deposition is the last phase of geological work of a river. Among

the different kinds of river deposits, a few are listed below:
Alluvial cones and fans: River sediment is known as alluvium. If
the deposit is spread over a small area but has a relatively steep
slope, it is called an alluvial cone. On the other hand, if the deposit
is spread over a large area and has a gentle slope, it is called an
alluvial fan.

Placer deposits: The placer deposits are characteristically composed of

heavier metals such as Gold, Platinum, Chromite, magnetite, Rutile,
Ilmenite, Monazite etc. which are commonly economic minerals.
Eg: Rand placer deposit of South Africa is famous for gold.

Delta deposits: Most of the rivers reach this stage just before they
merge with the sea. Rivers Ganga and Brahmaputra have built up the
best deltaic regions of the world. Deltas are very fertile and valuable for
agriculture.

Natural levees. During the time of floods, the river carries a very
large scale of river dumps along its course on either side which are
known as natural levees. Eg silt, clay .

MEANDER DEVELOPMENT

A meander in general is a bend in a (moving with smooth twists & turns)

water coarse. A meander bend is formed when the moving water in a
stream erodes the out banks and widens its valley. If the river
encounters any obstacle, it shall not have the capacity to uproot it and
therefore it takes a diversion and continues its downward coarse.. This is
responsible for the formation of deposits known as placer deposits.

By virtue of its relatively weak condition the river compulsorily undergoes a

number of curves or bends which makes its path zig-zag. These bends are
called meanders and the phenomenon is known as Meandering.
Meandering is therefore a characteristic feature of the mature stage.
In due course of time these bends become more and more acute due to
deposition of sediments along the inner curve and erosion along the outer
curve. Ultimately under favourable conditions such as floods, these loops
are cut off from the main course of the river. Such cut off bodies of water
which are curved in plan are called cut off lakes or horse shoe lakes or ox
bow lakes.

Delta: A delta is a landform that is formed at the mouth of a river

where the river flows into an ocean, or sea. Deltas are formed from the
deposition of the sediment carried by the river as the flow leaves the mouth
of the river. Over long periods of time, this deposition builds the
characteristic geographic pattern of river delta.
Development of delta: The favourable conditions for the formation of delta
are:

1. The river should have large amount of load.

2. The river should have totally exhausted its energy at the time of its
merger with the sea.
3. The oceans at the mouth of the river should not be turbulent otherwise
as & when loose sediments are deposited they are washed away by the
waves and currents of the sea.
During delta formation the prevailing conditions will be such that the river
will be shallow and will change its direction and velocity frequently. Under
such conditions deltas develop a typical structure known as cross bedding.

The delta will have gently incline bottom layers of fine sediments known as
bottom set beds. These are overlain by steeply inclined middle layers of
coarse sediments known as forest beds. Above these again gently dipping
layers of the mixture of finer and coarser sediments occur. They are known
as top set beds. Though all these three sets of beds are inclined towards the
sea, they differ in the amount of inclination and hence they are not parallel.
Such a peculiar bedding phenomenon is known as cross bedding.

VALLEY DEVELOPMENT

VALLEYS: In geology, a valley is a depression with predominant extent in

one direction. A very deep river valley may be called a canyon or gorge. The
terms U-shaped and V-shaped are descriptive terms of geography to
characterize the form of valley. Most valleys belong to one of these two main
types or a mixture of them, at least with respect of the cross section of the
slopes or hills.

FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT: A valley is an extended depression in

the Earth's surface that is usually bounded by hills or mountains and is
normally occupied by a river or stream.

Valleys are one of the most common landforms on the Earth and they are
formed through erosion or the gradual wearing down of the land by wind
and water. In river valleys for example, the river acts as an erosional agent
by grinding down the rock or soil and creating a valley. The shape of valleys
varies but they are typically steep-sided canyons or broad plains, however
their form depends on what is eroding it, the slope of the land, the type of
rock or soil and the amount of time the land has been eroded.

There are three common types of valleys which include V-shaped valleys, U-
shaped valleys and flat floored valleys.

V-SHAPED VALLEYS/ RIVER VALLEYS: A V-shaped valley, sometimes

called a river valley, is a narrow valley with steeply sloped sides that appear
similar to the letter "V" from a cross-section. They are formed by strong
streams, which over time have cut down into the rock through a process
called down cutting. These valleys form in mountainous and/or highland
areas with streams in their "youthful" stage. At this stage, streams flow
rapidly down.
• An example of a V-shaped valley is the Grand Canyon in the
Southwestern United States. After millions of years of erosion, the
Colorado River cut through rock of the Colorado Plateau and formed a
steep sided canyon V-shaped canyon known today as the Grand Canyon.
• The original natural large river valleys of the world such as Nile, Ganges,
Amazon, Mississippi etc.

U-SHAPED VALLEYS/ GLACIAL VALLEYS: A U-shaped valley is a valley

with a profile similar to the letter "U." They are characterized by steep sides
that curve in at the base of the valley wall. They also have broad, flat valley
floors. U-shaped valleys are formed by glacial erosion. U-shaped valleys are
found in areas with high elevation and in high latitudes, where the most
glaciation has occurred. Large glaciers that have formed in high latitudes
are called continental glaciers or ice sheets, while those forming in mountain
ranges are called alpine or mountain glaciers.

Due to their large size and weight, glaciers are able to completely alter
topography. This is because they flowed down pre-existing river or V-shaped
valleys during the last glaciations and caused the bottom of the "V" to level
out into a "U" shape as the ice erode the valley walls, resulting in a wider,
deeper valley. For this reason, U-shaped valleys are sometimes referred to as
glacial troughs.

One of the world's most famous U-shaped valleys is Yosemite Valley in

California. It has a broad plain that now consists of the Merced River along
with granite walls that were eroded by glaciers during the last glaciations.

FLAT FLOORED VALLEYS: The third type of valley is called a flat-floored

valley and are formed by streams, but they are no longer in their youthful
stage, and are instead considered mature. The valley floor gets wider,
because of the stream gradient (moderate or low), the river begins
to erode the bank of its channel instead of valley walls.

Over time, the stream continues to meander and erode the valley's soil,
widening it further. With flood events, the material that is eroded and
carried in the stream is deposited which builds up the floodplain of the
valley. During this process, the shape of the valley changes from a V or U
shaped valley into one with a broad flat valley floor. An example of a flat-
floored valley is the Nile River Valley.
`

IMPORTANCE OF PETROLOGY: Rocks are divided according to their

origin into 3 groups viz., IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY and METAMORPHIC.
The study of rocks in all their aspects including their mineralogies,
textures, structures; origin and their relationships to other rocks plays a
major role in civil engineering operations.

Igneous Rocks are formed when hot molten rock material called magma
solidifies (or) igneous rocks form through cooling and crystallization of
molten rock material. If the molten material is below the Earth’s
surface, it is called magma or else it comes out about the surface , it is
known as lava.

The molten material of rock is semi-solid in nature and consists of liquid ,

gas and earlier formed crystals. The volatiles ( elements and compounds
which are dissolved in a silicate melt ) are dominantly water vapour, CO2
and elements like O2, Si, Al, Ca, Na, K, Fe and Mg.

Sedimentary Rocks are formed due to weathering and erosion of the

pre-existing rocks. Sedimentary rocks are classified on the basis of the
character of the material and process which leads to its deposition. In
addition, the depositional environment plays a major role in the formation
of sedimentary rocks ie. deposited the material by wind action or water
action.

Sedimentary rocks
Greywacks arkose sandstone limestone
Chert Conglomerate shales Dolomite
Siltstone Mudstone/claystone Breccia

Arkoses are indicative of erosion under arid conditions and rapid burial
conditions whereas Greywacks are a common rock type of geosynclines

Metamorphic Rocks are formed through the transformation of the

pre-existing rocks under increased temperature and pressure conditions.
This process of transformation is known as metamorphism. Formation of
metamorphic rock from a pre – existing ( igneous or sedimentary ) rock is
controlled by the following parameters:

Composition of the rock ; Temperature ; Pressure ;

Chemically active fluids ( common fluid is water )
Foliation ( under differential stress conditions )
Non-foliation ( under hydrostatic stress )
Examples for metamorphic rocks are:

Quartzite Hornfels Marble

Amphibolite Eclogite Schist
Gneiss Khondalite Slate
Phyllite

Among the igneous and metamorphic rocks; Granites; Quartzites;

Gneisses and Basalts are suitable for construction of a dam. Pure
sandstones have good compressive strength but presence of inter layers of
shales decrease its strength.
Limestones usually contains cavities in them. Adequate treatment in terms
of grout – filling of the cavities is to be taken in such cases.

Schists, Phyllites, Shales, Siltstones and clay stones are relatively

incompetent and need proper attention. Clay , if present is totally
excavated since clay is incompetent as it swells on saturation with water.
Contacts of igneous intrusive (dyke) and the host rocks often are
fractured and jointed and hence such site is studied with proper care.
Eg: Nagarjuna sagar dam:. Contact of a dolerite dyke with the host rock
( granite gneisses ), a weak zone was identified along the contact.
Excavation followed by back – filling with grout was adopted.

The goal is to give:

1) A meaningful sampling of the approaches and philosophy behind

petrologic studies for stability of civil engineering constructions;
2) An appreciation for the diversity, complexity and geological significance of
the rocks that comprise the earth for long durable constructions;
3) A basis for understanding the importance of petrology in the civil engg.
constructions and
4) To provide an opportunity to further development for particular
construction.

IMPORTANCE OF STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY: Geological structures are

the evidences of crustal deformation. Depending on the process involved,
the following various types of structures develop in the geological
formations.

FOLDS: Folds are best displayed by stratified formations such as

sedimentary or volcanic rocks or their metamorphosed equivalents.
Folds can be seen in Gabbro, Granite gneiss, iron formations etc..

FAULTS: When formations subjected to stress deform resulting in the

development of fractures or a fracture in rock along which there has been
an observable amount of displacement can be seen.

JOINTS: Joints are fractures or openings in the rock formations. These

differ from the faults in that there is no displacement along them.
UNCONFIRMITIES: An unconformity represents a long interval of non –
deposition during which erosion takes place.
The earth’s crust is broken into 13 major plates which are in constant
movement ( 1 to 2 cm per year ) due to the convection currents in
the interior of the earth. The movements of tectonic plates in the earth
crust affect the solid rocks which cause folds; faults, joints etc… study
of these aspects are very important to a civil engineer in construction
projects. Strike and dip of beds or formations ( layers ) or joints
also important for site location.

Importance of geological structures in Civil engineering

operations:

• The formations at the dam site should be dipping towards

upstream or horizontal. This will counter the seepage compared
the situation where the formations dip in the downstream
direction.
• Foundations will have greater stability as the load is normal to the
horizontal formations or formations with low dips.
• Presence of faults in the formations is not suitable for a dam site.
• Extensive joints in the rocks also threatens the safety of the
structure

• Presence of folds ( anticlinal or synclinal structures ) in the

foundation material contributes to the seepage problem.
A dam is a barrier across flowing water that obstructs, directs or slows
down the flow, often creating a reservoir, lake or impoundments. Most dams
have a section called a spillway or weir over which water flows, either
intermittently or continuously.

Dam failures are comparatively rare, but can cause immense damage and
loss of life when they occur. Common causes of dam failure include:

• Spillway design error (South Fork Dam)

• Geological instability caused by changes to water levels during filling or
poor surveying (Malpasset).
• Sliding of a mountain into the dam lake; in the case of Vajont Dam, filling
the reservoir caused geological failure in valley wall (Lawn Lake Dam, Val
di Stava )
• Extreme rainfall (Shakidor Dam)
• Human, computer or design error (Dale Dike Reservoir,)
• Internal erosion, especially in earthen dams.

CAUSES FOR FAILURE OF DAMS ------ CASE STUDIES

The most common causes of dam failures includes the following

considerations:

1. Failure due to earthquake

2. Failure due to landslide
3. Failure due to chemical weathering of foundation rocks ( Alkali-Silica
Reaction ,
Sulfate & Chloride on concrete)
4. Failure due to physical weathering (temperature variations, or by heavy
rain, or by
physical breaking).
5.Failure due to increase of fractures in geological structures (fault, folds &
unconformities).

1.The St. Francis Dam was a concrete gravity-arch dam, designed to create a reservoir.
The dam was built between 1924 and 1926 under the supervision of William
Mulholland

The dam Height is 195 feet (59 m) & its length is 608 feet (185 m). The
dam was constructed on the foundation of Schists and conglomerates
and in turn, separated by a distinct fault. In addition, conglomerates also
had veins of gypsum, a soluble mineral and hence both Schists and
conglomerates are unsuitable to serve as a foundation to such a dam.
Several temperature and contraction cracks appeared in the dam when the
reservoir had reached full capacity. Enormous leakage of stored water
occurred through the conglomerate and the dam failed by sliding in 1928
resulting more than killing of 450 people

Huge concrete block from the west abutment of the dam was carried
out by dam water . The block is approximately 63 feet long, 30 feet
high, and 54 feet wide. It was concluded that the disaster was primarily
caused by the landslide on which the western abutment of the dam was
built.

1. Hales Bar Dam was a hydroelectric dam located on the Tennessee

River in Marion Country, Tennessee, USA. The height of the dam is
113 feet with a length of 2315 feet. The Hales Bar Dam was
constructed on the foundation of cavernous limestones. Such
rocks are naturally weak both physically and chemically. To
improve the site conditions and to reduce the seepage, the large
openings were filled up by using more than 3000 tons of cement
and 1100 barrels of asphalt. The dam was planned to complete in 1909,
but numerous difficulties brought by the soft bedrock ie limestone upon
which the dam was built.

Leaks began to appear almost immediately after completion. However.

in 1919, engineers attempted to minimize the leakage by pumping hot
asphalt into the dam's foundation. This was temporarily successful, but
by 1931, a study leaking at a rate of 1,000 cubic feet per second was
noticed .

In the late 1950s, however, the water below Hales Bar Dam, was again
leaking, this time at an alarming 2,000 cubic feet per second. Dye tests
carried out in 1960 suggested that many of the leakage channels had
interconnected, increasing the possibility of a future dam failure.

Huge concrete block from the west abutment of the dam . The block is
approximately 63 feet long, 30 feet high, and 54 feet wide
 Hales Bar Dam in 1949, after various improvements

3. Kaila Dam, Gujarat, India: The Kaila Dam in Kachch, Gujarat, India
was constructed during 1952 - 55 as an earth fill dam with a height of 23.08
m above the river bed and a crest length of 213.36 m. The storage of full
reservoir level was 13.98 million cubic mts. The foundation was made of
shale. The spillway was of ogee shaped and ungated. The depth of cutoff was
3.21 m below the river bed. Inspite of a freeboard allowance of 1.83 m at the
normal reservoir level and 3.96 m at the maximum reservoir level the energy
dissipation devices first failed and later the embankment collapsed due to
the weak foundation bed in 1959.

4 . Kodaganar Dam, Tamil Nadu, India: This dam was constructed in

1977 on Cauvery River as an earthen dam with regulators. The dam was
15.75 m high above the deepest foundation, having a 11.45 m of height
above the river bed. The storage at full reservoir level was 12.3 million cubic
mts. The dam failed due to overtopping by flood waters which flowed over
the downstream slopes. There was an earthquake registered during the
period of failure although the foundation was strong. Water gushed over the
rear slopes, as a cascade of water was eroding the slopes. Breaches of length
20 m to 200 m were observed. It appeared as if the entire dam was
overtopped and breached.

5. Tigra Dam ( Madhya Pradesh, India, 1917 ): This was a masonry

gravity dam of 24 m height, constructed for the purpose of water supply. A
depth of 0.85 m of water overtopped the dam over a length of 400 m. This
was equivalent to an overflow of 850 m3s-1(estimated). Two major blocks
were bodily pushed away. The failure was due to sliding. The dam was
reconstructed in 1929.

List of major dam failures

Dam/incident Year Location Details
 Pennsylvania, U Poor design, use of dynamite to remedy
Austin Dam 1911
S structural problems.
Geological instability of canyon wall that
Valencia,
could not have been detected with available
St. Francis Dam 1928 California, Los
technology of the time, that assessed
Angeles , U S
developing cracks .
Geological fault possibly enhanced by
Côte d'Azur,
Malpasset 1959 explosives work during construction; initial
France
geo-study was not thorough.
Baldwin Hills Los Angeles, Subsidence caused by over-exploitation of
1963
Reservoir California, U S local oil field
Filling the reservoir caused geological
failure in valley wall, leading to 110 km/h
Vajont Dam 1963 Italy
landslide into the lake; Valley had been
incorrectly assessed stable.
Unstable loose constructed dam created by
Buffalo Creek Flood 1972 West Virginia, U S local coal mining company, collapsed in
heavy rain
Teton Dam 1976 Idaho, U S Water leakage leading to dam failure.
Heavy rainfall and flooding that over-topped
Laurel Run Dam 1977 Pennsylvania, U S
the dam.
Heavy rain and flooding beyond spillway
Machchu-2 Dam 1979 Gujarat, India
capacity.
Peruća Dam
1993 Croatia detonation of pre-positioned explosives
detonation
constant rain. Post-flood enquiries
Saguenay Flood 1996 Quebec, Canada discovered that the network of dikes
involvement
Ringdijk Groot- Wilnis, Peat dam became lighter than water during
2003
Mijdrecht Netherlands droughts and floated away
North Carolina, Heavy rains caused earthen dam and bank
Hope Mills Dam 2003
United States to wash away
A small hole in the dam, grew bigger and
Big Bay Dam 2004 Mississippi, U S
led to failure.
Shakidor Dam 2005 Pakistan extreme rain
Taum Sauk Lesterville, dam continued to fill. Minor leakages
2005
reservoir Missouri, U S caused for failure
Campos Novos Campos Novos,
2006 Tunnel collapse
Dam Brazil
Kyzyl-Agash Dam 2010 Kazakhstan Heavy rain and snowmelt
North Carolina, U
Hope Mills Dam 2010 Sinkhole caused dam failure
S
Delhi Dam 2010 Iowa, US Heavy rain, flooding.
Ajka alumina plant
2010 Hungary Failure of concrete impound wall
accident
Fujinuma Dam 2011 Japan Failure due to 2011 Tōhoku earthquake.

WEATHERING OF ROCKS - IT’S EFFECT & IMPORTANCE wrt

DAMS, RESERVOIRS, TUNNELS

The process by which rocks are broken down and decomposed by the action
of external agencies such as wind, rain, temperature changes etc is called
as weathering.. (or) weathering is a process involving disintegration
and decomposition of rocks. The disintegrated and the altered materials
stay at the site of formation. If these materials are transported from
the site with the help of natural agencies such as wind, running water
etc, the process is called as erosion. Weathering is categorized as a
mechanical, chemical, biological..

Mechanical weathering: In mechanical weathering, the process

involves only fragmentation or break down of the rock into smaller
fragments / pieces. In nature, the physical breaking of rocks are
caused by several processes. Waterfalls, landslides during their fall
cause extensive breakdown of rocks. Thus gravity contributes to
mechanical disintegration of rocks. However, all the processes involve
widening of the fractures, resulting in the detachment of blocks
surrounded by the weak planes. The different types of processes in
mechanical weathering are:

Frost wedging: The presence of water in the cracks of the rocks freezes
during the night time and melts during the day time. Freezing of
water involves an increase in the volume because of which the walls
of cracks are wedged ultimately resulting in the detachment blocks
surrounded by the weak planes.

Expansion and contraction process: Solar radiation causes heating,

which results in thermal expansion during day time and drop in the
temperature during the night time causes contraction. The expansion
and contraction are confined only to the surface layers of the rock
and results often in the fracturing and detachment of top layers of the
rocks.

Fracturing through pressure releases: Rocks at depth are confined

under high pressures. However, if the rock material is uplifted due
to tectonic processes to relatively lesser depths, it is subjected to
lesser pressure conditions. So, the release of pressure leads to the
deformation of rock and generates the fractures.

Effect of vegetation: During the growth of vegetation in rocky terrains,

the roots penetrate into the existing weak planes and gradually the
cracks are widened leading to physical breakdown of rock masses.

Mechanical or physical weathering involves the breakdown of rocks

through direct
contact with atmospheric conditions, such as heat, water, ice and pressure.
Chemical weathering: Chemical weathering involves chemical
reactions resulting in the alteration of the rock leading to the
formation of new alteration products. Water is the best fluid that directly
affects rocks by way of Dissolution; Leaching (making porous);
Hydration; Oxidation, Hydrolysis etc

Dissolution / Carbonation: In case of carbonate rocks such as

limestone, dolomite, marble when the river water traverses in these
rocks; carbonates are dissolved, resulting in the reduction of their
sizes.

Surface water contain O2 and its combination with water results in

the formation of carbonic acid. Production of carbonic acid lowers the
pH, resulting in the attack some of the minerals which are present in
the rocks.

Leaching: means removable of soluble content from the rocks by

water. Water is the powerful leaching agent which affects leaching for
the most of the materials when come in contact with water. Eg:
laterite is a porous rock and very weak when compared to its fresh
parent rock.

Hydration is the process where in hydroxyl molecules are injected into

the molecular structures of minerals thereby bringing about the
decomposition of minerals.

K2 Al2O3 6 SiO2 + H2O + CO2 K2CO3 + Al2O3 2 SiO2 2H2O +

4 SiO2
(K – feldspars) (Hydration) (Kaoline)
(silica)

Due to hydration process, anhydrous pyroxenes are changed over to

amphiboles while Amphiboles may be altered to Biotite. Biotite change
over to Chlorite whereas Anhydrite ( CaSO4 ) alters to Gypsum ( CaSO4
2H2O) ) during hydration.
Oxidation: The decomposition of minerals in a rock during chemical
weathering is brought about by O2 in water. For eg pyroxene changes
into limonite because of oxidation through the following reaction.
4FeSiO3 + O2 + 2H2O 4 FeO (OH) + 4 SiO2
(pyroxene) (limonite) (silica)

Pyrite ( FeS2) converts into Haematite ( Fe2O3) during oxidation process

Hydrolysis: In case of decomposition of minerals, instead of water

molecule, only hydrogen of water enters into the mineral structure.
This is called hydrolysis.
K AlSi3 O8 + H+ H AlSi3O8 +
K +

Orthoclase feldspars ion Silicic acid

ion
In addition, CO2; O2; N2 of atmospheric gases which take part in the
weathering of rocks.

Chemical weathering, involves the direct effect of atmospheric chemicals in

the breakdown of rocks, minerals...
Biological weathering involves breakdown of rocks by living organisms
(Bacteria & fungi ). Living organisms release organic acids viz., Oxalic
acid; Phenolic acid; Folic acid, Acetic Acid, Humic acid etc.. which cause
decomposition of rocks. Some of the microorganisms penetrate into
mineral crystals and remove specific ions from the inter layers. Eg:
removal of K+ from mica layers by fungi is an example of this type.

Man is also responsible for unnatural weathering of rocks for

construction of buildings, dams, bridges etc…

Weathering effect over the properties of rocks:

• Weathered minerals exhibit change in color intensity or different

colors.
• They will be less compact, and hence their specific gravity will be
less.
• Their hardness will decrease so that the minerals become softer
and weak.
• They become less transparent or tend to become opaque.
• The minerals loss their original shine and exhibit a dull luster.
• Weathered minerals loose their internal cohesion & become easily
powdered.
• Weathered rocks usually appear as brown,red & yellow colors on the
surface.

The degree of weathering is controlled by several parameters. These are:

A) Rock mass characteristics: The ultrabasic and basic igneous rocks
( Peridotite, Dunite, Gabbro ) decompose rapidly to acidic igneous rocks
(Granite).
Similarly, carbonate rocks weather rapidly due to chemical solvents.
Among the metamorphic rocks, quartzite is most stable whereas
weathering of schists and phyllite is relatively faster. Rocks with folding
and faulting undergo rapid weathering. The weak zones facilitate
mechanical and chemical weathering by natural agencies.

B) Climate: It includes temperature and rainfall. In general,

weathering is faster in regions with high temperature and high rainfall

As the temperature increases the vibration of atoms and ions in the rock
mineral structures are more ultimately leading to the development of
cracks. Rate of chemical weathering doubles with an increase of temp by
10o C.
Rainfall contributes to the growth of organisms ( bacteria ) which
produces CO2.

C) Relief: If the topography is undulating and the slopes are steep, the
weathered material erode continuously from the site. Consequently fresh
surface of the rocks expose.

D) Time: If the weathering has continued over a long period of time,

thick zone of alteration develops. eg: Bauxite deposits results from the
decay and weathering of aluminum bearing rocks often igneous rocks.

IMPORTANCE OF WEATHERING

Weathering transports smaller fragments, pieces etc after the process of

weathering. Weathering initiates the erosion of rock, causing alterations in
minerals as well as in the surface layers. Weathering is a process that
applies major role of engineering mechanics, e.g. kinematics (study of bodies
which are in motion), dynamics and fluid mechanics to predict the
mechanical behavior of erosion. Together, soil and rock mechanics are the
basis for solving many engineering geologic problems with references to
dams, reservoirs and tunnels.

Advantages of weathering from civil engineering point of view:

• Weathering produces soil which is vital for agriculture and for
the production of agricultural crops.
• Weathering makes rocks into porous and permeable which allow
the movement of groundwater in case of hard rocks like
granites.
• Economic minerals like bauxite deposits are also form due to
weathering.
 • Oxidation of chemical weathering is important in the formation of
some ore deposits particularly sulphides.

Disadvantages of weathering from civil engineering point of view:

• Weathering is not a welcome process, because it reduces the

strength, durability and good appearance of rocks.
• Therefore, the weathered rocks are unfit to be at the site of
foundation in case of civil structures like dams and bridges.
• Since weathered rocks are characterized by loose characters ie
strength, durability etc, they become unfit for the formation of
road metal or as a building stone.
• Weathered rocks are being weak, therefore unsuitable for
tunneling.
• Occurrence of weathered zone in the upstream side creates
silting problem in case of reservoirs as the accumulation of
rapid silt reduces the reservoir capacity.
• Loose boulders due to weathering along steep slopes may turn
out landslides which is civil engineering hazard.

Engineering classification of weathered rock masses: The

engineering classification of weathered rock masses can be categorized
into Qualitative and Quantitative approached.

Qualitative approach is very useful for the preparation of weathering

maps for project sites in civil engineering practice.

The degree of weathering in a rock mass is arrived on the basis of change

in its strength, alteration on its surface and the development of fractures.
The rock mass is categorized into 6 grades. Table shows the grades of
weathering in a rock masses :

Description Code Grade Basis of grading

Unweathered UW I Rock mass is fresh. No alteration
Slightly weathered SW II Discolouration present along cracks
Moderately MW III Increase in the extent of fracturing &
weathered partly modifies into soil
Highly weathered HW IV Material is discolored. Loss of strength
can be observed. More than half of the
material is converted to soil
Completely CW V Lost original strength. Rock mass
weathered changed to soil
Residual weathered RW VI Total conversion to soil. No original
fabric
Quantitative approaches also reveals the weathering status, geodurability
etc.. of rock masses.
A) Based on ultrasonic velocities, Lliev (1967) classified the weathered rock
masses as : C = (VF – VW / VF ) where C = coefficient of weathering
VF = velocity in fresh rock & VW = velocity in weathered rock.

Grade Coefficient
Fresh 0
Slightly weathered 0 – 0.2
moderately weathered 0.2 – 0.4
Strongly weathered 0.4 – 0.6
Very strongly weathered 0.6 – 1.0

B. This classification was proposed by Oliver by incorporating UNIAXIAL

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH ( UCS ) & SWELLING INDEX (means the
change in length on swelling to the original length of sample ) for rock
masses.

VLS=Very Low Strength; LS=Low Strength; MS=Medium strength; HS=High

strength

0.1 VLS LS MS HS VHS

Swelling index Very poor

poor

0.001 good

Mod poor

0.0001 fair Excellent

1 10 100 Uniaxial Compressive

Strength ( MPa)

This method is essentially meant for assessing the weathered status of the
rock mass for TUNNELLING OPERATIONS.

Effect of weathering of a common rock GRANITE:

Among different rocks, Granite ( an acidic rock ) is one of the most
abundant rock on the earth’s surface. Therefore, it will be
appropriate to analyse the process of weathering in granite.
Granite consists of quartz, feldspars ( orthoclase, plagioclase ), and
accessory minerals ( amphiboles, pyroxenes; biotite / muscovite, magnetite
/ haematite, rutile, zircon, apatite, garnet..)

During the oxidation, feldspars in granite converts into sericite and then to
kaolinite thereby silica removed from the reaction by ground water.

Feldspars sericite ( mica ) kaolinite ( clay )

Quartz minerals remain unchanged whereas muscovite or biotite becomes

chlorite on decomposition. Pyroxenes ( augite / diopside ) decompose and
pass into hornblende or breakdown into chlorite.

The above changes due to weathering causes failure of civil construction

projects and hence the study of weathering of rocks is important for any
civil project.

Finally, Geological considerations such as Topography and geomorphology

of the site, impact of geological structures; Lithology of the formations ;
Identification of weak zones in addition to weathering of rocks plays an
important role in civil engineering constructions.

Effect of weathering on other rocks: On the other

hand, the decomposition of basic rocks (basalt, gabbro) which contain
ferro magnesium silicates produce soluble materials (clay); iron-oxides;
less silica.

Disintegration (mechanical weathering) produce rough angular materials

which may from form on the mountain top or accumulate at the
foot hills. These loose accumulations are called TALUS or SCREE.

The finest particles are usually removed from a scree by percolating

water and the fine angular fragments get cemented. So, a cemented
scree is known as BRECCIA. CHERT and FLINT also may occur in
residue when limestones undergo weathering.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS FROM UNIT – 1

1. Hydrogeology is a branch of geology deals with ground water [C

]
A) Occurrence B) Movement C) A and B D) None

2. Which one of the following is not an endogenous geological aspect [B

]
 A) Volcanoes B) Rivers C) Earthquakes D) Ground Water

3. During youth stage of river formation, it is capable of causing [D

]
A) Erosion B) Local deposition C) Deltas D) Waterfalls

4. Hardness of Quartz is [C
]
A) 2 B) 5 C) 7 D) 8

5. Feldspars may be described as aluminum silicates of [D

]
A) Sodium B) Calcium C) Potassium D) All of the above

6. The crust of the earth is called [C

]
A) Atmosphere B) Stratosphere C) Lithosphere D) Pyrosphere

7. Grain size of clay sediment is [A ]

A) <0.01m B) 1 to 2 mm C) >200mm D) 1 to 2.2 mm

8. coal is considered as [B]

A) Rock B] mineral C] both a & b D) None

9. Physical breaking of rocks is called as [C]

A) Erosion B) TransportationC) Disintegration D) Decomposition

10. Chemical decay of rocks is called as [D]

A) Erosion B) TransportationC) Disintegration D) Decomposition

11. The presence of water in the cracks of the rocks freezes during the
night time and melts during the day is called as
[C]
A) chemical weathering B) Decomposition C) Frost Wedging (D)
None

12. Removable of soluble content from the rocks by water is called as

[B]
A) Hydration B) Leaching C) Oxidation
D) Hydrolysis

13. Hydroxyl molecules are injected into the molecular structures of

minerals thereby bringing about the decomposition of minerals is
called as [A]
 A) Hydration B) Leaching C) Oxidation
D) Hydrolysis

14. Production of carbonic acid lower the value of [D]

A) EC B) TDS C) both A & B D) pH

FILL IN THE BLANKS

1. When erosion takes place, fresh country rock surfaces will be exposed
and this process is called DENUDATION.

2. Rock fragments during abrasion undergo wear & tear which is called as
ATTRITION

3. Cut off water bodies from meanders during floods are called OX-BOW
LAKES

4. The color of mineral powder is called the STREAK of mineral.

5. The angle between cleavage sets can be measured by GONIOMETER

6. The rock fragments thrown out at the time of volcanic eruption are called
PYROCLASTS..

7. Mineralogically, shales are mainly made up of Montmorillonite .

8. The term is applied to chemical adjustment in newly solidified igneous

rocks, brought about by a decrease in temperature AUTO
METAMORPHISM.

9. GEOMORPHOLOGY deals with the description & interpretation of land

forms

10. The principles and methods of geology is adopted for the purpose
of civil engineering operations is called as ENGINEERING GEOLOGY.

11. The knowledge of EROSION, TRANSPORTATION & DEPOSITION by

surface water helps in soil conservation, river control.

12. CANYON is a deep valley.

13. Material is transported in a solution condition is called as

DISSOLVED LOAD

14. River sediment is known as ALLUVIUM.

15. If the river sediment / deposit is spread over a small area but
has a relatively steep slope, it is called as ALLUVIAL CONE.
16. If the river sediment / deposit is spread over a large area and
has a gentle slope, it is called as ALLUVIAL FAN

17. During the time of floods, the river carries a very large scale of
river dumps along its course on either side which are known as
NATURAL LEVEES

18. Silt and clay are examples for NATURAL LEVEES.

19. A DELTA is a land form that is formed at the mouth of a river.

20. GRAND CANYON is the example for V-shaped valley.

WORDS and their MEANINGS
canyon A deep valley
Convection Occur in the core and mantle of the earth providing
currents forces which produce certain structural effects at the
earth’s surface.
decomposition Chemical decay of rocks.
deformation A structural term used to describe any change in
attitude, shape or volume of a bed or layer after its
formation. The related terms used which include folds,
faults, schistosity etc..
DIP It is a vector quantity and is represented by angle of
inclination wrt the bedding plane
disintegration Physical breaking of rocks
erosion The disintegrated and the altered products are
transported from the site with the help of natural
agencies like wind and running water.
geosyncline An elongated basin which become filled with very
thickness of sediments. Eg: gulf of Mexico.
Hydrology the study of all waters in and upon the earth. It
includes underground water, surface water, rain fall
etc… NOT UNDER GEOLOGY
Rock The study of the mechanical properties of a rock including
mechanics: the determination of physical properties such as
crushing strength; bending strength; shear strength;
inter angle of friction ; porosity and permeability; density
etc..
stress Internal forces within a body tending to change the
shape or volume of the body.
STRIKE The direction of strike indicates the extension or
continuation of formations.
 UNIT: II - MINERALOGY
Mineral: The study of the characters of minerals ( eg: quartz, pyroxene,
amphibole, mica, chlorite, garnet) is known as Mineralogy. A mineral is a
naturally occurring homogeneous substance, inorganically formed with a
definite chemical composition, with a certain physical properties and
crystalline structures

Under favourable conditions, the internal atomic structure of minerals

result in the development of a definite external geometrical shape ie
crystal form.

The stability of minerals depends on temperature, pressure and

chemical composition of the environment. At present more than 3000
mineral species have been established.

The earth’s crust is mainly composed of feldspars and quartz and

accounts 55% and 10% respectively. Pyroxenes, amphiboles, chlorites,
micas, clay carbonates are widely spread too. Following a few rare
minerals are also common:

Phenacite …Be2 (SiO4) Bertrandite … Be4 (Si2O7) (OH)4

Baddeleyite …Zr O2 Cordierite … Hg3 S2 Cl2

Explanation:

Homogeneous : all parts of the minerals should possess the same

physical and chemical characters.

Crystalline: possess atomic structure in a mineral.

Crystal: A crystal may be defined as a natural solid body bounded by

smooth and plain surfaces, arranged geometrically.

Crystals develop under favourable conditions depending on: (1) slow

cooling (2) surroundings to facilitate the crystal growth in different
directions. (3) non-interference by the adjacent growing minerals
during solidification.

Exceptions for Definition of Mineral:

l. Precious gemstones like diamonds, rubies, sapphires and emeralds are
synthetically produced under controlled laboratory conditions.

2. Coal, amber, petroleum, etc., are typical organic substances which can
be considered as minerals.

3. Amethyst, smoky quartz, citrine, cat's eye, aventurine quartz are some
varieties of quartz. Colour or appearance peculiarity in them is because they
possess some impurities or inclusions or in homogeneities.

4. Asphalt ( a variety of bitumen, semi-solid in nature, black in color) ,

mercury and natural gas are semisolids, liquids or gases. Though these are
called minerals, they are not solid substances.

5. A good number of minerals are now found to be members of isomorphic

groups. Isomorphic minerals do not have a definite chemical composition, but
have a definite range of composition.

6. Some minerals like flint, chert, jasper and agate are cryptocrystalline, i.e.,
they do not have a well-developed crystal structure. A few others like opal,
bauxite, Psilomelane, pitchblende etc are typically amorphous, i.e., they do
not possess any regular internal atomic structure.

The most widespread elements in minerals are: O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, Mg,
K, Ti while S, Cl, C, Mn, H are moderately spread. B, Be, Pb, Sb, As, Bi,
Se, U, etc are either rare earth elements or not spread at all.

Minerals are broadly grouped into

(a) Rock forming minerals ( constitute a rock ) and

(b) Ore–forming minerals (composition of an ore which is economically
imp ).

The term ore mineral embraces minerals from which valuable metallic
elements can be extracted. Eg; Cu, Ag, Fe, Al.

Minerals are extremely important economically, aesthetically, industrially

and scientifically.

Economically, utilization of minerals is necessary to maintain anything

for standard of living. Gold, silver, copper, iron, aluminum etc are
economically important minerals for human beings.

Aesthetically, minerals of diamond, ruby, sapphire, emerald shine as

gems and enrich our lives. Gems in jewellery, crown jewel collections
attract the attention of millions of people.
All in all, approximately 10% of all mineral species are used at
present for industrial purposes.

Scientifically, minerals comprise the data bank from which we can

learn about our physical earth and its constituent materials.

Chemistry has developed on the basis of the study of the chemical

composition and the properties of various minerals and ores.
Mineralogical methods are widely used in Petrology, Geochemistry, soil
study, Paleontology (in the study of fossils), in medicine, in archeology.

All the minerals are grouped into 8 classes:

1. Native elements (Eg: Au, Ag, Cu, Arsenic, Bismuth, Platinum,

Diamond)
2. Sulphides ( Eg: Galena, Pyrite, Cinnabar, Stibnite, Pyrrhotite)
3. Oxides (Magnetite, Haematite, Rutile, Brookite) and hydroxides (Eg:
serpentine; amphiboles)
4. Halides (Eg: Fluorite, Halite)
5. Carbonates ( Eg: calcite, Magnesite), nitrates and borates
6. Sulphates ( Eg: Barytes, Gypsum), chromates (Eg: Uvarovite)
7. Phosphates ( Eg: Apatite, Monazite)
8. Silicates ( eg: Quartz, feldspars, Muscovite, Biotite, Hornblende,
Tourmaline, Zerolite, Topaz ) .

Since silicates are the most common rock forming minerals, it is

desirable to know some relevant aspects about these.

In all silicate structures, the silicon atoms are in fourfold coordination

with oxygen. The bonds between silicon and oxygen are so strong that the
4 oxygen’s are always at the corners of a tetrahedron of nearly
constant dimensions.
O

O Si
O O

STRUCTURE OF SILICATES / CLASSIFICATION OF SILICATES

Silicate classification for most silicate minerals is based on the types

of linkages as follows:
 1. NESO SILICATES
2. SORO SILICATES
3. INO SILICATES
4. CYCLO SILICATES
5. PHYLLO SILICATES
6. TECTO SILICATES

1. NESOSILICATES: ( independent tetrahedral groups ): in this group

SiO4 tetrahedra occur as independent units in mineral structure.

Si : O : : 1 : 4

One silicon – oxygen tetrahedron

Eg: Olivine family;

Aluminum silicate family ( kyanite , sillimanite; Andalusite )

Garnet family.

OLIVINE FAMILY

OLIVINES are nesosilicates in atomic structure with the general

formula R2 ( SiO4) in which R = Mg or Fe. Olivine family consists of

Forsterite ( Mg2SiO4 )

Fayalite ( Fe2 SiO4 )

Olivine (Mg Fe)2 SiO4

Olivine is one of the first minerals to form alongwith calcic plagioclase

feldspars during the solidification of magma. As magma cools down,
olivine reacts with silica content of parent magma and changes over to
pyroxene.

PERIDOT is a transparent, pale green gem variety found in Egypt, Burma,

Brazil )

Alteration: olivines are highly susceptible to decomposition.

Hydrothermal alteration of olivines produces serpentine.

3 Mg2 SiO2 + H2O + SiO2 2 Mg3 Si2O5 (OH)4

Forsterite serpentine
Occurrence: Occurs in Ultrabasic igneous rocks such as Dunite,
Peridotite, Picrite . Also occurs as accessory mineral in Basalts,
Dolerites, Gabbros.

Uses: Due to its high melting point, olivine is used in the

manufacture of refractory bricks.

ALUMINUM SILICATES

In nature, totally, three minerals with different physical properties

with same composition occurs as Al2 SiO5, which are called as
aluminum silicates.

ANDALUSITE formed under high temperature & low stress conditions

of metamorphism.

SILLIMANITE formed under high temperature & high stress conditions

of metamorphism.

KYANITE formed under moderate temperature and high stress

conditions of metamorphism. Kyanite is a product of high grade
metamorphism. It will not form either as a primary mineral or as a
product of weathering.

GARNET FAMILY
This family is also belonging to nesosilicates and consist of the
following minerals:

Grossular Ca3 Al2 (SiO4)3

Almandine Fe3 Al2 (SiO4)3
Pyrope Mg3 Al2 (SiO4)3
Spessartite Mn3 Al2 (SiO4)3
Andradite Ca3 Fe2 (SiO4)3
Uvarovite Ca3 Cr2 (SiO4)3
Under microscope, garnet can be seen rounded crystals , traversed by
branching cracks and having no cleavage.

Occurrence: Gneisses, Kyanite Schists; Syenites etc

Uses: used as abrasive in the polishing of wood and as a gemstone.

2. SOROSILICATES: (Double tetrahedral structures): in this group of
minerals, SiO4 tetrahedra occur in pairs in which one oxygen is shared
between the two silicon atoms. The epidotes are all similar in their
atomic structure, a mixed type containing both SiO4 and Si2O7 groups
forms a different types of minerals eg: Idocrase.

(Si : O : : 2 : 7) Two silicon – oxygen tetrahedron

O
O
O

Si O Si

O
O
O

Epidote family consists of Zoisite .. Ca2 Al3 (SiO4)3 OH

Epidote.. Ca2 (Al, Fe)3 (SiO4)3 OH
Allanite.. (Ca, Fe)2 (Al,Fe,Ce)3 (SiO4)3 OH

Melilite …. Ca2 Mg Si2O7

Hemimorphite Zn4Si2O7 (OH)2 H2O

Idocrase .. Ca10 Al4 (Mg,Fe)2 (Si2O7) (SiO4)5

(OH)4

3. INOSILICATES: Two varieties of inosilicates (single chain & double

chain structures) occur in nature.

SINGLE CHAIN SILICATES Si : O : : 1 : 3

In this group of minerals, SiO4 tetrahedra occur as chains resulting

in more growth of minerals along one direction. The chains consist of a
large number of linked SiO4 tetrahedrons, each sharing two oxygen’s.
Eg: pyroxenes

Si
Si Si

Si Si Si Si
The pyroxenes are a group of minerals which possess the Si2O6
chain structure. Pyroxenes consist of:

Pyroxens Composition Occurs in

Enstatite Mg Si O3 or Mg2 Si2 O6 Igneous rocks such as Gabbros,
Diorites; Peridotites, Serpentinites
Hypersthene (Mg, Fe ) SiO3 Norite, Gabbros; Andesite;
Charnockites; Schists; Hornfels
Diopside Ca Mg Si2 O6 Pegmatites; Granites
Hedenbergite Ca Fe Si2 O6 At contact of granitic rocks with
limestones
Pigeonite (Ca Mg) (Mg Fe) Si2 O6 In volcanic rocks
Augite (Ca Mg Fe Al)2 (Al ) Si2 Occurs as short prismatic
O6 crystals in volcanic rocks such
as Andesite, Basalts. Basic
igneous rocks of Gabbros;
dolerites, diorites and in
Ultrabasic igneous rocks such as
Peroxenites; Peridotites.
Aegirite Na Fe Si2 O6
Jadeite Na Al Si2 O6
Spodumene Li Al Si2 O6 Pegmatites.

AUGITE : It is a silicate of calcium, magnesium, iron and aluminum

with a composition of (Ca Mg Fe Al)2 (Al ) Si2 O6. It forms as a crystals,
lamellar and sometimes fibrous.. Augite occurs in Black and greenish
black in color.

Varieties: Diallage is a variety of augite which in hand-specimen

appears as lamellar ( lamellar structure is due to a parting parallel
to the planes ). Diallage is characteristic of Gabbros.

Occurrence: augite occurs as short prismatic crystals in volcanic rocks,

Andesite, basalts etc.. and as crystals or plates in dykes and in
plutonic rocks such as gabbros, dolerite and in diorite. It also occurs
in Ultrabasic rocks such as pyroxenites and Peridoties.

DOUBLE CHAIN SILICATES Si : O : : 4 : 11

The amphibole group possess Si4 O11 double chain type of structure
where Tetrahedra are joined together to produce chains of indefinite
extent. The general formula for amphibole group is X 7 – 8 (Si4O11)2
(OH)2 where x = Ca, Na, Mg, Fe+2; Al; Fe+3 .

Amphiboles Composition Occurs in

Anthophyllite ( Mg,Fe+2)7 (Si8O22) (OH)2 Anthophyllite schists, gneisses
Cummingtonite ( Mg,Fe)7 (Si8O22) (OH)2 In metamorphic rocks
Grunerite ( Fe, Mg )7 (Si8O22) (OH)2
Tremolite Ca2 Mg5 Si8 O22 (OH)2 In Serpentinites, greenstones,
Actinolite Ca2 (Mg,Fe)5 Si8 O22 Actinolite schists
(OH)2
Hornblende (Ca Na Mg Fe Al)7-8 Si8 Granites; Syenites; diorites, Hbl
O22 (OH)2 gneisses; hbl schists,
amphibolites
Glaucophane Na2 (Mg Fe)3 (Al Fe+3) Si8 Soda rich ig rocks ie
O22 (OH)2 glaucophane schists
Riebeckite (Na2 Fe+2) (Fe+2)3 (Fe+3)2 Nepheline schists, pegmatites.
Si8 O22 (OH)2

HORNBLENDE: It is a silicate of aluminium, calcium, magnesium and

iron with sodium represented by the formula (Ca Na Mg Fe Al)7-8 Si8 O22
(OH)2. Hornblende occurs as crystals, prismatic in habit.

Varieties: Edenite is a light coloured hornblende poor in iron where as

Pargasite is a dark – green or bluish green variety and basaltic
hornblende is a brown or black variety containing titanium and
sodium.

Occurrence: It occurs as a primary mineral in acid and intermediate

igneous rocks such as granites, Syenites, diorites etc and Ultrabasic
rocks viz., hornblendite and common in metamorphic rocks of
hornblende – gneisses, hornblende schists and amphibolites.

ASBESTOS: The term “asbestos” is a commercial name which indicates

fibrous varieties of several minerals differing widely in composition. The
fibres are flexible and easily separated by the fingers. The color of
asbestos varies from white to greenish and brownish. Asbestos is
classified in two different groups:

(1) the serpentine group which includes the elastic and silky chrysotile
variety and the woody fibre variety—picrolite and
(2) the amphibole group which comprises the short and brittle – fibred
type ie anthophyllite, crocidolite, amosite, tremolite and actinolite.

The commercial asbestos include the following fibrous minerals:

CHRYSOTILE (fibrous serpentine of hydrous magnesium silicate with a
composition of Mg6 (Si4 O10 ) (OH)8).

AMOSITE (fibrous anthophyllite of magnesium iron silicate with a

composition of ( Mg,Fe+2)7 (Si8O22) (OH)2.Occurs in metamorphic rocks
usually derived from anthophyllite schists & gneisses.

CROCIDOLITE ( a fibrous soda amphibole which is a variety of

Riebeckite, indigo- blue in colour found in A. Africa. Occurs in acid
igneous rocks rich in Na ie Riebeckite-granite, Riebeckite granophyres
etc.

ASBESTOS DEPOSITS OF INDIA: Most of the Indian asbestos deposits

belong to the tremolite–actinolite variety. It occurs in tremolite-act schists,
amphibolites etc.
Bihar, Rajasthan, Gujarat, AP ( Kurnool and Cuddapah and anantapur
districts) and Tamil Nadu producing the commercial asbestos.

GENESIS OF ASBESTOS: Three main factors are responsible for the

formation of asbestos in schistose rocks, Peridotites, Dunites and
Serpentinites.
The factors : (1) serpentinisation in the formation of chrysotile asbestos
(2) transformation of non-fibrous serpentine into the fibrous mineral and
(3) the gradual change of chrysotile into tremolite asbestos.

Uses: The usefulness of asbestos depends upon its resistance to heat

property.
1. used for gaskets & insulating material and for spark plug gaskets.
2. Asbestos fibres are mixed with Portland cement for the manufacture
of corrugated and plain sheets and different types of asbestos pipes.
3. Asphalt asbestos used for roofing purposes.
4. Asbestos cheaper grade is utilized for the manufacture of asbestos
paper.
5. Asbestos paper is extensively used for heat and electrical insulation
purposes and also for spark plug gaskets.
6. Used as a refractory material by mixing asbestos powdered with
Magnesite

4. CYCLO SILICATES (Ring structures): When each SiO4 tetrahedron

shares two of its oxygens with neighbouring tetrahedra, they may be
linked into rings. ( closed rings of tetrahedra each sharing two oxygens
) - These are also called ring silicates.

In this group of minerals, 3 or 4 or 6 tetrahedra occur in ring form.

Eg for 3 tetrahedra : Bentonite ( Ba Ti Si3 O9 )

Eg for 4 tetrahedra : Axinite Ca2 (Fe,Mn) Al2 (BO3) (Si4O12) (OH)

Eg for 6 tetrahedra : Beryl ( Be3 Al2 Si6 O18 )
Cordierite (Mg Fe)2 (Al3 Al Si6 O18)
Tourmaline: X Y3 B3 ( Al, Fe)6 O27 (OH,F)4
where x = Na, Ca and
Y = Mg. Fe, Al, Li

Si : O :: 3 : 9 Si : O :: 4 : 12 Si : O :: 6 : 18

Varieties: Rubellite --- red or pink in color.

Indicolite --- Indigo – blue color

Brazilian emerald --green in color ( transparent )

Schorl --- Black in color ( opaque )

Occurrence: these minerals occur as accessory in Granites, Syenites,

Pegmatites,, Mica – schists and Gneisses.

Uses: some of the minerals are used as gemstone. The main

producers are Brazil, Russia, Madagascar, United States.

5. PHYLLOSILICATES (SHEET STRUCTURES): These are also called

sheet silicates. They possess the SiO4 sheet structure resulting in
more growth along two directions of a mineral. Eg: Mica family, Chlorite
family , Talc, Serpentine, Kaolinite. (Si : O : : 2 : 5) or (Si :
O : : 4 : 10)
Mica Family: MICA is the family name of some silicate minerals.
These are silicates of aluminum, potassium together with magnesium.
Some varieties contain sodium, lithium or titanium.

The hydroxyl radical is always present and is commonly replaced

partially by Fluorine. Hence, all mica minerals possess ( Al Si3 ) O10
(OH,F)2 as a common radical. Micas may be divided into : 1) Muscovite
group & 2) Biotite group.

Muscovite Composition Usual name

group
Muscovite K Al2 (Al Si3) O10 (OHF)2 Potassium mica
Paragonite Na Al2 (Al Si3) O10 (OHF)2 Sodium mica
Lepidolite K (Al Li)3 (Al Si3) O10 (OHF)2 Lithium-pot mica

Biotite group Composition

Biotite K (Mg,Fe)3 (Al Si3) O10 Iron-mag mica / black
(OHF)2 mica
Phlogophite K (Mg)3 (Al Si3) O10 Magnesium mica
(OHF)2
Zinnwaldite K (Li Fe Al) (Al Si3)O10 Lithium mica
(OHF)2
Glauconite K (Fe Al)2 (Si Al)4 O10
(OH)2
Margarite Ca Al2 (Si2 Al2) O10
(OH)2

Atomic structure: all micas are phyllosilicates ie in their atomic

structure SiO4 tetrahedra are arranged in sheet pattern ( growth in two
dimensions).

Varieties: when thin mica layers are punched by a steel rod, a small
six-rayed figure known as a “percussion” figure appears.

Sericite: isa fine grained muscovite found in Gneisses and Schists

Illite: is a
clay mica found in sedimentary rocks.
Mineral Occurrence
Muscovite Found as accessory mineral in acid ig rocks such as
Granites and Pegmatites. In metamorphic rocks of Gneisses
& mica-schists.
Biotite Igneous rocks such as Granites, Diorites; Gabbros. Also in
Biotite gneisses; biotite schists; biotite hornfels.
Phlogophite Found in crystalline limestones and peridotites.
Lepidolite In Pegmatites.
Uses: Muscovite used to be to cover lanthorns in electrical industry as
an insulating material. In the manufacture of rubber tyres; powdered
mica is used to give the frost effect on Christmas cards.

Lepidolite is mined as an ore of lithium & used in lithium batteries.

Phlogophite mica is superior to muscovite mica

Chlorite Family
Generally chlorite is considered as Hydrous silicates of aluminum, iron
and magnesium. Chlorite is a green coloured mineral. Chlorite
resembles to some extent biotite (mica ) in physical properties but has
no alkalies..

Composition: the formula for chlorite is (Mg Fe)5 (Al Si3) O10 (OH)8 .

Atomic structure: This is a phyllosilicate with silicon oxygen ratio of 4 :

10. Chlorite is formed as a product of alteration of mafic minerals
such as biotite or hornblende.

Occurrence: chlorite occurs in chlorite schists and phyllite. It also

occurs as amygdale.

Varieties: Clinochlore ; penninite; ripidolite.

Talc
Talc is a hydrous magnesium silicate. Its chemical composition is
Mg3 (SiO3)4 H2O containing 63.5% of SiO2 ; 31.7% of MgO and 4.7% of
H2O .

Properties: having a good lustre and high lubricating power,

particularly for oil and grease absorption, high fusibility very low
shrinkage value. It has a low electrical and thermal conductivity and a
good resistance to heat shock.

Atomic structure: Talc is a phyllosilicate with a Si: O ratio of 4 : 10 .

It is a metamorphic mineral and formed due to alteration of magnesium
- bearing rocks like peridotites; dolomites; gabbros.

Varieties: Steatite or soapstone is a massive variety of Talc, mostly

white or grey or pale green in color. Potstone is an impure massive
talc, green in color or brownish black in color. French chalk is a
steatite used by tailors for marking on clothes.
TALC DEPOSITS: Bihar; UP; AP ; Tamil Nadu; Rajasthan M.P;
Maharashtra; Karnataka are producing talc / steatite deposits.

Uses: as a filler for paints, paper, rubber , cosmetics, and

textiles ;
removing grease from clothes;
in leather making; talcum powder ;
in switch boards, in lab table tops.

50% used in paper industry; 15% pesticide industry; 3% talcum

powder industry and remaining in textile, ceramics; rubber industry
etc..

6. TECTO SILICATES ( Frame work structures ): In this group, SiO4

tetrahedra occur in a three dimensional framework, resulting
equidimensional growth of a mineral. (Si : O : : 1 : 2) or every SiO4
tetrahedron shares all of its corners with other tetrahedron giving a
three dimensional network . In this framework structures, Si is generally
replaced by Aluminum thus making them aluminum silicates.

Minerals which this structure include: eg: quartz, other forms of silica
(Flint ; Jasper; Chalcedony etc..); Feldspars family, zeolite family,
feldspathoids family; Scapolite family.

FELDSPARS FAMILY
It refers to a group of different minerals which possess similar
chemical composition, atomic structure; physical and optical properties.
These are aluminous silicates of K. Na; Ca or Ba and may be
considered as isomorphous compounds.

Feldspars are sub-divided into: PLAGIOCLASE FELDSPARS and

ALKALI FELDSPARS

The Plagioclase feldspars may be defined as

Feldspar Range composition Occurrence

group
Albite Ab 100 - An 0 Granites;
Oligoclase Ab 90 – An 10 Syenites;
Andesite Na Al Si3 O8 Ab 70 - An 30 Diorites;
Labradorite to Ab 50 - An 50 Rhyolites;
Bytownite Ca Al2 Si2 Ab 30 – An 70 Trachytes;
Anorthite O8 Ab 10 - An 90 Gabbros;
Sandstones;
 Schists &
Gneisses;

Uses: Feldspars are used in the manufacture of Porcelain; Pottery;

glazes on earthware; Sanitary ware; in the manufacture of glass and
ceramic industries.

FORMS OF SILICA ( QUARTZ; FLINT; JASPER )

The forms of silica, including the hydrated forms can be grouped as:

Silica occurs in nature as crystalline ( eg: Quartz; Tridymite; Cristobalite )

as cryptocrystalline ( eg: chalcedony; Flint; Chert; Jasper;
Agate )
as Hydrous / amorphous forms ( eg: opal )

QUARTZ: Next to feldspars and mafic minerals, quartz is the most

common rock forming mineral. It is SiO2 in composition and may be
treated as an oxide or as a silicate. Structurally, it is a tectosilicate
ie; in its atomic structure, the SiO4 tetrahedra are arranged in a three
dimensional network pattern.

Quartz, Tridymite and Crystabalite are important crystalline forms of

silica with SiO2 composition but possess different physical properties
and hence these are called POLYMORPHS.

Varieties of Quartz:
Rock crystal: Transparent form of quartz and purest.
Amethyst: Purple / violet colored; transparent form of
quartz
Rose quartz: Pale pink / rose colored variety of quartz
Smoky quartz: smoky yellow / brown color of quartz
Milky quartz¨ milky white in color due to a large no. of
mica cavities
Ferruginous quartz: contains iron oxides which impart reddish color

Uses: employed in jewellery ( eg: amethyst ); Making spectacle

glasses; Sand papers; toothpaste; Pottery; silica bricks.
Depend on its piezo – electric properties, a certain type of quartz is
used to control the frequency of radio-circuits.

FLINT: It is a compact cryptocrystalline silica of a black color or

various shades of grey occur as irregular nodules. Flint breaks with a
well marked conchoidal fracture and affords sharp cutting edges.

Flint was extensively used by prehistoric man for the fabrication of

weapons, chisels.. Flint generates sparks when struck with steel . Flint
is used in tube mills; pottery industry; for road making and building
properties. Flint nodules occur in limestone formations in North Wales.

JASPER: it is an opaque form of silica, usually of red, brown yellow

color and rarely green. Egyptian or Ribbon Jasper are beautifully
banded with different shades of brown. Porcelain Jasper is merely
clay altered by contact with a hot igneous rocks.
CALCIUM MINERALS:

Calcium doesn’t occur in the free state but its compounds are
extremely abundant. Calcium occurs in limestone as CaCO3. Calcium
also enters into the composition of many rock forming silicates such
as :
Anorthite ( feldspar group ) ….. Ca Al2 Si2 O8 and in
Pyroxenes; amphiboles; garnets; scapolites; epidotes; zeolites and
wollastonites.

Calcite is a non-silicate mineral and of great economic value. The

following are the important non-silicate calcium minerals:
Mineral composition Class
Calcite Ca CO3
Aragonite Ca CO3
Siderite Fe CO3 Carbonates
Dolomite Ca Mg (CO3)2
Anhydrite Ca SO4
Gypsum Ca SO4 2 H2O Sulphates
Glauberite Na2 Ca (SO4)2

Apatite Ca5 (F, Cl) ( PO4)3 Phosphates

Fluorspar Ca F2 Fluorides

Ulexite Na Ca B5 O9 8 H2O
Colemanite Ca2 B6 O11 5 H2O Borates
POLYMORPHISM: Aragonite and calcite are having the same chemical
composition but differ in physical properties.
Varieties:
Nail - head spar crystals showing combination of flat rhombohedron
and prism.
Ice – land spar is a fibrous form of calcite whereas Aphrite & Argentine
are unimportant varieties of calcite.
Stalactites are pendent columns formed by the dripping of water
charged with CaCO3 from the roofs of caverns in limestone rocks
whereas Stalagmite, the surplus dripping of water gives rise to a
similar deposit which forms one above the other on the floors of the
caverns.
Chalk, soft, white earth form of Ca CO3 and Limestones, marbles are
forms of carbonate of lime.

Occurrence: calcite may be either of an organic or of an inorganic

and chemical origin.

Uses: in the manufacture of bleaching powder; calcium carbide; in

glass industry; in soap, paper; paint industries; in cement
manufacturing ; in printing process; in optical apparatus etc..
DIFFERENT METHODS OF STUDY OF MINERALS

According to the mineral definition, every mineral has its own chemical
composition and atomic structure and it is unique for every mineral. This fact
facilitates the study of mineral in different ways. Common methods of study
and identification of minerals based on their

(i) physical properties

(ii) chemical properties

(iii) optical properties and

(iv) x-ray analysis.

(i) Study of Physical properties: Physical properties like Color, Form,

lustre, Hardness (resistance to scratching), Density (Specific Gravity),
cleavage etc., can be studied with simple observations. These properties are
dependent on chemical composition and atomic structure i.e., if the atomic
structure and chemical composition remains the same, the resulting
properties should also be similar.. This principle is the basis for the study of
minerals.

For example, any galena mineral irrespective of its place of occurrence, size,
shape, association ,consistently exhibits lead grey colour, metallic shine,
opaque character, high Sp gr (density = 7.4 – 7.6), tendency to break easily
along three different directions and is scratched easily by knife. This set of
physical properties is never exhibited by any other mineral .Therefore, if
such properties are observed an unknown mineral it must be only galena.

(ii) Study of Chemical composition: According to the definition, every

mineral which is expected to have its own individual chemical composition,
which is not to be found in any other mineral. Therefore, by chemical
analysis if composition is known it should be possible to identify the
mineral.

For example, if the composition of an unknown mineral is found to be lead

sulphide (PbS), then that must be only galena because galena always has
the composition lead sulphide and no other mineral has this composition.

(iii) Study of optical properties: In this method of study, the minerals are
made very fine (0.03 mm ) and fixed over glass slide by means
canadabalsam such skillfully prepared slides are called thin sections. They
are studied under petrological microscope. Different optical properties
such as interference colours, their order, interference figures, optic sign,
twinning, alteration etc., are studied under crossed nicols with help of some
other accessories, if necessary.

The optical properties of every mineral are also distinctive and hence helpful
in the identification of minerals. For example, quartz is characterized by:
anhedral shape, clourless, no cleavage, transparent, low relief, non-
pleochroic, grey or yellow, interference colours of first order, positive
uniaxial interference figure, positive elongation, no alteration etc,.
(iv) Study of X-ray analysis: When a beam of x-rays falls on a crystal, it is
diffracted by the layers of the atoms within the crystal. In making an x-ray
analysis of atomic structure of the crystal, the diffracted x-rays are allowed
to fall on the on photographic plate and resulting photograph shows a series
of spots or lines which form more or less symmetrical pattern. From
measurements made on the photograph, the arrangement of the atoms in
the crystal can be deduced and also the distances between them. The
results of x-ray analysis of minerals reveal their atomic structure, which is
distinctive, for each mineral. This enables the accurate identification of
minerals.

study of physical properties of minerals

Form: The form of mineral is defined as its shape. The external shape of
mineral reflects the internal arrangement of atoms. When a mineral occurs
as a well developed crystal, it is called crystallized. If the growth of the
crystals is hampered due to interference of other crystal grains then the
resulting form is called crystalline. When just traces of crystalline
structures are present, it is called cryptocrystalline. Due to random
network of ions or the total absence of crystalline structure, amorphous
(or) shape less forms result. Some of important forms are listed below.

S.No Name of the Description Mineral Examples

form
1. Lamellar Form Mineral appears as thin Muscovite, Biotite
separable layers
2. Tabular Form Minerals appears as slabs of Feldspars, Gypsum
uniform thickness
3. Fibrous Form Mineral appears as fine Asbestos
threads
4. Pisolitic Form Mineral appears as Bauxite
sphericals
5. Rhombic Form Rhombic shape Calcite, garnet
 6. Bladed Form Minerals appear as Kyanite
independent blade or lath-
shaped grains
7. Granular Form innumerable equidimensional Chromite, graphite,
grains of coarse/medium/fine Magnetite
size
8. Reni Form Kidney-shaped Hematite
9. Prismatic Form Elongated crystals Olivine, Augite
10. Spongy Form Porous Pyrolusite, Bauxite
11. Cubic Form Geometrical Shapes Garnet, Pyrite, Galena
12. Massive Form No definite shape Graphite, Olivine,
Quartz, haematite,
Magnesite, Jasper,
Pyrolusite
13. Nodular Form Irregularly shaped compact Flint
bodies with curved surfaces

Color: Minerals show great variety of colors and can be identified by their
color. Color wise the minerals are of two types (i) Dark colored minerals and
(ii) Light colored minerals. Mineral colors are generally related to the spatial
arrangement of the constituent atoms or the impurities present in the
minerals or all of these.

For example: (i)The color related to atomic structure. Diamond is colorless

and transparent where as Graphite is black and opaque even though both
contain carbon. (ii) The color related to impurities: Generally pure quartz
colorless and transparent. But commonly due to impurities it shows colors
such as pink, purple etc.

Mineral Color Mineral Color

Calcite Colorless / white / red / grey / yellow
Feldspar White / grey / red / green / dirty white
Quartz Colorless / white / green / violet / grey / yellow / pink

hornblende Dark green Augite Greenish black

ruby Red biotite Black, greenish
black
Pyrite Brass yellow Chalcopyrite Golden yellow
Emerald Green Chlorite Grassy green
graphite Shining black Coal Black
barytes White / pale grey gypsum Colorless / white
galena Dark lead grey Haematite Dark steel grey
Microcline White/pink/green kyanite Blue
Chromite Black magnetite Black
Sapphire Blue Muscovite Silver white
Malachite Dark green Olivine Olivine green
orthoclase White / red plagioclase Grey / white
Garnet red talc White/yellow
opal Milky white Tourmaline Jet black

Streak: The streak of mineral is color of its powder. Many minerals exhibit
a different color in the powder form compared to form of mass. The powder
of the mineral is obtained either by scratching the mineral with a pen knife
or rubbing it across piece of unglazed porcelain plate called streak plate.
Most transparent minerals show a white streak. colored minerals show
a dark color streak of the mineral. Sometimes the streak is altogether
different in color from the color of the mineral.

S.No Streak minerals

1 Dark brown, black Pyrite, magnetite, chromite, Pyrolusite, biotite, graphite.
2 Bluish black Pyrolusite.,
3 Cherry red haematite
4 Dark grey galena
5 white Calcite, jasper, olivine, muscovite, asbestos, Kyanite,
garnet, talc, calcite, Magnesite,
6 colorless quartz
7 White to grey Augite, biotite,
8 Grey to greenish grey Hornblende,
9 Silver white Muscovite
10 Greenish black Biotite, pyrite,
11 Red or reddish brown Haematite,
Lustre: Lustre is the nature of shining on the surface of the mineral under
reflected light. It varies considerably depending upon the amount and type
of light reflected.

Based on the type of shining, lustres are grouped as metallic and non-
metallic. Metallic lustre is the type of shining that appears on the surface of
the metal. Non-metallic lustres are named considering the type of shining
that appears in some common materials. Some important non-metallic
lustres that are observed mainly in rock-forming minerals are:

S.No Non-metallic Lustre Description Minerals

1. Vitreous lustre Shining like a glass Quartz, Calcite,
Feldspar
2. Subvitreous lustre Subvitreous lustre is similar Pyroxenes (augite)
to vitreous lustre but with
less shining
3. Pearly lustre Shining like pearl Talc, Muscovite(mica)
4. Silky lustre Shining like silk Asbestos
5. Resinous lustre Shining like resin Opal, Agate
6. Greasy lustre Shining like grease Graphite, Serpentine
7. Adamantine lustre Shining like diamond Garnet, Diamond
8. Earthy or Dull lustre No shining like earth or Magnesite, Bauxite
chalk

Cleavage: The definite direction or plane along which a mineral tends

to break easily is called the cleavage of that mineral. Crystallized and
crystalline minerals can have cleavage. Amorphous minerals do not show
cleavage. Cleavage, if present , occurs as innumerable planes along which
mineral is equally weak. Hence all such parallel planes of weakness are
referred to as a set.

Depending upon their atomic structure, crystalline minerals will have 1 set
of cleavage (or) 2 sets (or) 3 sets (or) 4 sets (or) 6 sets of cleavages (or) no
cleavage.
Since atomic structure of a mineral is definite, the cleavage character
of the mineral will also be definite. Depending upon the degree of
perfection, cleavage may be described as perfect or eminent or excellent
(mica) , good (calcite) , imperfect or poor or indistinct (apatite).
S.No cleavage Sets Minerals
1 None Quartz, Flint, Jasper, Olivine, garnet, haematite,
2 indistinct Pyrolusite, Graphite, apatite
5 Present 1 mica, chlorite, talc, Asbestos
6 perfect 3 Calcite, Magnesite, galena
7 perfect 2 Feldspars, hornblende, Kyanite, augite

Fracture: Fracture is the nature of randomly broken surface of mineral.

Based on the nature of a broken surface, fractures are described as even
fracture, uneven fracture, hackly fracture, and conchoidal fracture.

S.No Name of fracture Description Minerals example

1. Even Fracture If the broken surface of Magnesite, Chalk
a mineral is plain and
smooth, it is called even
fracture
2. Uneven Fracture If the broken surface is Augite, hornblende, mica, chlorite,
rough and irregular talc, pyrite, haematite, magnetite,
Pyrolusite, graphite, bauxite.
3. Hackly Fracture If the broken surface is Asbestos, Kyanite, chlorite,
very irregular like the
end of a broken stick
4 Conchoidal If the broken surface is Agate, Flint, Jasper, galena, bauxite.
Fracture smooth and curved
5 Even to uneven Olivine, Magnesite
6 Conchoidal to Garnet,
sub-conchoidal

Tenacity: The tenacity is a measure of the cohesiveness of minerals as

shown by its resistance to breaking, crushing or other deformation methods.
The different kinds of tenacity are classified as follows

(i) Brittle: The minerals breaks into powder

(ii) Malleable: The minerals be beaten into sheets
(iii)Ductile: The mineral can be drawn into thin wires
(iv) Sectile: The mineral can be cut into thin sheets
 (v) Elastic: The minerals bend on the application of pressure but regains
the original shape when the pressure is released.

Hardness: Hardness may be defined as the resistance offered by the

mineral to abrasion or scratching.

For example, if mineral specimen is muscovite (mica), when it is tested on

the mohs’ scale of hardness, it should not scratched by gypsum but by
calcite. The composition of the mineral appears to have less influence over
hardness.

For example, graphite and diamond which possess the same composition,
but different atomic structures, represent nearly two extremes of the
hardness in the mineral kingdom i.e. graphite is extremely soft and diamond
is extremely hard.

Mohs’ Scale of Hardness: In 1882 an Australian mineralogist, Mohs

proposed a relative scale for hardness of minerals. The standard set of ten
reference minerals used to determine the hardness of any unknown mineral
is called Mohs’ scale of hardness. The actual minerals of the set and their
hardness are as follows:
Talc = 1; Feldspar = 6;
Gypsum = 2; Quartz = 7;
Calcite = 3; Topaz = 8;
Fluorite = 4; Corundum = 9;
Apatite = 5; Diamond = 10;

Thus Talc is the least hard mineral and Diamond is the most hard mineral.
The relative hardness of an unknown mineral is determined by scratching it
with the Mohs’ scale of hardness starting with Talc and followed by minerals
of increasing hardness. Common minerals like finger nail (H = 2.5) , a
copper coin (H=3.5), a broken glass piece (H=5.5) and pen knife (H=6.5) may
be used to fix the lower limit.

Specific Gravity ( density ) : Specific gravity of mineral depends on their

chemical composition. and atomic structure. The specific gravity of a
mineral is the weight of it to the weight of an equal volume of water. In
the laboratory, specific gravity of minerals is determined using either
Walker’s steel yard or Jolly’s spring balance. In determining specific gravity
care should be taken to select only fresh (ie un weathered ) minerals free
from inclusions, impurities etc,.

For routine identification of minerals based on physical properties,

determination of actual specific gravity is tedious and unnecessary
because most of the rock-forming minerals have specific gravity range of 2.5
to 3.5, while common ore minerals like magnetite, hematite, ilmenite,
galena, pyrite, Pyrolusite and Psilomelane, have specific gravity over 3.5.
Only few minerals have a specific gravity less than 2.5. Thus based on this
range of specific gravity of minerals, the density character of minerals may
be described as high, medium or low.

The medium density refers to the common rock-forming minerals and higher
density refers to the common ore minerals.
Sp. Gravity Minerals
Low Density < 2.5 Talc, graphite,
Medium Density 2.5 to 3.5 Feldspars, quartz, flint, jasper,
olivine, augite, hornblende, mica,
chlorite, asbestos, calcite,
Magnesite, bauxite
High Density > 3.5 Kyanite, garnet, pyrite, haematite,
magnetite, chromite, galena,
Pyrolusite,
Transparency –translucency:

A mineral is transparent when the outlines of objects seen through it

appear sharp and distinct. Eg: quartz … transparent
Selenite … transparent
Fluorite ; Topaz … sub-transparent

A mineral which, though capable of transmitting light, cannot be seen

through is translucent.

When no light is transmitted the mineral is opaque.

Phosphorescence – Fluorescence:

Phosphorescence is the property possessed by some substances of

emitting light after having been subjected to certain conditions such
as heating, rubbing or exposure to electric or UV light.

Eg: pieces of quartz when rubbed together in a dark room emit a

phosphorescent light. Diamond, ruby etc when exposure to x-rays
show phosphorescent property.
Some minerals such as fluorspar emit light when exposed to certain
electrical radiations ( means giving off a certain kind of light ) is called
as Fluorescence.

Depending upon certain senses …… taste; odour, feel etc

TASTE:
When the minerals are soluble in water, generally possess a
characteristic taste which may be designated as follows:

Taste Result
Saline The taste of common salt , eg: halite
Alkaline That of potash & soda
Acidic / sour The sour taste of H2SO4
Cool The taste of potassium chlorite
Sweetish astringent That of alum
Bitter That of Epsom salt

ODOUR: Some minerals have characteristic odours when struck,

rubbed, breathed, heated etc… terms used are::
Odour Result on smell
Alliaceous Garlic odour when arsenic compounds are
 heated . eg: arsenopyrite, orpiment, realgar
Horse-radish odour The odour of decaying horse radish when selenium
compounds are heated
Sulphurous The odour of burning sulphur when sulphides
heated
Foetid The odour of rotten eggs given by heating
Clayey The odour of clay. Eg: kaolin

FEEL: Rough feeling of touch………. Eg chalk

Depending upon the state of aggregation……. Gases &

liquids
Form
Hardness
Tenacity
Fracture
Cleavage

Gases & liquids

O2; N2; CO2 are examples for natural gases

H2O ; Hg ; HYDRO-CARBONS are examples for natural liquids.
MODE OF FORMATION OF MINERALS

Minerals are the products of natural physic – chemical processes and

the conditions in which they originate are various. The conditions
include the temperature, pressure and the interaction of minerals with
country rocks.

Since, minerals are hard crystalline substances, their origin is

restricted
From its liquid into its solid form eg: rock salt
From its gaseous into its solid form eg: sassoline, cinnabar,
NH4Cl
From one hard form into another.

The crystallization of HALITE (Rock salt / common salt ) during the

evaporation of sea water serve as a good example for the formation of
minerals from solutions
The formation of Ammonium Chloride ( NH4Cl );
sassoline (H3BO3 ) or Native boric acid;
Cinnabar (HgS) ie mercury sulphide etc
clearly indicates the emergence of minerals from a gaseous phase.
The formation of minerals during the transition from one solid state
into another solid state is typical of the process of
RECRYSTALLIZATION; METAMORPHISM & METASOMATISM.

Eg: Limestone is transformed into marble

Quartz in sandstone becomes into quartzite
Clay changes into Phyllites & mica schists.

The majority of the minerals in the earth’s crust have been formed by
crystallization of molten melt ie magma. It is estimated that 95% of the
earth’s crust is composed of igneous rocks which were resulted from
solidification of magma. The chief modes of formation of minerals are .

From Fusion ( solidification from fused rock material ie magma )

From solution ( crystallization from a solution )
From Vapour ( crystallization from a gas )

Formation of minerals from Fusion: An igneous magma ( complex

solution ) in which the various elements present are free to circulate
under the proper conditions to form mineral molecules.

The composition of the magma determine the character of the minerals.

The elements O, Si, Al, Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, Na, K etc occur in varying
proportions in igneous magmas.

Eg: quartz, feldspars, olivine, Enstatite, hypersthenes, Augite

silicates
Hornblende, biotite, muscovite
Apatite, monazite …..
Phosphates
Magnetite, ilmenite, chromite …… oxides
Pyrite, pyrrhotite ….. sulphides
Platinum, diamond …. Elements

Formation of minerals from vapours:

The formation of minerals from vapours is confined such volcanic

regions where mineral gases are discharged from fumeroles.
Minerals deposited in this way include sulphur, Tellurium, Arsenic
sulphides, boric acid, chlorides etc…

Eg: quartz, opal, zeolites …. Silicates

Gypsum … sulphates
Haematite, magnetite … oxides
Halite … halides
Pyrite, cinnabar, stibnite … sulphides
Sulphur …,, elements

Formation of minerals from solutions : By the evaporation of saline

water (sea water / salt lakes) causing certain mineral deposits.

Eg: carbonates of lime ( CaCO3 ) and magnesia ( MgCO3)

Calcium sulphate ( CaSO4) and Sodium Chloride ( NaCl)
Sodium Sulphate ( NaSO4) and Potassium Chloride ( KCl)

The factors of concentration, temperature, proportion of various

constituents in the solution control the character of the minerals
formed.

Eg: Quartz, feldspars, muscovite, chlorite, hornblende,

Tourmaline, zeolites, topaz silicates

Barytes .. sulphates
Calcite, Magnesite …. Carbonates
Magnetite, haematite, rutile, Brookite … oxides
Fluorite .. halides
Galena, pyrite, Cinnabar .. sulphides
Gold, silver, arsenic, bismuth …. Elements

Physical properties of minerals

Form: The form of mineral is defined as its shape. The external shape of mineral
reflects the internal arrangement of atoms. When a mineral occurs as a well
developed crystal, it is called crystallized. If the growth of the crystals is hampered
due to interference of other crystal grains then the resulting form is called
crystalline. When just traces of crystalline structures are present, it is called
cryptocrystalline. Due to random network of ions or the total absence of
crystalline structure, amorphous (or) shape less forms result. Some of important
forms are listed below.

S.No Name of the Description Mineral Examples

form
1. Lamellar Form Mineral appears as thin Muscovite, Biotite
separable layers
2. Tabular Form Minerals appears as slabs of Feldspars, Gypsum
uniform thickness
3. Fibrous Form Mineral appears as fine Asbestos
threads
4. Pisolitic Form Mineral appears as Bauxite
sphericals
5. Rhombic Form Rhombic shape Calcite, garnet
6. Bladed Form Minerals appear as Kyanite
independent blade or lath-
shaped grains
7. Granular Form innumerable equidimensional Chromite, graphite,
grains of coarse/medium/fine Magnetite
size
8. Reni Form Kidney-shaped Hematite
9. Prismatic Form Elongated crystals Olivine, Augite
10. Spongy Form Porous Pyrolusite, Bauxite
11. Cubic Form Geometrical Shapes Garnet, Pyrite, Galena
12. Massive Form No definite shape Graphite, Olivine,
Quartz, haematite,
Magnesite, Jasper,
Pyrolusite
13. Nodular Form Irregularly shaped compact Flint
bodies with curved surfaces

Color: Minerals show great variety of colors and can be identified by their
color. Color wise the minerals are of two types (i) Dark colored minerals and
(ii) Light colored minerals. Mineral colors are generally related to the spatial
arrangement of the constituent atoms or the impurities present in the
minerals or all of these.

For example: (i)The color related to atomic structure. Diamond is colorless and
transparent where as Graphite is black and opaque even though both contain
carbon.

(ii) The color related to impurities: Generally pure quartz colorless and transparent.
But commonly due to impurities it shows colors such as pink, purple etc.

Streak: The streak of mineral is color of its powder. Many minerals exhibit a
different color in the powder form compared to form of mass. The powder of the
mineral is obtained either by scratching the mineral with a pen knife or rubbing it
across piece of unglazed porcelain plate called streak plate. Most transparent
minerals show a white streak. colored minerals show a dark color streak of
the mineral. Sometimes the streak is altogether different in color from the color of
the mineral.

S.No Streak minerals

1 Dark brown, black Pyrite, magnetite, chromite, Pyrolusite, biotite,
graphite.
2 Bluish black Pyrolusite.,
3 Cherry red haematite
4 Dark grey galena
5 white Calcite, jasper, olivine, muscovite, asbestos,
Kyanite, garnet, talc, calcite, Magnesite,
6 colorless quartz
7 White to grey Augite, biotite,
8 Grey to greenish Hornblende,
grey
9 Silver white Muscovite
10 Greenish black Biotite, pyrite,
11 Red or reddish Haematite,
brown
Lustre: Lustre is the nature of shining on the surface of the mineral under
reflected light. It varies considerably depending upon the amount and type
of light reflected.
Based on the type of shining, lustres are grouped as metallic and non-
metallic. Metallic lustre is the type of shining that appears on the surface of
the metal. Non-metallic lustres are named considering the type of shining
that appears in some common materials. Some important non-metallic
lustres that are observed mainly in rock-forming minerals are:
S.No Non-metallic Description Minerals
Lustre
1. Vitreous lustre Shining like a glass Quartz, Calcite,
Feldspar
2. Subvitreous lustre Subvitreous lustre is Pyroxenes (augite)
similar to vitreous lustre
but with less shining
3. Pearly lustre Shining like pearl Talc, Muscovite(mica)
4. Silky lustre Shining like silk Asbestos
5. Resinous lustre Shining like resin Opal, Agate
6. Greasy lustre Shining like grease Graphite, Serpentine
7. Adamantine lustre Shining like diamond Garnet, Diamond
8. Earthy or Dull lustre No shining like earth or Magnesite, Bauxite
chalk

Cleavage: The definite direction or plane along which a mineral tends

to break easily is called the cleavage of that mineral. Crystallized and
crystalline minerals can have cleavage. Amorphous minerals do not show
cleavage. Cleavage, if present , occurs as innumerable planes along which
mineral is equally weak. Hence all such parallel planes of weakness are
referred to as a set.

Depending upon their atomic structure, crystalline minerals will have 1 set
of cleavage (or) 2 sets (or) 3 sets (or) 4 sets (or) 6 sets of cleavages (or) no
cleavage.

Since atomic structure of a mineral is definite, the cleavage character

of the mineral will also be definite. Depending upon the degree of
perfection, cleavage may be described as perfect or eminent or excellent
(mica) , good (calcite) , imperfect or poor or indistinct (apatite).

S.No cleavage Sets Minerals

1 None Quartz, Flint, Jasper, Olivine, garnet, haematite,
2 indistinct Pyrolusite, Graphite, apatite
5 Present 1 mica, chlorite, talc, Asbestos
6 perfect 3 Calcite, Magnesite, galena
7 perfect 2 Feldspars, hornblende, Kyanite, augite

Fracture: Fracture is the nature of randomly broken surface of mineral.

Based on the nature of a broken surface, fractures are described as even
fracture, uneven fracture, hackly fracture, and conchoidal fracture.

S.No Name of Description Minerals example

fracture
1. Even Fracture If the broken Magnesite, Chalk
surface of a
mineral is plain
and smooth, it is
called even fracture
2. Uneven If the broken Augite, hornblende, mica,
Fracture surface is rough chlorite, talc, pyrite,
and irregular haematite, magnetite,
Pyrolusite, graphite, bauxite.
3. Hackly If the broken Asbestos, Kyanite, chlorite,
Fracture surface is very
irregular like the
end of a broken
stick
4 Conchoidal If the broken Agate, Flint, Jasper, galena,
Fracture surface is smooth bauxite.
and curved
5 Even to Olivine, Magnesite
uneven
6 Conchoidal to Garnet,
sub-
conchoidal

Tenacity: The tenacity is a measure of the cohesiveness of minerals as

shown by its resistance to breaking, crushing or other deformation methods.
The different kinds of tenacity are classified as follows

(vi) Brittle: The minerals breaks into powder

(vii) Malleable: The minerals be beaten into sheets
(viii) Ductile: The mineral can be drawn into thin wires
(ix) Sectile: The mineral can be cut into thin sheets
(x) Elastic: The minerals bend on the application of pressure but regains
the original shape when the pressure is released.
Hardness: Hardness may be defined as the resistance offered by the mineral to
abrasion or scratching.

For example, if mineral specimen is muscovite (mica), when it is tested on the

mohs’ scale of hardness, it should not scratched by gypsum but by calcite. The
composition of the mineral appears to have less influence over hardness.

For example, graphite and diamond which possess the same composition, but
different atomic structures, represent nearly two extremes of the hardness in the
mineral kingdom i.e. graphite is extremely soft and diamond is extremely hard.

Mohs’ Scale of Hardness: In 1882 an Australian mineralogist, Mohs proposed a

relative scale for hardness of minerals. The standard set of ten reference minerals
used to determine the hardness of any unknown mineral is called Mohs’ scale of
hardness. The actual minerals of the set and their hardness are as follows:
Talc = 1; Feldspar = 6;
Gypsum = 2; Quartz = 7;
Calcite = 3; Topaz = 8;
Fluorite = 4; Corundum = 9;
Apatite = 5; Diamond = 10;

Thus Talc is the least hard mineral and Diamond is the most hard mineral.
The relative hardness of an unknown mineral is determined by scratching it
with the Mohs’ scale of hardness starting with Talc and followed by minerals
of increasing hardness. Common minerals like finger nail (H = 2.5) , a
copper coin (H=3.5), a broken glass piece (H=5.5) and pen knife (H=6.5) may
be used to fix the lower limit.

Specific Gravity ( density ) : Specific gravity of mineral depends on their

chemical composition. and atomic structure. The specific gravity of a
mineral is the weight of it to the weight of an equal volume of water. In
the laboratory, specific gravity of minerals is determined using either
Walker’s steel yard or Jolly’s spring balance. In determining specific gravity
care should be taken to select only fresh (ie un weathered ) minerals free
from inclusions, impurities etc,.

For routine identification of minerals based on physical properties,

determination of actual specific gravity is tedious and unnecessary
because most of the rock-forming minerals have specific gravity range of 2.5
to 3.5, while common ore minerals like magnetite, hematite, ilmenite,
galena, pyrite, Pyrolusite and Psilomelane, have specific gravity over 3.5.
Only few minerals have a specific gravity less than 2.5. Thus based on this
range of specific gravity of minerals, the density character of minerals may
be described as high, medium or low.

The medium density refers to the common rock-forming minerals and higher
density refers to the common ore minerals.
Sp. Gravity Minerals
Low Density < 2.5 Talc, graphite,
Medium Density 2.5 to 3.5 Feldspars, quartz, flint, jasper, olivine,
augite, hornblende, mica, chlorite,
asbestos, calcite, Magnesite, bauxite
High Density > 3.5 Kyanite, garnet, pyrite, haematite,
magnetite, chromite, galena, Pyrolusite,
MINERALS
S no Mineral hardness Density (sp Cleavage
gr)
1 Feldspar 6 – 6.5 2.6 – 2.73 2 sets
2 Quartz 7 2.6 – 2.7 Absent
3 Flint 7 2.65 Absent
4 Jasper 6.5 – 7 6.5 – 7 Absent
5 Olivine 6.5 3.34 Absent
6 Augite 5–6 5–6 2 sets
7 Hornblende 5–6 5–6 2 sets
8 Muscovite 2.5 – 3 2.8 – 2.9 1 set
9 Biotite 2.5 – 3 2.7 – 3.3 1 set
10 Asbestos 2.9 – 3.2 Perfect
11 Chlorite 1.5 – 2. 5 2.7 – 3.0 1 set
12 Kyanite 4- 5 length 3.6 - 3.7 2 sets
& 6–
7breadth
13 Garnet 6.5 – 7.5 3.5 – 4.3 Absent
14 Talc 1 2.7 1 set
15 Calcite 3 2.7 3 sets
ECONOMIC MINERALS
S no Mineral hardness Density ( sp Cleavage
gr)
1 Pyrite 6–7 5 2 -3 sets
2 Haematite 5–6 5. 2 Absent
3 Magnetite 5–6 5. 2 Absent
4 Chromite 5.5 – 6 4.1 – 5.1 Absent
5 Galena 2.5 – 3.0 7.5 Perfect
6 Pyrolusite 4.5 – 5 Indistinct
7 Graphite 1–2 2 – 2.3 indistinct
8 Magnesite 4–5 3.0 – 3.2 3 sets
9 Bauxite 2-4 2 – 3.5 Absent

Degree of Transparency: This is also known as “diaphaneity”. Depending up on

the resistance offered by the minerals to the passage of light through them, they
may be classified as transparent, translucent and opaque. This character of a
mineral depends on chemical composition, impurities, inclusions, weathering and
also thickness.

Rock-forming minerals usually appear to be opaque when they are thick, but lose
this opaque character if they are made thinner. But metallic ore minerals remain
mostly opaque, even when they are made thinner. Therefore, the distinction
between a really opaque mineral and other not opaque minerals will help to
distinguish ore minerals from rock-forming minerals.

Relative advantages and disadvantages of different methods of study:

Among different methods of study made in the identification of a mineral,
definitely x-ray analysis is best, because it is accurate and there is no
scope for wrong identification. But disadvantage is that for such study
many facilities, a lot of infrastructure, costly equipment and accessories are
necessary.

The constraints, in the study by optical properties method, are (i) opaque
minerals are not amenable for study under ordinary petrological
microscopes, special reflective ore microscopes are needed for their study
(ii) amorphous minerals, by virtue of their irregular arrangement, cannot be
identified by optical methods. (iii) cost involved in procuring the required
equipment

The method of chemical analysis, this is fairly good in giving correct

identification of minerals, but the constraints are (i) impossible to identify
the mineral exclusively based on chemical analysis (ii) cost of equipment,
reagents, and facilities required
Lastly coming to the method of study of minerals by physical properties, it is
most suitable for the following reasons

(i) The unique advantage is that it makes possible the study of rocks or
minerals in the field itself.
(ii) It does not require any equipment worth mentioning.
(iii) It does not involve the use of chemicals and it does not need
additional facilities.
(iv) It involves no loss or wastage
(v) It is the quickest, simplest and least tedious method for identification
of minerals i.e., money, energy, and time are spent to the minimum
extent.

However, the disadvantages in this method are

(i) In some cases even slight variation in chemical composition results in

considerable change in colour.
(ii) Weathering alters many physical properties significantly and makes
identification difficult.

(iii) Further, some minerals formed under different conditions show light
variations in physical properties.

Polymorphism: polymorphism is a phenomenon where by different

minerals possessing different physical properties occur despite having
the same chemical composition. For example: Al2SiO5 is the composition
of different minerals like Andalusite, sillimanite and kyanite.
Study of physical properties of rock forming minerals: It is

necessary to know about the common minerals which actually make up different
rocks and determine their properties.

Name of the Mineral: 1. Feldspars

S No Properties Observations
1 Form Tabular
2 Color Pale pink, whitish blue, grayish
3 Streak
4 Lustre Vitreous
5 Fracture Uneven
6 Cleavage 2 sets
7 Hardness 6 – 6.5
8 Density (Sp gravity) 2.6 – 2.73
9 Varieties Plagioclase feldspars include:

ALBITE; OLIGOCLASE ANDESINE

LABRADORITE BYTOWNITE ANORTHITE.

Potash feldspars include:

Hyalophane (KAlSi3O8)
Orthoclase (KAlSi3O8)
Microcline (KAlSi3O8)
Anorthoclase (Na KAl Si3 O8)
10 Occurrence In granites, Syenites, diorite, rhyolite,
Trachyte, sandstones, schists, gabbros,
gneisses.
11 Uses In the manufacture of porcelain & pottery,
earthernware, sanitary ware, bricks
manufacture, glasses, electronic products etc.
12 Chemical composition NaAlSi3O8 to CaAl2Si2O8
 Name of the Mineral: 2. Quartz

S No Properties Observations
1 Form Massive, crystals
2 Color Quartz occurs in different colors. Common
colors are white, grey, purple, brown, pink etc
3 Streak Colorless ( harder than streak plate )
4 Lustre Vitreous
5 Fracture Conchoidal
6 Cleavage Absent
7 Hardness 7
8 Density (Sp gravity) 2.6 – 2.7
9 Varieties Flint, Jasper, Amethyst (purple or violet color),
Opal, rose quartz ( pale pink color). Milky
quartz ( milky white in color ) .
10 Occurrence Occurs in almost igneous( granites, rhyolites),
sedimentary (sandstones) and metamorphic
rocks ( quartzites ).
11 Uses Glass making, optical materials, polishing /
grinding compounds, components in
electronic products,
12 Chemical composition SiO2
 Name of the Mineral: 3. Flint

S No Properties Observations
1 Form Irregular nodules, massive
2 Color Grey, brownish, black
3 Streak Colorless ( harder than streak plate )
4 Lustre Resinous
5 Fracture Conchoidal
6 Cleavage Absent
7 Hardness 7
8 Density (Sp gravity) 2.65
9 Varieties Hornstone, Chert
10 Occurrence In sedimentary rocks such as Limestones
11 Uses Used in tube mills, pottery industry, as road
and building material.
12 Chemical composition SiO2

Name of the Mineral: 4. Jasper

S No Properties Observations
1 Form Massive
2 Color Red, Grey, brown
3 Streak Colorless ( harder than streak plate )
4 Lustre Dull, vitreous, greasy
5 Fracture Conchoidal
6 Cleavage Absent
7 Hardness 6.5 - 7
8 Density (Sp gravity) 2.57 – 2.65
9 Varieties
10 Occurrence In Igneous, sedimentary & metamorphic rocks
11 Uses Ornaments, gemstones
12 Chemical composition SiO2
 Name of the Mineral: 5. Olivine

S No Properties Observations
1 Form MASSIVE or no definite shape
2 Color OLIVE GREEN. Mg rich types are PALE
whereas iron rich types are DARK COLOURED
3 Streak WHITE
4 Lustre VITREOUS but OFTEN DULL
5 Fracture EVEN TO UNEVEN
6 Cleavage ABSENT
7 Hardness 6–7
8 Density (Sp gravity) 3.2 – 4.3
9 Varieties FORSTERITE IS MAGNESIUM OLIVINE
FAYALITE IS FERROUS IRON TYPE
PERIDOT is a gem variety of olivine.
10 Occurrence IGNEOUS ROCKS such as Peridotites, Dunites,
Gabbro, Basalt, Dolerites.
11 Uses PERIDOT IS a GEM VARIETY
manufacture of REFRACTORY BRICKS
12 Chemical composition (Mg,Fe)2 SiO4

Name of the Mineral: 6. Augite

S No Properties Observations
1 Form granular, prismatic crystals
2 Color Greenish black TO Brownish black
3 Streak WHITE TO GREY
4 Lustre VITREOUS TO SUB VITREOUS
5 Fracture UNEVEN
6 Cleavage 2-SETS
7 Hardness 5–6
8 Density (Sp gravity) 3.2 – 3.5
9 Varieties Diallage
10 Occurrence Basalts, Andesites, Tuffs, Gabbros,
Pyroxenites, Andesites
11 Uses
12 Chemical composition (Ca, Na) (Mg,Fe+2, Fe+3, Al) [(Si Al)2 O6]

Name of the Mineral: 7. Hornblende

S No Properties Observations
1 Form GRANULAR OR PRISMATIC or AGGREGATE
2 Color DARK GREENISH BLACK
3 Streak GREY TO GREENISH GREY
4 Lustre VITREOUS TO SUB VITREOUS
5 Fracture UNEVEN
6 Cleavage 2 sets
7 Hardness 5–6
8 Density (Sp gravity) 3 – 3.47
9 Varieties Edenite, Paragasite
10 Occurrence In IGNEOUS ROCKS such as Granites,
Syenites, Diorites, Hornblendite and in
METAMORPHIC ROCKS such as Gneisses,
Schists, Amphibolites.
11 Uses 1.DECORATION
2.USED AS INSULATING MATERIAL
3.USED AS ELECTRIC COMMUTATORS
12 Chemical composition (Ca, Mg, Fe, Na, Al)7-8 (Al Si)8 O22 (OH)2
 Name of the Mineral: 8. Muscovite

S No Properties Observations
1 Form LAMELLAR (layers are separable and occurs in
book form ); some occur as flaky minerals.
2 Color Brownish black, silver white, brownish yellow
3 Streak white
4 Lustre Vitreous, pearly
5 Fracture EVEN / HACKLY
6 Cleavage 1 set
7 Hardness 2 - 2.5
8 Density (Sp gravity) 2.76 - 3.0
9 Varieties PARAGONITE- SODIUM MICA
LEPIDOLITE- LITHIUM MICA
SERICITE is a fine grained muscovite type
found in gneisses and schists.
Gilbertite ……
Illite, a variety of mica is found in
sedimentary rocks
10 Occurrence found in igneous rocks such as Granites,
Pegmatites and Phlogophites..
11 Uses Electrical industry,, wall finishes, thin
transparent sheets are used as an insulator
and used in circuit boards.
12 Chemical composition KAl2(Si3Al)O10(OH,F)2
 Name of the Mineral: 9. Biotite

S No Properties Observations
1 Form LAMELLAR (layers are separable and occurs in
book form ); some occur as flaky minerals.
2 Color dark brown, black, dark greenish black
3 Streak white to gray
4 Lustre Vitreous, pearly
5 Fracture EVEN / HACKLY
6 Cleavage 1 set
7 Hardness 2.5 - 3
8 Density (Sp gravity) 2.7 - 3.1
9 Varieties LEPIDOMELANE
PHLOGOPITE: Mg .MICA
ZINNWALDITE: LITHIUM MICA (pale white)
10 Occurrence found in igneous ROCKS such as Granites,
Diorites, Gabbros, and in metamorphic rocks
viz., Biotite gneisses, Schists, Hornfels.
11 Uses 1.USED AS INSULATING MATERIAL
2.USED AS ELECTRIC COMMUTATORS
12 Chemical composition K(Mg,Fe)3(Si3Al)O10(OH,F)2
 Name of the Mineral: 10. Asbestos

S No Properties Observations
1 Form Fibres / FIBROUS
2 Color Pale green / whitish green
3 Streak white
4 Lustre SILKY
5 Fracture UNEVEN TO HACKLY
6 Cleavage Perfect
7 Hardness 5–6
8 Density (Sp gravity) 2.9 – 3.2
9 Varieties Nephrite, Uralite
10 Occurrence Occurs in actinolite schistose rocks
11 Uses Fire proof fabrics, brake linings, manufacture
of asbestos sheets, boards, roofing tiles,
fire proof paints.
12 Chemical composition Ca2 (Mg Fe)5 Si8 O22 (OH)2
Name of the Mineral: 11. chlorite

S No Properties Observations
1 Form FOLIATED
2 Color GREEN usually dark grass green
3 Streak
4 Lustre Vitreous to earthy
5 Fracture
6 Cleavage
7 Hardness 2.5
8 Density (Sp gravity) 2.6 - 3.3
9 Varieties Chamosite ( iron-rich chlorite),
Ripidolite, Penninite, Clinochlore.
10 Occurrence In igneous rocks due to alteration of biotite
and in metamorphic rocks such as chlorite
Phyllites, chlorite schists.
11 Uses
12 Chemical composition Mg,Fe, Al (Al, Si3) O10 (OH)8

Name of the Mineral: 12. Kyanite

S No Properties Observations
1 Form Long blades, fibres
2 Color Light blue
3 Streak White
4 Lustre Vitreous to pearly
5 Fracture Uneven
6 Cleavage 2 sets
7 Hardness 4-5 along length and 6 – 7 along breadth
8 Density (Sp gravity) 3.6 – 3. 7
9 Varieties Andalusite
10 Occurrence In Gneisses, Schists, Eclogites
11 Uses In refractories. As heating element, in ceramic
industry.
12 Chemical composition Al2 Si O5

Name of the Mineral: 13. Garnet

S No Properties Observations
1 Form Rhombohedron / Rhombododecahedron
2 Color Red, brownish red, pink
3 Streak Colorless
4 Lustre Vitreous
5 Fracture Uneven or sub-conchoidal
6 Cleavage Absent
7 Hardness 6.5 – 7.5
8 Density (Sp gravity) 3.5 – 4.3
9 Varieties Grossularite; Pyrope, Almandine, Spessartite,
Andradite, Uvarovite
10 Occurrence In Syenites and in Gneisses, schists,
11 Uses An abrasive and as a gemstone
12 Chemical composition (R2+3, R3+ 2 (SiO4)3 where
R2+ = Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn) and R3+ = Fe, Al, Cr, Ti

Name of the Mineral: 14. Talc

S No Properties Observations
1 Form FOLIATED
2 Color White, green, grayish
3 Streak White
4 Lustre Pearly
5 Fracture Even
6 Cleavage 1 set
7 Hardness 1
8 Density (Sp gravity) 2.7
9 Varieties Steatite, soapstone
10 Occurrence Peridotites, Gabbros, Dolomites, Schists,
11 Uses Talcum powder industry, paper industry, as a
filler in pains, rubber industry, in electrical
industry.
12 Chemical composition Mg3 ( Si4 O10) (OH)2

Name of the Mineral: 15. Calcite

S No Properties Observations
1 Form Rhombic / tabular
2 Color White
3 Streak White
4 Lustre Vitreous
5 Fracture Even
6 Cleavage 3 sets
7 Hardness 3
8 Density (Sp gravity) 2.71
9 Varieties Iceland spar
10 Occurrence In limestones and marbles
11 Uses In cement industry, manufacture of
bleaching powder,, as a calcium carbide ,
12 Chemical composition CaCO3

STUDY OF COMMON ECONOMIC

MINERALS
BAUXITE is an amorphous mineral which consists of the metallic
element of aluminum. Bauxite is formed under tropical weathering
from different rocks. Such weathering results in leaching of all soluble
matter and leaving behind enriched residues of oxides and hydroxides
of aluminum , ferrous, ferric , manganese, titanium and silica. Aluminum
is not found in a free state, but it is the most abundant metal in
earth’s crust.

Chemical composition: Bauxite, a mixture of aluminum hydroxides

such as diaspore ( H Al O2 ), boehmite (AlO (OH) ) and gibbsite (Al ( OH)3 )
together with impurities of iron oxide, phosphorus compounds and
titania. The following is the range of oxide percentage of bauxite:

Al2O3 55 – 65%
Fe2O3 2 - 20%
SiO2 2 - 10 %
TiO2 1 – 3%
H2 O 10 – 30%
Physical Properties: mentioned separately

Occurrence: Bauxite results from the decay and weathering of

aluminum – bearing rocks.

Uses: For the manufacture of aluminum. Aluminum is used as

abrasives; as refractory bricks.; in making cables ; household vessels,
wrapping aluminum foil, cans, etc.. Owing to its low specific gravity
2.58, it is of great value in the manufacture of many articles .

PYRITE :Though there are no native sulphur deposits in India,

Pyrite serve the purpose of producing sulphur by eliminating
sulphur from iron pyrites ( FeS2), which contains 53 % of sulphur and
47% Fe. It has a brass yellow color. Pyrrhotite, which also contains
iron and sulphur, has a formula of Fe11S12.

Pyrite occurs as massive or lumps or as fines.

Chemical composition: Fe S2.

Physical Properties: mentioned separately

Occurrence: The principal sources of pyrites and pyrrhotite in India
are the sedimentary pyrite deposits of Bihar and Rajasthan.
Karnataka, also producing pyrite deposits and the deposits are
restricted to ultra basic igneous rocks.
Uses: The main use of pyrite is to manufacture sulphuric acid, in
the manufacture of phosphatic fertilizers.. Motion picture films
consume a good amount sulphuric acid.

GRAPHITE: Graphite is one of the principal allotropic

modifications of carbon, the other two are coal and diamond. Carbon
is known in three different conditions –

Transparent and crystallized as diamond, Scaly and crystalline as

Graphite and
Amorphous as charcoal, coal. These different forms, though chemically
identical, vary in hardness, specific gravity and other physical
properties.

Native carbon occurs as two important minerals viz., diamond and

graphite while amorphous carbon is coal. Again, carbon forms with
oxygen and hydrogen many series of compounds known as the
Hydrocarbons.

The sp gravity of graphite is 2.1 and hardness varies between 1 and 2.

It is absolutely opaque in character and resistant to heat and a very
good conductor of heat and electricity.

Chemical composition: It is a pure carbon and sometimes

contaminated with a small amount of silica, iron-oxides , clay etc.
Physical Properties: mentioned separately

Occurrence: Graphite is the stable form of carbon at a high

temperature. The majority of graphite deposits are formed by the
metamorphism of carbonaceous matters particularly anthracite coal. .

Graphite occurs in Bihar, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Rajasthan; WB;

Sikkim; J & K; Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. In A.P., East Godavari
district ( kothala village ) is identified with veins in khondalites. In
Bhadrachalam graphite deposits occur as veins in khondalites (
pulikonda area, Rachakonda area ).

Uses: Low grade graphite is used in the paint and varnish industries
whereas the high grade variety is used in batteries, lubricants, and
brushes.

Graphites are used for the manufacture of crucibles for melting of

metals. It is required for lead pencil manufacturing industry. Graphite
is also used for dry lubrication where oil or grease is harmful.

Graphite is very much in demand for the manufacture of electric motor

brushes. ( eg: mixy motor or generators etc..)

MAGNESITE : Magnesite, which is a carbonate of magnesium

( MgCO3), contains about 47% of MgO and 53% of CO2. Magnesite is
considered as an ore for the extraction of metallic magnesium.

When Magnesite is Calcined at a temperature of 1500o C, the magnesia

is converted to a crystalline form known as Periclase which has a sp
gravity of 3.68.

Chemical composition: It is a magnesium carbonate ( Mg CO3).

Magnesite is commonly massive and fibrous, sometimes very compact.

Physical Properties: ( mentioned separately )

Occurrence: Economically important deposits of Magnesite occur as

irregular veins in serpentinite rocks and it is found as alteration of
serpentinite rocks. In India Magnesite occurs extensively in Salem
district of Tamil Nadu where the Magnesite deposits were formed in the
ultra basic rocks of chalk hills. In addition, Magnesite occurs in
Karnataka as a decomposition product of ultra basic rocks.
Uses: Magnesite required as fertilizer. It is also used as filler in
paint and glass industries. Calcined magnesia is useful in
manufacturing paper pulp from wood and bamboo.

Magnesia powder is used in furnace - linings and crucibles; also

employed in the manufacture of special cements and sugar industries.

Name of the ECONOMIC MINERAL: 1. PYRITE

S No Properties Observations
1 Form Cube, Granular
2 Color Bronze yellow
3 Streak greenish black / brownish black
4 Lustre metallic
5 Fracture Conchoidal / Uneven
6 Cleavage 3 sets
7 Hardness 6 – 6.5
8 Density (Sp gravity) 4.8 – 5.1
9 Varieties Marcasite, Pyrrhotite, Pyrrhotite
10 Occurrence Accessory mineral in IGNEOUS ROCKS
11 Uses PRODUCTION OF sulphur and sulphuric acid
12 Chemical composition FeS2,
( refer RUTLEY’S elements of Mineralogy by HH Read, pp 523 – 524)

Name of the ECONOMIC MINERAL: 2. HAEMATITE

S No Properties Observations
1 Form Massive / Rhombohedron
2 Color Steel grey
3 Streak Cherry red / red to reddish brown
4 Lustre Metallic to Sub-metallic
5 Fracture Uneven
6 Cleavage Absent / poor
7 Hardness 5.5 - 6.5
8 Density (Sp gravity) 4.9 – 5.35.2
9 Varieties Specular iron, kidney ore, Reddle, Martite
10 Occurrence IGNEOUS,SEDIMENTARY, METAMORPHIC
11 Uses 1. Iron ore
2.PIGMENT
12 Chemical composition Fe2O3,
( refer RUTLEY’S elements of Mineralogy by HH Read, pp 518 – 519)

Name of the ECONOMIC MINERAL: 3. MAGNETITE

S No Properties Observations
1 Form Granular / octahedral
2 Color Iron black
3 Streak Black
4 Lustre Metallic to Sub-metallic
5 Fracture Sub-conchoidal
6 Cleavage Absent / poor
7 Hardness 5.5 – 6.5
8 Density (Sp gravity) 5.18
9 Varieties
10 Occurrence In igneous / sedimentary rocks
11 Uses Valuable ore of iron
12 Chemical composition Fe3O4
( refer RUTLEY’S elements of Mineralogy by HH Read, pp 517 – 518)

Name of the ECONOMIC MINERAL: 4. CHROMITE

S No Properties Observations
1 Form Granular
2 Color Black / BROWNISH BLACK
3 Streak Brown
4 Lustre Sub-metallic
5 Fracture Uneven
6 Cleavage Absent
7 Hardness 5.5
8 Density (Sp gravity) 4.5 – 4.8
9 Varieties Picotite, lead chromite m
10 Occurrence In Peridotites, Serpentinites, gabbros
11 Uses The only source of chromium
12 Chemical composition FeCr2O4
( refer RUTLEY’S elements of Mineralogy by HH Read, pp 486 – 487)

Name of the ECONOMIC MINERAL: 5. GALENA

S No Properties Observations
1 Form Cube or Rectangular Blocks or octahedral
2 Color Lead Grey
3 Streak Lead Grey
4 Lustre Metallic but often dull
5 Fracture Even, sub-conchoidal
6 Cleavage 3 sets
7 Hardness 2.5
8 Density (Sp gravity) 7.4 – 7.6
9 Varieties Minium, Cerussite, Phosgenite, Leadhillite,
anglesite

10 Occurrence
11 Uses ore of pb, cable covers, foils, lead sheets, piping,
soldering,
12 Chemical composition PbS
( refer RUTLEY’S elements of Mineralogy by HH Read, pp 456 – 463)

Name of the ECONOMIC MINERAL: 6. PYROLUSITE

S No Properties Observations
1 Form Massive, reniform, fibrous
2 Color Iron grey or dark steel-grey
3 Streak Black / bluish black
4 Lustre Metallic
5 Fracture Uneven
6 Cleavage Indistinct
7 Hardness 2 - 2.5
8 Density (Sp gravity) 4.8
9 Varieties Polianite, Psilomelane, Rhodochrosite,
 Rhodonite
10 Occurrence In Sedimentary
11 Uses Important manganese ore
12 Chemical composition MnO2
( refer RUTLEY’S elements of Mineralogy by HH Read, pp 503 – 510)

Name of the ECONOMIC MINERAL: 7. GRAPHITE

S No Properties Observations
1 Form Crystalline , scaly, masses, granular
2 Color Iron grey to dark steel grey
3 Streak Black
4 Lustre Metallic
5 Fracture
6 Cleavage Perfect
7 Hardness 1–2
8 Density (Sp gravity) 2 – 2.3
9 Varieties
10 Occurrence In igneous rocks.
11 Uses Facings in foundry moulds, paints, crucibles,
stove polish, lead pencils, electrodes
12 Chemical composition Pure C
( refer RUTLEY’S elements of Mineralogy by HH Read, pp 340-341)

Name of the ECONOMIC MINERAL: 8. MAGNESITE

S No Properties Observations
1 Form Massive, compact, crystals
2 Color White, grayish white, yellowish, brown
3 Streak Blacken
4 Lustre Vitreous / dull/ earthy
5 Fracture Conchoidal
6 Cleavage Present but not distinct
7 Hardness 3.5 – 4.5
8 Density (Sp gravity) 2.8 – 3.0
9 Varieties Broocite, Epsomite, Periclase Kieserite
10 Occurrence As irregular veins in serpentine masses
11 Uses To produce CO2 , magnesium salts, refractory
bricks, furnace linings, crucibles
12 Chemical composition MgCO3
( refer RUTLEY’S elements of Mineralogy by HH Read, pp 296 – 297)

Name of the ECONOMIC MINERAL: 9. BAUXITE

S No Properties Observations
1 Form Pisolitic Spongy, amorphous
2 Color Dirty white , grayish, brown, yellow, reddish
brown
3 Streak
4 Lustre Dull,
5 Fracture Earthy , uneven
6 Cleavage Absent
7 Hardness 3- 4
8 Density (Sp gravity) 2.35 – 2.58
9 Varieties Corundum, spinel, diaspore, boehmite,
Gibbsite, Cryolite, alunite, leucite
10 Occurrence Weathering of igneous rocks
11 Uses In manufacture of aluminum, refractory
bricks, in furnace linings
12 Chemical composition Al2O32H2O

UNIT: 3 PETROLOGY
The study of rocks in all their aspects including their mineralogies,
structures / textures ( systematic description of rocks in hand specimen
and thin sections ); their origin and their relationships to other rocks.

A Rock is a mineral aggregate consist of one mineral or many.

Role of Magma: If the molten material is below the Earth’s surface, it
is called magma or else it comes out about the surface , it is known as
lava.

Magma is a complex mixture of liquid, solid, and gas. The main elements in
magma are oxygen (O), silicon (Si), aluminum (Al), calcium (Ca), sodium
(Na), potassium (K), iron (Fe), and magnesium (Mg). However, two major
molecules found in magma that controls the properties of the
magma. These two molecules are silica (SiO2) and water (H2O). Silica
comprises as much as 75 percent of the magma.

When rock melts deep underground, the magma rises through the earth's
crust because the molten rock is less dense than solid rock. In many cases,
the magma is unable to reach the surface, and it will cool in place many
miles under the ground. This underground cooling produces the largest
crystal sizes, because it cools more slowly. Sometimes the magma extrudes
onto the surface, either on land or underwater.

The heat generated by processes such as radioactive mineral

disintegration. Magma doesn’t occur every where below the earth
because when temperature increases with depth, pressure also
increases with depth due to overburden.

Magma is always associated with huge quantities of various volatiles,

whereas these volatiles are absent in case of lava since these volatiles
escape into the atmosphere in case of lava. volatiles consists of
dominantly water vapour, CO2.

The rise in temperature tends to increase the volume of the material

whereas the rise in pressure tends to decrease the volume of the
material. Hence, the effects of these two mutually are different.

Depending upon local conditions where the pressure effect is more than
the effect of temperature, MAGMA is formed.
Rocks: The solid Earth (the mantle and crust) is made of rock. There are
three types of rocks those that form from molten material or magma
(igneous rocks), those that are deposited from air or water
(sedimentary rocks), and those that have formed by altering another rock
(metamorphic rocks). The chemical composition of a rock is expressed
in terms of oxides for eg: SiO2; Al2O3; Fe2O3; FeO; MgO; CaO; TiO2 etc
CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS: Igneous rocks are the first
formed rocks in the earth’s crust and hence these are called PRIMARY
ROCKS, even though igneous rocks have formed subsequently also.

Igneous rocks are the most abundant rocks in the earth crust and are
formed at a very high temperature directly as a result of solidification
of magma since magma is the parent material of igneous rocks. The
temperature increases proportionately with the depth --- this is one of
the reasons for the formation of igneous rocks.

Igneous rocks are usually massive, unstratified, unfossiliferous and

often occur as intrusive cutting across other rocks ( country rocks or
host rocks ). The igneous rocks are classified based on silica%, silica
saturation and depth of formation

1. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SILICA % :

Nature Silica % Rock examples

Acidic ➢ 65 Granite, Pegmatites; (coarse) ; Rhyolite (fine )
Intermediate 55 – 65 Syenite (coarse) ; Trachyte (fine )
Basic 45 – 55 Gabbro (coarse ); Basalt ( fine )
Ultrabasic < 45 Picrite, Peridotite , Dunite ( coarse )

Acidic igneous rocks:

• Composed of quartz, alkali feldspars, mica minerals and

compositionally rich in Si, Al, Na, K etc but are poor in Ca, Mg, Fe
• Leucocratic due to the presence of light coloured minerals.
• Relatively lighter rocks and have a slightly higher specific gravity of 2.6

Intermediate igneous rocks:

• Lacking of quartz or a little quartz present but dominantly composed
of alkali feldspars and compositionally rich Na, K.
• Mesocratic in colour due to the presence of dark colored minerals.

Basic igneous rocks:

• Dominantly composed of ferro-magnesium minerals(mafic minerals)
such as hypersthenes, feldspars (plagioclase), pyroxene (Augite),
amphiboles (hornblende) , biotite and compositionally rich in Ca,
Mg, Fe.
• Melanocratic in color
 • Quartz or olivine is generally absent or occur in small
quantities.
• Due to the presence of mafic minerals, these rocks to have a
slightly higher specific gravity of 3.1

Ultra basic igneous rocks:

• Composed of mafic minerals and quartz is almost absent and
compositionally rich in Mg, Ca.
• Melanocratic in color.
• Higher density of about 3.6

2. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SILICA SATURATION:

Depending on the silica content in parent magma; the mineral

associations are categorized as:

Oversaturated igneous rocks: when the parent magma is rich in

silica, saturated minerals like feldspars and the surplus quantity of
silica crystallizes as quartz.

Unsaturated minerals like olivine, nepheline, leucite never occur in over

saturated rocks. Eg: granites, granodiorites, dacite, rhyolites .

Saturated igneous rocks: when the parent magma has enough

silica for the formation of minerals, the resulting rocks possess neither
quartz nor any unsaturated mineral. Presence of saturated minerals
(feldspars) are seen in Syenite, Diorite, Anorthosite, Gabbro.

Unsaturated igneous rocks : when the parent magma has silica less
than what is required for the formation of saturated minerals.
Quartz is possible to the extent, and feldspars, olivine, nepheline,
leucite are present usually.

This group represents Dunites, Peridotites, Phonolite

Oversaturated rocks are equivalent to acidic igneous rocks. Saturated

rocks are equivalent to intermediate igneous rocks. Under saturated
rocks are roughly equivalent to basic / Ultrabasic rocks.

Doliomorphic rocks: Rarely do quartz and olivine coexist, if so such

igneous rocks are described as doliomorphic rocks.

3. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON DEPTH OF FORMATION:

In terms of modes of occurrence ie depth of formation, igneous rocks can

be either intrusive (plutonic), extrusive (volcanic) or hypabyssal.
PLUTONIC ROCKS: The igneous rocks which have formed under high
temp & pressure at greater depths in the presence of volatiles in
the earth’s crust are called plutonic rocks. Greater pressure ensure
total crystallization of minerals formed and the hot surroundings slow
down the process of solidification. The net result of all these processes
is the development of coarse grained texture. Eg: Granite

SLOW COOLING & SLOW CRYSTALLIZATION OF MAGMA eg; Granite

VOLCANIC ROCKS: The igneous rocks which have formed under low
temp & pressure at shallow depths in the absence of volatiles in
the earth’ crust are called volcanic rocks. Rapid cooling and quick
crystallization of lava makes faster the process of solidification due to
heat difference. The net result of all these processes is the development
of fine grained texture. Eg: basalt

HYPABYSSAL ROCKS: The igneous rocks which have formed under

moderate temp & pressure at shallow depths are called hypabyssal
rocks. Medium rate of cooling causes for the formation of medium
grained rocks. Eg: dolerite

Igneous rocks are also classified based on their cooling history (texture)
and on the nature of the magma (felsic or mafic). A diagram for
classification would be...

Composition►
Felsic (light color) Intermediate Mafic (dark color)
Texture▼
Phaneritic Granite Diorite Gabbro, Peridotite

Aphanitic Rhyolite Andesite Basalt

Vesicular Pumice Scoria

Glassy Obsidian

Brief description of IGNEOUS ROCKS

Andesite An igneous volcanic rock predominantly consists of plagioclase
feldspars with or without silica. The Ferro-magnesium minerals
(biotite, hbl, augite, enstatite, hypersthene) may be present .
Anorthosite an igneous plutonic rock composed predominantly of plagioclase
Aplite a very fine grained intrusive igneous rock
Basalt a volcanic rock of mafic composition
Basalt Hawaiite a class of basalts formed from Ocean Island (hot spot) magmatism
Basalt Boninite a high-magnesian basalt dominated by pyroxene
Charnockite a rare type of granite containing pyroxene
Dacite a felsic to intermediate volcanic rock with high iron content
Diabase or dolerite intrusive mafic rock forming dykes or sills
Diorite a coarse grained intermediate plutonic rock composed of plagioclase,
pyroxene and/or amphibole
Dunite An ultramafic rock composed of olivine
Essexite a mafic plutonic rock ( a gabbro)
Gabbro a plutonic rock composed of pyroxene and plagioclase
Granite A plutonic rock composed of orthoclase, plagioclase and quartz
Granodiorite a granitic plutonic rock with plagioclase > orthoclase
Harzburgite a variety of peridotite; an ultramafic rock
Ijolite An igneous plutonic rock consists of nepheline and Na-pyroxene
(Aegirine Na Fe Si2 O6 and Jadeite Na Al Si2 O6
Kimberlite a rare ultramafic volcanic rock consists of chlorite, talc and
carbonates, sometimes olivine and a source of diamonds
Komatite an ancient ultramafic volcanic rock
Lamprophyre an ultramafic rock dominated by mafic phenocrysts in a feldspar
groundmass
Lherzolite an ultramafic rock, essentially a variety of peridotite
Monzonite a plutonic rock with <5% normative quartz
Nepheline syenite a plutonic rock with nepheline replacing orthoclase
Norite a hypersthene bearing gabbro
Obsidian a type of volcanic glass
Pegmatite an igneous rock occurs as veins or dykes and found as granite
pegmatite or syenite pegmatite consists of alkali feldspars, and
quartz with tourmaline, topaz, beryl, fluorspar, apatite and
Spodumene as accessories.
Peridotite a plutonic composed of >90% olivine
Phonolite a volcanic rock essentially similar to nepheline syenite
Picrite an olivine-bearing basalt
Pumice a fine grained, extremely vesicular volcanic rock
Pyroxenite a coarse grained plutonic rock composed of >90% pyroxene
Rhyolite a felsic volcanic rock
Scoria an extremely vesicular mafic volcanic rock
Syenite a plutonic rock dominated by orthoclase feldspar; a type of granitoid
Tachylyte essentially a basaltic glass
Tephrite a silica undersaturated volcanic rock; can be a generic term
Tonalite a plagioclase-dominant granitoid
Trachyte a silica undersaturated volcanic rock; essentially a feldspathoid-
bearing rhyolite
Tuff a fine grained volcanic rock formed from volcanic ash
Wehrlite an ultramafic plutonic rock, a type of peridotite, composed of olivine
and pyroxenes.
 STRUCTURES & TEXTURES OF IGNEOUS
ROCKS
Structures and textures are physical features associated with the
rocks. These occur along with the formation of rocks and are important in
view of civil engineering point because
• They contribute to the strength of rocks.
• They contribute to the weakness of rocks
• They reveal mode of origin of rocks.

NOTE: The structures such as folds and faults are exempted though they
are also structures since these develop after the formation of rocks due to
tectonic forces.

The term structure refers to certain large scale features

1. Vesicular structure: 2. Amygdaloidal structure

3. Columnar structure 4. Sheet structure
5. Flow structure

VESICULAR STRUCTURE: This structure is due to porous in nature

commonly observed in volcanic rocks. Most of the lava contains volatiles
(gasses like CO2, water vapour) which escapes into the atmosphere by
creating various sizes and shapes of cavities near the surface of lava flow.
These cavities are called vesicles.

Eg: SCORIA is a volcanic rock of highly porous.

Eg: PUMICE, a light rock with porosity even that floats on water.

AMYGDALOIDAL STRUCTURE: when secondary minerals such as

calcite, zeolites, hydrated forms of silica (chalcedony, agate, amethyst,
opal) are filled in vesicles, in such a case it is said Amygdaloidal
structure. Eg: Deccan traps of India.( ie basalts).

COLUMNAR STRUCTURE: with uniform cooling and contraction causes

a regular or hexagonal form, which may be interested by cross- joints.
Eg: Columnar basalts, around 40 mts high are seen at Andheri,
Bombay.

SHEET STRUCTURE: In this structure, the rocks appear to be made

up of a number of sheets, because of the development of horizontal
cracks. When erosion takes place, the overlying strata gradually
disappear and ultimately the plutonic rocks exposed to the surface
resulting the development of joints / cracks parallel to the surface.
Thus, the horizontal joint planes are sometimes so closely spaced as to
produce a sheet structure. Eg: granite.

FLOW STRUCTURE: After eruption of the lava flows, some of the

bands or lines are drawn over the surface of lava to the direction of
lava flow. Eg: Rhyolite.

The texture of a rock refers to the individual mineral grains of size,

shape, and mutual relations of mineral constituents and glassy matter in a
rock. Depending on the nature of cooling, the TEXTURES in igneous
rocks are categorized into:
1. Degree of crystallinity - Rocks composed entirely of crystals are called
holocrystalline; those composed entirely of glass are holohyalline; rocks
that contain both crystals and glass are hypocrystalline /
hemicrystalline .

2. Grain size - Overall, there is a distinction between the grain size of

rocks that have crystallized at depth are medium to coarse grained (eg:
gabbros) and those that crystallized at shallow depth are finer grained
(eg: basalts).

Phaneric texture: if minerals in the rock are big enough to seen

by the naked eye, the texture is said to be Phaneric. Eg:
granite.
Aphanitic texture: if minerals are too fine to be seen the texture is
said to be aphanitic. Eg: basalts.

3. Based on growth of crystals / Rock fabric - Fabric is the shape and

mutual relationships among rock constituents:
1. Euhedral, refer to grains that are bounded by crystal faces
2. Subhedral grains that are bounded partly by some crystal faces
3. Anhedral, when crystal faces are absent, it is called anhedral

Hypidiomorphic / granular texture - the most common granular texture

in which a mixture of euhedral, subhedral, and anhedral grains are present.

Ophitic texture - is one where random plagioclase laths are enclosed by

pyroxene or olivine. If plagioclase is larger and encloses the ferromagnesian
minerals, then the texture is subophitic . eg: basalt.

Porphyritic texture: Large crystals that are surrounded by finer-grained

matrix are referred to as phenocrysts. If the matrix or groundmass is
glassy, then the rock has a vitrophyric texture.

Poikilitic texture- Small euhedral crystals that are enclosed within a

large mineral.
Glassy Texture. The rock displays with sharp edges like broken glass is
known as Glassy Texture. No individual crystals can be seen. Eg: obsidian.

OPHITIC TEXTURE POIKILITIC TEXTURE

GRANITE is a plutonic igneous rock, compact, massive and hard

rock. Granites are unstratified but characterized by joints. It is a
holocrystalline (completely crystalline) and leucocratic (light coloured) rock
.

Composition: Granite consists of quartz ( > 20 – 30 %), Feldspars

(60%) include alkali feldspars (orthoclase, microcline) and plagioclase
feldspars (oligoclase), micas as essential minerals and
accessory minerals are mafic minerals such as hornblende, biotite /
muscovite , pyroxenes of hypersthenes; augite ; diopside ; magnetite /
haematite, rutile, zircon, apatite, garnet..

Texture: Granites exhibit phaneric texture ( coarse grained ), or

graphic texture (similar to Arabic writing ). Granites are usually
equigranular but some times show inequigranular texture in case of
Porphyritic texture (feldspars occur as phenocrysts).

Hand specimen: Granite is grayish or pinkish in color. Feldspar

appears with white or brownish – red color. Quartz looks colorless.
Biotite is jet black and is found as small shining flakes. Hornblende is
dark greenish black.

Varieties: When quartz decreases and increase in mafic minerals,

granite passes over to GRANODIORITE and then DIORITE.

When both the alkali feldspars and plagioclase feldspars are equal in
quantity, the granite rock is called as ADAMELLITE.

If hypersthene is more in granite then it is known as CHARNOCKITE.

If feldspars and quartz are very large in size and exhibit interlocking
texture, then it is called as PEGMATITE. Occurrence of large sized
beryl, tourmaline crystals is another diagnostic feature of pegmatite.

RHYOLITE is very fined grained rock and is the volcanic equivalent of

granite.

When the accessory minerals present more in quantity than normally

such rocks are named as eg; biotite-granite, hornblende-granite.
Based on the color of feldspars, the granites are termed as Pink
granite; grey granite.

SPECIAL FEATURES:

Specific gravity of granite is 2.6 – 2.8

Density = 2500 – 2650 kg/cm3; compressive strength = 1000 – 2500 kg

/sq cm

ENGINEERING POINT OF VIEW: By virtue of many desirable qualities,

granite can be used in foundations of civil structures, building stone,
road metal,. Tunneling through granite does not require any lining.

PEGMATITE
It is a holocrystalline (completely crystalline ) and coarse grained
igneous rock .

Composition: Pegmatite resemble granites in mineralogy and hence

it is described as Granite Pegmatite. When pegmatites are rich in
alkali feldspars, it is called as Syenite pegmatites. Occurrence of large
sized beryl, tourmaline crystals is another diagnostic feature of
pegmatite.

Granite pegmatite consists of alkali feldspars and quartz and rich in

biotite/ muscovite of micas. In addition, rare minerals of cassiterite (tin -
Sb); mispickel (arsenic–Ar); niobium, tantalum etc are also present and
hence pegmatites are economically very important.

Syenite pegmatites contain rare earth elements like zirconium,

cerium, lanthanum, uranium and thorium.

In Andhra Pradesh, muscovite deposits in commercial quantities occur

in pegmatites of Nellore district. This mica is generally light green in
color.
Texture: Pegmatite exhibit an interlocking texture.

Hand specimen: Pegmatite is generally coarse grained consist

of larger sized minerals of feldspars and quartz. Feldspars are often
light coloured and may appear as red, white or green . Muscovite and
biotite are easily identified by their color and cleavage. Hornblende
looks dark greenish black and tourmaline is jet black, and prismatic.

ENGINEERING POINT OF VIEW: Since pegmatite minerals are large in

size and the rock mass cannot behave uniform throughout. Further, the
presence of mica which has excellent cleavages obviously makes the
rock weak. So it is unsuitable to be used as a building stone and also
undesirable at the site of foundation of major constructions. However,
pegmatites are economically very important due to the presence of
rare and valuable minerals.

DOLERITE
Dolerite is a dark, fine grained black or dark greenish black igneous
rock. It is intermediate in composition and melanocratic (dark coloured)
rock . Mineralogically and chemically, dolerite is similar to Gabbro and
basalt.

Composition: Dolerite consists of Plagioclase Feldspars and pyroxene

(augite). Iron oxides, hypersthene and biotite occur as common
accessory minerals. Olivine is some times found if the parent magma was
deficit of silica.

Texture: Dolerite is a massive and compact rock. It is neither

porous nor permeable. The texture in dolerites is generally
equigranular. Interlocking texture is also common in dolerite. Under
the microscope dolerite exhibit Ophitic or subophitic texture.
Hand specimen: Dolerite is a fine grained rock with greenish
black or black coloured. Presence of pyroxene (augite) contributes the
black color of a rock. Feldspars can be observed by means of their
cleavage surfaces and biotite if present appears as small, jet black..

Varieties: When all the minerals of dolerite are totally altered for
eg: plagioclase into zoisite or epidote and augite into chlorite /
hornblende and olivine into serpentine then the rock is called
DIABASE.

Plutonic equivalent of dolerite is called Gabbro.

Volcanic equivalent of dolerite is called Basalt.

Glassy equivalent of dolerite is called trachylyte.

SPECIAL FEATURES: The compact nature and rich in mafic minerals

make the rock emit metallic sound when hit with a hammer. Dolerite
occurs in nature as an intrusive rock ie as dyke.

ENGINEERING POINT OF VIEW: Dolerites are not common as building

stones. They are suitable as road metal, railway ballast, bitumen
aggregate, concrete purposes. At foundation sites of dam like
structures, the presence of dolerite is considered undesirable as they
become a cause for weak planes.

BASALT is a black volcanic, massive, fine grained, melanocratic rock.

.

COMPOSITION: Basalt consist of plagioclase feldspars ( labradorite),

Pyroxenes (Augite) and iron oxides (magnetite or ilmenite). Biotite,
hornblende and hypersthenes are the other accessory minerals. Pyrite
may also seen sometimes. Either quartz or olivine may appear in
small amounts depending on the silica content of parent lava.

Structures & Textures: Vesicular and amygdaloidal structures are

common in basalts. However, Columnar and flow structures are also
observed in some cases. Basalts exhibit aphanitic texture in hand
specimens. ( ie the minerals are too fine).

Appearance in Hand specimens: Basalt is typically black or greenish

grey or greenish black. Non-vesicular, massive in nature. Exhibit a
typical aphanitic texture ie extremely fine grained with or without
vesicles. Basalts are always unstratified, unfossiliferous and do not
react with acids.

VESICULAR BASALT: it is characterized by the presence of empty

cavities or vesicles.

AMYGDALOIDAL BASALTS is a vesicular basalt with cavities filled up

by secondary minerals of silica (quartz, amethyst, opal, agate); zeolites,
calcite. Among these, silica minerals may be used as semi-precious
gemstones.

SPILLITE is a soda-rich basalt in which plagioclase feldspar is albite or

oligoclase in stead of labradorite.

Dolerite is the hypabyssal equivalent of basalt .

Gabbro is plutonic equivalent of Basalt .
Trachylite is equivalent of glassy basalt
Alkali Basalt is unsaturated basalt
Tholeite is oversaturated basalt

Uses: Massive basalts are highly durable and strongest having highest
load bearing capacity. Used as building stones. Basalts are excellent
for macadam and bitumen Roads.

A number of tunnels have been made across through the Deccan traps
for railway lines near Bombay. They need no lining except sealing
where the weak planes or joints are observed to prevent seepage.

Rhyolite is an igneous, volcanic rock of felsic (silica-rich) composition (>

69% SiO2 ). It may have any texture from glassy to aphanitic . The mineral
assemblage is usually quartz, alkali feldspar and plagioclase. Hornblende
is a common accessory mineral.
Rhyolite can be considered as the extrusive equivalent to
the plutonic granite rock, and consequently, outcrops of rhyolite may bear a
resemblance to granite.

Rhyolites that cool too quickly to grow crystals form a natural glass or
vitrophyre, also called obsidian. Slower cooling forms microscopic crystals in
the lava and results in textures such as flow foliations, spherulitic, nodular
etc.. Some rhyolite is highly vesicular pumice..

Gabbro refers to a large group of dark, coarse-grained,

intrusive mafic igneous rocks chemically equivalent to basalt. The rocks
are plutonic, formed when molten magma is trapped beneath the Earth's
surface and cools into a crystalline mass.

The vast majority of the Earth's surface is underlain by gabbro within

the oceanic crust, produced by basalt magmatism at mid-ocean ridges.

Gabbro is dense, greenish colored and

contains pyroxene, plagioclase, amphibole, and olivine (olivine gabbro when
olivine is present in a large amount).

The pyroxene is mostly clinopyroxene; small amounts of orthopyroxene may

be present. If the amount of orthopyroxene is substantially greater than the
amount of clinopyroxene, the rock is then a norite. Quartz gabbros are also
known to occur and are probably derived from magma that was over-
saturated with silica.

Essexites represent gabbros whose parent magma was under-saturated with

silica, resulting in the formation of the feldspathoid mineral nepheline.
Gabbros contain minor amounts, of iron-titanium oxides such
as magnetite, ilmenite. Gabbro is generally coarse grained, with crystals in
the size range of 1 mm or greater. Finer grained equivalents of gabbro are
called diabase. Gabbro is usually equigranular in texture, although it may
be porphyritic at times, especially when plagioclase oikocrysts have grown
earlier than the groundmass minerals.
Uses: Gabbro often contains valuable amounts
of chromium, nickel, cobalt, gold, silver, platinum, and copper sulfides.

Syenite is a coarse-grained intrusive igneous rock of the same general

composition as granite but with the quartz either absent or present in
relatively small amounts (<5%).

The feldspar component of syenite is predominantly alkaline in character

(usually orthoclase) . Plagioclase feldspars may be present in small
quantities, less than 10%.

When present, ferromagnesian minerals are usually hornblende amphibole,

rarely pyroxene or biotite. Biotite is rare, because in a syenite magma most
aluminium is used in producing feldspar.

Syenites are usually peralkaline and peraluminous, with high proportions of

alkali elements and aluminium.

Syenites are formed from alkaline igneous activity, generally formed in

thick continental crustal areas. To produce a syenite, it is necessary to melt
a granitic flow to a fairly low degree of partial melting. This is required
because potassium is an incompatible element and tends to enter a melt
first, whereas higher degrees of partial melting will liberate more calcium
and sodium, which produce plagioclase, and hence a granite, adamellite
or tonalite.

At very low degrees of partial melting a silica undersaturated melt is

produced, forming a nepheline syenite, where orthoclase is replaced by
a feldspathoid such as leucite, nepheline or analcime.

Dykes and sills

Igneous rocks are formed out of hot magma or lava. The lava on
solidification over the earth’s surface gives rise to Extrusive igneous rocks
while the magma on solidification below the earth’s surface gives rise to
intrusive igneous rocks.

Igneous intrusions occur in different sizes and forms depending on the

conditions during the formation of intrusion. eg: Dykes and Sills are the
common forms.
If the intrusion is parallel to the layering in the host rock, it is called as a sill
whereas the intrusion cutting across the trend of the host rock, it is called
as a Dyke.

Dykes are the common form of igneous rocks and are vertical or
inclined intrusive igneous bodies. Dykes occur cutting across the bedding
planes of the country rocks in which they are found. Due to forceful
pressure, magma intrudes through the fractures, cracks, joints, shear
zones, weak planes and subsequent solidification of this gives rise to dykes.

The dimensions of dykes vary widely. They may be long (50-60 kms ) and
thick (upto 30 mts). eg: dyke of midland of Scotland or t hey may be
short upto to a few mts and thin a few cms.

Though different rocks may appear as dykes, dolerite dykes are the
most common. Dykes are important from Civil Engg point of view for the
following reasons:

1. They are undesirable at the sites of foundations of dams as their sides

(contacts ) turn out to be weak planes.

2. They act as barriers and interrupt the ground water movement in a

region.

3. They may give rise to springs.

4. Since, the dykes are hard, durable (resisting to weathering), black

in color, fine grained, they are used in making of statues, sculptures
etc.

Sills are similar to dykes but are formed due to penetration of magma
into bedding planes of country rocks. The spreading capacity depends on
the viscosity of magma, its temperature and the weight of the overlying
rocks. Sills which spread over large areas are generally thin with
uniform thickness.

• Eg: 1 The great whin soil of England spreads over 3900 sq.kms
• Eg: 2 Karroo sills (dolerite composition ) spreads over 510000 sq kms
in South Africa.
Sills act sometimes as mineralizing bodies. eg: Barytes, Asbestos deposits of
cuddapah. Sills occur as horizontal and inclined bodies.

Lava flows may resemble sills closely because both are relatively thin,
horizontal sheet like igneous bodies spreading over large areas. But they
can be distinguished from one another as follows:
 • Lava flows show an irregular lower surface whereas sills have more
or less flat on both sides.
• Lava flows shows vesicular character on the upper surface, whereas
sills present no such characters.
• Lava flows undergo quite cooling producing fine grained rocks
whereas sills cool slowly causing coarse to medium grained rocks.
• Sills give out tongues (minor intrusions) into the overlying rock
masses, whereas lava flows do not.

Other intrusives: If the intrusion takes place forcibly in stratified

rock, resulting a mushroom shaped intrusive in the host rock, it is termed
as Laccoliths.

In the folded rocks, if the intrusion takes place at a later stage, it occupies
the openings at the crest ( in case of anticlines ) and trough ( in case of
synclines ) of folds, the resulting form of intrusive is denoted as Phaccolith.

Large igneous intrusions of several kilometers in extent having a form which

is the top in nearly flat and the bottom is convex downwards is known as
Lopolith.

Batholiths: The term is applied to any large intrusive mass of igneous rock
(eg granite). Batholiths, occupy a large area of out crop extending to greater
depths with the presence of Roof Pendants and Xenoliths.

Batholiths occur usually in mountain regions and are parallel to the folded
regions. Compositionally, batholiths are either granites or granodiorites.
Eg: British Colombia batholiths of 1250 miles extension and a width of 50
miles. The roof pendants; Stocks; Bosses offering evidence.

Roof pendants: cover rocks of batholiths

Stocks: off shoot that means possessing a more or less circular cross-
section
Bosses: circular & occur at the top portion of batholiths

Sedimentary Rocks are those formed due to weathering ( which is

a natural process of disintegration and decomposition ) and / or erosion
of the pre-existing rocks. Also formed due to chemical precipitation or
due to accumulation of organic remains such as plants and animal hard
parts. Since, the sediments represent secondary , these rocks are also
called as “Secondary rocks”. By volume, the secondary rocks
constitute about 5% of the lithosphere.

SIZES OF SEDIMENTS

GRADE GRAIN SIZE GRADE GRAIN SIZE

Boulders ➢ 200 mm Coarse sand 1 – 2 mm
Cobbles 50 – 200 mm Fine sand 0.1 – 0.25 mm
Pebbles 10 – 50 mm Silt 0.01 - 0.1 mm
Gravel 2 – 10 mm Clay < 0.01 mm

Sedimentary rocks
Rudaceous Arenaceous Argillaceous Chemical
/Organic
Conglomerates Sandstone Shales Limestone;
Shell LST;
Coral LST; & Chalk
Breccias Arenite Mudstone Dolomite
(similar to shale )
Arkose Siltstone (similar Coal seams
to mud stone)
Flagstone Clays Evaporites/saltbeds
Greywacke Bauxite (laterite)
 Grit Terra Rossa Iron bearing ores
Oolitic limestone Marl (Cal.
mudstone)

Rudaceous Rocks: A group of sedimentary rocks in which the particles

range in size from 2 mm upwards.

Arenaceous Rocks: A group of sedimentary rocks in which the particles

range in size from 1/16 mm to 2 mm

Argillaceous Rocks: A group of sedimentary rocks in which the particles

range in size from 1/16 mm to 1/256 mm

Among different sedimentary rocks; SHALE is the most abundant;

SANDSTONE and LIMESTONE are next in order. These three rocks
represent approximately 4%; 0.70%; 0.25% respectively of the earth’s
crust. The other sedimentary deposits which include Laterites;
Conglomerates; Breccias, Coal seams though insignificant in quantity (
0.05% )

TRANSPORTATION OF SEDIMENTS: The sediments are transported by

natural agencies by wind action or running water action (most common
agency for transportation) or Glacial action.
During the process of transportation, the disintegrated constituents
undergo initial differentiation (change in the shape, volume, size etc)
thus loosing their original characters.

The soluble constituents during transportation are carried away to

long distances and are ultimately deposited as CHEMICAL
PRECIPITATES or ORGANIC DEPOSITS. The soluble materials are
generally chlorides, sulphates and carbonates.

The insoluble constituents during transportation are carried to

considerable distances, ultimately giving rise to ARGILLACEOUS
DEPOSITS. Insoluble residues are generally aluminium silicates.

Finally, the constituents that are resistant to weathering ( unaltered )

are transported to lesser distances to be accumulated as
ARENACEOUS DEPOSITS. The resistant material is mainly silica.

Sedimentary structures: Several primary structures are

evidenced in sedimentary rocks. These structures offer significant
evidences of depositional conditions (environments ). These are:

Stratification indicates the time period involved in their deposition

(Rocks which display layering or bedding) Eg; shales
Cross-bedding indicates shallow water deposits. Eg: sandstone ( A
series of inclined bedding planes having some relationship to the
direction of current flow.

Graded bedding indicates deeper water deposits. Eg: Greywacks (

Coarser material at base and the finest material at the top due to
involvement of a river or stream flow is called as graded bedding).

Ripple marks indicate the shallow water deposition.

RUDACEOUS ROCKS: Coarser rock fragments are cemented by a finer

matrix and give rise to rocks such as Conglomerates (rounded
fragments) and Breccias (angular fragments) whose average grain size
of both is > 2 mm.

CONGLOMERATES: It is a Rudaceous sedimentary rock which is made

up of round or sub-rounded pebbles and gravel. Occasionally,
cobbles and boulders also are encountered in some conglomerates.
Mineralogically, pebbles are usually jasper, flint, quartz. The
cementing material may be siliceous, ferruginous, calcareous…
The rounded nature of pebbles indicates that the source of rocks
from which pebbles of the conglomerate have been derived far away
from the place of occurrence of the conglomerate.

BRECCIAS: Like conglomerates, breccias also are made up of pebbles,

gravels and fine grained cementing material provides the binding
medium. However, breccias are characterized by sharp and angular
edges of pebbles indicates that the pebbles had undergone negligible
transport and their parent rocks are likely not be far from the place of
their occurrence.
CIVIL ENGINEERING POINT OF VIEW:

Conglomerates are undesirable at the site of foundation of major civil

engineering structures. St Francis dam in USA had rested on schists
and conglomerates. Heavy seepage along the conglomerates resulted in
failure by sliding.
Since conglomerates are unimportant they do not merit any serious
consideration. However, conglomerates can be used as building stones.

ARENACEOUS rocks may be accumulated by wind action or deposited

by water action include Sandstone ; Arkose; Greywacke etc…

Sandstones are abundant among sedimentary rocks but are next to

shales. Sandstones are made up of sand and described as Arenaceous
rocks. Sandstones are stratified and sometimes fossiliferous too.
Compositionally, sandstones consist of sand grains ( 90% quartz ) with
accessory minerals of such as mica, ilmenite, magnetite, garnet, zircon,
rutile, feldspars cover the rest.
In a hand specimen of sandstone, the size of sand grains may be coarse,
medium or fine grained and other grains appear in different colors due
to the presence of cementing material:

Grains Appears as
Quartz Colorless, fresh with vitreous lustre
Mica flakes White colour with perfect cleavage
Ilmenite / magnetite Jet black
Garnet Red with shining
Zircon; rutile White color with shining
Feldspars Pale colours of brown, red, white, grey with a dull
lustre
Pyroxenes & Pale colors
amphiboles
Sandstones are generally porous and permeable and considered one
of the best aquifers. By virtue of their porosity and permeability, they
are not only capable of holding a good quantity of groundwater but
also yield the same when tapped.

Varieties in sandstones:

Arenite A consolidated lithified sand with < 10% of matrix

Arkose Formed by mechanical disintegration of granitic rocks and
is considerably rich in feldspars and sand grains and
unsorted.
Flagstone A thinly bedded sandstone.
Greywacke A dark, tough, rich in clay & contains less of quartz and
unsorted
Grit A sandstone composed of coarse angular grains.

Siliceous sand stone Cementing material is also silica ( porosity is less

)
Ferruginous Cementing material is a mixture of oxides & hydroxides
sandstone of Fe
Calcareous sandstone Cementing material is calcium carbonate
Argillaceous Cementing material s clay
sandstone

CIVIL ENGINEERING POINT OF VIEW: When sandstone is more

porous, more permeable (not massive), so its inherent load bearing
capacity is LESS. When sandstone is more porous and less permeable,
so its inherent load bearing capacity is INTERMEDIATE.

Siliceous sandstones are the best rock for all civil engineering
purposes such as site of foundation ; to be used as building stones; to
be used for railways and for tunneling etc….

Ferruginous sandstones come next in order of preference for civil

structures.

Calcareous sandstones initially be strong but may not be durable

since carbonates react with water and leaches out easily.

Argillaceous sandstones are not desirable for civil structures due to

the presence of clayey minerals.

ARGILLACEOUS rocks include the rock fragments/sediments with >50% of

silt or clay. Eg:Siltstone, Mudstone, Clay stone, Shales, Bauxite
(laterite), Terra Rossa.

Terra Rossa is reddish clayey soil covering limestones in dry regions. It

is formed when limestones are dissolved, the insoluble clay content and
other mineral matter is left behind as Residue (Terra Rossa) while
calcium carbonate content is carried away in solution form.

SHALES : Shales are more abundant than all other sedimentary

rocks put together. These rocks are formed out of mechanically
transported and deposited sediments. Shales are made up of solid
particles of extremely fine grained silt and clay.

Stratification of lamination is best seen in shales because the

individual layers are very thin. Shales often contain fossils of flora and
fauna. Compositionally, shales are Hydrous aluminium silicates which
the products of weathering of feldspars and other silicate minerals.

Field samples show different colours such as white, red, yellow,

grey, brown and black. Shales are compact and extremely fine
grained. Cross –bedding; ripple marks, mud cracks and fossil content
are observed in some specimens of shales.
Mineralogically, shales are mainly made up of montmorillonite,
kaolinite; Illite; halloysite; pyrophillite minerals.

Varieties in shales:

Siliceous shale With considerable amount of silica

Calcareous shale With increasing calcium carbonate content
Bituminous shale With organic matter
Carbonaceous shale Black color with rich in vegetal / organic matter
Mud stone Similar to shale

Shales are highly porous ( due to the presence of various clays with
porosity 50 – 60% ); impermeable rocks (do not yield water due to
surface tension phenomenon ) called as AQUICLUDES means shales
contain water but do not yield groundwater when tapped.

CIVIL ENGINEERING POINT OF VIEW:

Shales are soft, fine; thin layered and unable to resist overburden.
Therefore, these are unsuitable at the site of foundation of civil
structures such as dams, tunnels etc.. Since shales are incompetent
rocks, they may undergo subsidence.

LAFAYETTE dam in USA which was constructed over argillaceous rocks

(shales) had sunk by 20’ and caused for collapse / failure of a dam.
Similarly, the Srisailam dam was constructed across the river Krishna
resting over quartzites and shales causing slippery under water
pressure. Of course, high pressure concrete grouting had been
introduced to avoid leakages.

Shales are also unsuitable for road metal, railway ballasts..

CHEMICAL DEPOSITS are limestones; Dolomites, Flint, Chert, salt beds,

iron-bearing rocks (iron ore). Limestone consists of over 95% calcite
whereas dolomite consists of 90% of dolomite and 10% calcite and
belonging to Carbonate rocks. Quartz, Chalcedony, Opal are three
varieties of CHERT formed as chemical precipitate and is known as
Siliceous rocks

LIMESTONES: In hand specimens, limestones show different colours

of white, gray, buff, cream, pink, yellow and black. In nature,
limestones occur both as porous and massive types. On the other
hand, shell limestones care common and may be porous.
Types of Limestones:

Chalk: A soft, white fine grained calcareous deposit with dull lustre. It
is also consists of fossils viz., foraminifera.

Stalactites result from the process when surface water with dissolved
calcium carbonate pass through minute fractures and grows
downwards from the roof of a cave.

If the rate of percolation of solution is excess than required

evaporation, the solution falls on floor and form as a cone like deposit
which grows upwards from the floor is called as Stalagmites.

If growth continues stalactites and stalagmites may come together

after some time producing a pillar like structure , called a DRIP
STONE.

Fossiliferous or Shell limestone: These are formed organically with

hard parts of marine organisms of coral reefs or gasteropods or
lamellibranchs or brachiopods etc…

CIVIL ENGINEERING POINT OF VIEW: Massive and compact

limestones are reasonably competent to support civil structures. But,
these are undesirable for foundation if pores or cavities are
present. They are suitable as road metal, railway ballast and as
construction material.

ORGANIC DEPOSITS are formed out of active involvement of plants

and other organisms. Eg: Phosphoritic deposits (guano deposits) / Rock
Phosphates

Guano deposits are formed from fish eating sea birds which live in
some isolated islands where there is no rain fall. West coast of
America; South Africa; Australia have vast deposits of Guano.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Igneous and sedimentary rocks which are formed under a certain physico-
chemical environment, (they were in equilibrium) in terms of temperature,
pressure and chemically active fluids. Subsequent to their formation if any
of these factors changes, the existing equilibrium gets disturb in the
constituent minerals of parent rocks by metamorphism. As a result of
Metamorphism

1. Granite changes to Granitic Gneiss

2. Peridotite (Ultrabasic) changes to Serpentine / Talc Schist.
3. Gabbro / Dunite changes to Hornblende Schist.
4. Sandstone changes to Quartzite.
5. Limestone changes into Marble.
6. Shale changes into Slate

The process of metamorphism occuring in rocks due to the effect of high

temperature, pressure and chemically active fluids and are known as
metamorphic agents. These three act together to cause metamorphism and
sometimes any one or two of them dominate and play an active role.

Temperature: Metamorphic changes mainly take place in the temperature

range of 350°C to 850°C.

Pressure: Uniform pressure ( vertically downwards) increases with depth

and effect on liquids and solids at greater depths whereas the direct
pressure (stress) due to tectonic forces acts in any direction i.e., upwards,
downwards and side wards and effect only on solids.

Chemically inactive fluids: The most common liquid is water. Also the
magma or hot hydrothermal solutions (containing various chemicals) may
react directly with those rocks when they come in contact.

Types of Metamorphism:

1. Thermal Metamorphism (Heat predominant)

2. Dynamic/Cataclastic Metamorphism: When direct pressure is

predominant and acts, rocks are forced to move past resisting in their
crushing and granulation.

3. Geo-Thermal Metamorphism: Uniform pressure is predominant

alongwith heat brings changes in oceanic salt deposits but not changes
in silicate rocks.

4. Metasomatic Metamorphism (chemically active fluids predominant):

This Metamorphism alters the composition of the rock significantly.
 Hydrothermal solutions are hot (upto 400°C) and cause for providing new
minerals such as Pb, Zn, Mn etc. Tourmaline, topaz and fluorspars are
produced when the volatiles involved .

Eg: When Granite is attacked by watervapour, Boron, fluorine will suffer

mineralogical changes where by feldspars replaced by tourmaline, the
resultant rock may be Tourmaline Granite.

5. Dynamothermal Metamorphism: (Direct pressure and Heat

pressure): When an argillaceous rock (shale) undergo Dynamo Thermal
Metamorphism different minerals are produced. Eg. Gneisses and
schists.

Chlorite Biotite Garnet Staurolite Kyanite Sillimanite

• The presence of chlorite and biotite in a metamorphic rock indicates that

it had been formed under low grade Metamorphism.

• Presence of Garnet and Staurotite indicates medium grade of

Metamorphism.

• Occurrence of Kyanite and Sillimanite indicates high grade of

Metamorphism.

Mineral Composition: Following are the common minerals found in

metamorphic rocks:

Cordite, Staurotite, Andaulusite; Sillimanite, Kyanite, idocrase formed

during Metamorphism. Garnet, Chlorite, Talc, Epidote, Quartz, Feldspars,
Pyroxenes, Calcite, Mica, Hornblende also occur in different ways due to
Metamorphism.

Metamorphic Textures:

1. Foliation: When Chlorite, Mica, Talc etc orient themselves parallel to one
another is called as foliation ie the arrangement of in-equidimensional
minerals.

2. Lineation: when Hornblende, Tourmaline, Actinolite, Tremotie orient

themselves parallel to one another is called Lineation ie the arrangement
of equidimensional minerals.

3. Xenoblastic Texture: The constituent minerals of the rock have no well

developed crystal faces.

4. Idioblastic Texture: The constituent minarals have well developed

crystals.
Textures of Metamorphic rocks also depends on the shape of minerals, on
their mode of growth and mutual arrangement. Some of the textures are
seen under microscope.

1. Porphyroblastic : large crystals embedded in fine grained

ground mass.
2. Granoblastic: the mineral granules are equidimensional.
3. Ophitoblastic: small crystals embedded in phenocryst

Structures:

1. Gneissose Structure: Both equidimensional ( qtz, feldspars, pyroxenes,

calcite) and other platy and prismatic minerals occur in considerable
proportions and they appear in alternating bands. Eg: Granitic Gneiss.

2. Schistose Structure: If a rock consists of only prismatic or platy

minerals without any segregation is called a Schistose structure.
(equidimensional minerals will be negligible) Eg: Mica schist, Chlorite
schist, Hbl schist, Kyanite schist.

3. Grannulose Structure: Only equidimensional minerals present in the

Metamorphic rocks. Prismatic or platy minerals will be either negligible
or absent. Eg: Marble, Quatzite.

4. Cataclastic structure: It is produced under the influence of directed

pressure (shearing stres) upon hard and brittle materials in the
upper zones of the earth crust. Eg: Hornfels
DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF COMMON METAMORPHIC ROCKS: The
most commonly occurring metamorphic rocks in nature are Gneiss,
Schist, Quartzite, Marble, Slate and Khondalite.

GNEISS: A name is generally given to any metamorphic rock when

shows a gneissose structure. A few details of its physical description
are as follows:

Diagnostic character: Foliation present.

Color: grey and pink but generally pale coloured
Grain size: medium to coarse grained
Texture and Structure: Generally equigranular but sometimes
porphyroblastic.

Minerals present: Feldspars and quartz usually make up the bulk of

a gneiss. In addition, garnet, rarely pyroxenes occur in such bands..
If hornblende and biotite are present, then the rock appear as dark or
black coloured bands. The other minerals which may also occasionally
occur in gneisses are chlorite, sillimanite, kyanite, staurolite, talc,
serpentine etc..

Types: Based on texture, mineral content etc different varieties of

gneisses are named.

Orthogneiss: This is a gneiss derived from igneous rock

Paragneiss: This is a gneiss derived from sedimentary rock

Granitic gneiss: if a gneiss, which has minerals similar to that of

granite.

Augen gneiss: This is a gneiss in which quartz and feldspars appear

as thick elongated lens shaped (resemble to eye).

Origin: Gneisses are usually formed out of Dynamothermal

metamorphism of granites, Syenites, Sandstones.

Properties and uses of civil engineering importance: Due to non-porous

and impermeable, it has a good strength. The foliation to some extent,
improves the workability of gneiss. It may be used as building stone
in addition to road metal, as railway ballast, as load bearing beams.
In case of tunneling, the presence gneiss doesn’t require any lining.
SCHIST: Like a gneiss, schist is also a very common metamorphic
rock due to schistose structure. A few details of its physical
description are as follows:

Diagnostic character: schistose structure is present.

Color: silvery white ( mica-schist ), jet black ( biotite schist ), dark

green ( chlorite schist )

Grain size: fine to medium and sometimes even coarse grained

Texture and Structure: Lineation or foliation texture occurs

depending on when prismatic or platy minerals occur predominantly..

Minerals present: Actinolite, tremolite, hornblende, sillimanite,

tourmaline make up the bulk of a schist. In addition, chlorite,
muscovite, biotite, talc, kyanite etc are the common platy minerals
occuring in schists.. garnet, quartz, staurolite, cordierite also occur as
other minerals ..

Types: Depending on the grade of metamorphism, schists are

named as Low Grade Schists ( Mica schist: Chlorite schist: Talc Schist;
Hornblende Schist; Mica–Garnet Schist; Mica–Quartz Schist) and High
grade schist (Sillimanite schist; Eclogite Schist; Staurolite Schist).

Origin: Schists are usually formed due to Dynamothermal metamorphism

of different kinds of igneous and sedimentary rocks and the nature of
combination of metamorphic agents. For eg:

Mica schist is formed out of shale

Mica – quartz schist is formed out of feldspathic sandstone
Talc schists are formed out of magnesia rich Ultrabasic igneous rocks
like peridotite.
Hornblende Schists are formed from basic igneous rocks under high
stress and high temperature..
Chlorite schist is formed under high stress and low temperature.
Eclogite Schist consists of pyroxenes, garnet and quartz formed under
low stress and moderate temperature.
Properties and uses of civil engineering importance: Schists are
considered weak, incompetent and undesirable rocks. The minerals of
schists such as talc, chlorite, biotite, muscovite and serpentine are relatively
very soft and are not strong and durable. Presence of cleavage in the
minerals cause weakness of rocks. Schists are unsuitable for foundations,
as building stone, as aggregate for concrete making, as road metal and as
railway ballast. Schists are also unsuitable in case of tunneling.

One of the main factors for the failure of St. Francis dam was that it
was constructed over Schists.

Comparison of Gneiss and Schist.

S No Kind of Gneiss Schist

difference
1 Appearance Alternating colour Alternating colour
bands occur bands do not occur
2 Minerals present More than one Usually one mineral
mineral after which the schist
is named eg: talc -
schist
3 Color Pale grey or pink White, black, green
4 Parent rock Granite in more cases Igneous and
sedimentary rocks
5 Proportion of Relatively less Make up bulk of the
platy or prismatic rock
minerals
6 strength Reasonably strong Weak and
incompetent
7 Suitability for civil Suitable Unsuitable.
engineering works

QUARTZITE:

Color: white or pale color. Red, brown, grey, green colours also may be
seen.

Grain size: fine to coarse grained

Texture and Structure: Granulose structure is common. No alternating

color bands. No foliation occurs.

Minerals present: quartz usually make up the bulk of a quartzite.

The other minerals which may also occasionally occur in quartzites
are mica, garnet, feldspar, pyroxenes; chlorite, kyanite, epidote,
magnetite etc..
Types: Based on mineral content different varieties of quartzites
are named as Micaceous quartzite and Quartzite Schist .

Important feature of quartzites: Lord Venkateshwara temple is located

on nagari quartzites at Tirupathi – Tirumala hills as thick beds for
many kilometers.

Natural bridge is seen in the same quartzites which is a unique

feature.

Origin: Quartzites are formed due to dynamic or thermal or

Dynamothermal metamorphism of sandstones. They occur as usually
as bedded formations.

Properties and uses of civil engineering importance:

It is a silica–rich and makes highly durable and resist to weathering. The

predominance of quartz makes the rock very hard. Due to less porosity and
permeability, the rock is made more competent. It may be used as building
stone in addition to road metal, as railway ballast, as load bearing beams.
In case of tunneling, the quartzites doesn’t require any lining.
MARBLE: It is a calcareous metamorphic rock and not hard or strong
or durable. Its value is due to its pleasant color, good appearance,
easy workability and the ability to take an excellent polish.

Color: Milky white. However, pleasant shades of green, yellow, brown,

;blue or grey colours also seen.

Acid test: Marbles react vigorously even with cold and dilute acids.

Grain size: Fine to medium or even coarse grained and the rock is
equigranular.

Texture and Structure: Granulose structure is common. . No foliation

occurs.

Minerals present: calcite usually make up the bulk of Marble. The

other minerals which may also occasionally occur in marbles are
serpentine, olivine, garnet, graphite, mica, talc, tremolite, pyrite.
mica, garnet, feldspar, pyroxenes; chlorite, kyanite, epidote, magnetite
etc..

Types: Based on their colors, different varieties of marbles are

named as white marble; pink marble; green marble.
Important feature of marble: The famous Taj Mahal of Agra
constructed out of marble, is regarded as one of the Seven Wonders
of the World.

Origin: Marbles are formed due to thermal metamorphism of

limestones.

Properties and uses of civil engineering importance: Physically, the

mineral calcite is not only soft but also has three sets of well developed
cleavages. This inherent weakness makes the rock split or break
easily under loads. Marbles provide aesthetic beauty and a pleasing
appearance to the constructions and specially chosen for face works, wall
panels; flooring, statue making etc. Marbles are not used as road
metal, aggregate for concrete due to soft and weak characters.

SLATE: It is a fine grained metamorphic rock. By virtue of its

cleavage character, it splits into very thin sheets of considerable size.

Diagnostic character: Extreme fine grain size, absence of reaction

with acid, slaty cleavage and shining on surfaces are diagnostic
characters of slate. .

Color: black or grey coloured

Grain size: fine grained

Texture and Structure: Foliation is clearly visible

Minerals present: Slates are made up of mica (sericite) and quartz.

Other minerals which may also occur are biotite, muscovite, talc,
chlorite, feldspars, calcite, pyrite, magnetite..
Types: Based on colors different varieties of slates are named as
Black slate, grey slate etc. Phyllite is similar to slate in appearance
and represents slate itself which is further metamorphosed. When
Calcium is present, slate is described as calcareous slate.

Origin: Generally,it is formed due to Dynamic or regional metamorphism of

shales.

Properties and uses of civil engineering importance: Since, slates

are soft and incompetent, they cannot withstand great loads. So they
are not suitable as site rocks for foundation purposes. Due to cleavage
character and softness, they split easily and hence may be used as
building stone.

UNIT: 4 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

FOLDS: These are one of the most common geological structures found
in rocks. These are best displayed by stratified formations such as
sedimentary or volcanic rocks or their metamorphosed equivalents.

When a set of horizontal layers are subjected to compressive forces,

they bend either upwards or downwards eg: Granitic gneisses,
quartzites, Schists, Limestones etc are common rocks in which folds
occur.

Explanation:

Tension: A body is said to be under tension when it is subjected to

external forces that tend to pull it apart.
Compression: A body is said to be under compression when it is
subjected to external forces that tend to compress it.

Torsion: It results from twisting . If the two ends of a rod or plate are
turned in opposite directions, the rod or plate is subjected to torsion

TENSION COMPRESSION TORSION

STRIKE The strike of a bed is its trend measured on a horizontal

surface. Strike refers to the direction in which a geological structure
such a bed, a fault plane is present.

When a bed is exposed on the surface , its direction of occurrence, its

direction of inclination can be measured by using a clinometre or
Brunton compass ( a magnetic compass –like instrument ).

DIP: The dip of a stratum is the angle between the bedding plane
and a horizontal plane.

PARTS OF A FOLD:

In nature, folds found in rocks and vary in terms of their length and
breadth. However, the bends noticed in rocks are called as folds.
Following are the parts of a fold:

CREST & TROUGH: The curved portions of the fold at the top and
bottom are called crest and trough respectively. The curved portions
are smoothly bent or sharp or angular.

LIMBS / FLANKS: These are the sides of a fold. There are two limbs
for every fold and one limb common to the adjacent fold.

AXIAL PLANE: This is the imaginary plane which divides the fold into
two equal halves. Depending upon the nature of the fold, the axial
plane may be vertical, horizontal or inclined.
WAVE LENGTH: The distance between the successive crests or troughs
is called wavelength.

HINGE: The hinge of a fold is the line of maximum curvature in a

folded bed.

AXIS: The intersection between the axial plane and the crest or trough
of the fold. ( that means the axis is a line parallel to the hinges )

TYPES OF FOLDS : Folds are classified on the basis of (i) Symmetrical

character (ii) Upward or down ward bend (iii) occurrence of plunge (iv)
Uniformity of bed thickness (v) Behavior of the fold pattern with depth etc

ANTICLINE & SYNCLINAL FOLDS

SYMMETRICAL & ASYMMETRICAL FOLDS
PLUNGING & NON-PLUNGING FOLDS
OVERTURNED FOLD
OPEN AND CLOSED FOLDS
CHEVRON FOLD
ISOCLINAL & RECUMBENT FOLDS
BOX FOLD
FAN FOLD
Anticlinorium and Synclinorium Folds
DRAG FOLD
Anticline: It may be defined as a fold that is convex upward; and the
two limbs dip away from each other. In such a fold, the older rocks
occur in the centre.

Syncline: It may be defined as a fold that is convex downwards and

the two limbs dip toward each other. In this fold, the younger rocks
are in the centre.

ANTI CLI NE
A fold that is convex upward and the two limbs dip away from each other.
In such a fold, the older rocks occur in the centre.
Symmetrical fold: a symmetrical fold is one in which the axial plane is
essentially vertical or upright. The axial plane divides a fold into two
equal halves in such a way that one half is the mirror image or
another.

Asymmetrical fold: A asymmetrical fold is one in which the axial

plane is inclined. If the two halves are not mirror images, then the fold
is called as asymmetrical fold.

ASYMMETRI CAL FOLD

the axial plane is inclined. If the two halves are not mirror images,
.
then the fold is called as asymmetrical fold

Plunging and Non-Plunging Fold: If the axis of a fold is inclined, then it is

called plunging fold. On the other hand, if the axis of the fold is horizontal,
then the fold is called Non-plunging fold.

Non-Plunging Anticline
Plunging Anticline

Overturned Fold: In a simple fold, the limbs show the order of

superposition of beds. But when one of the limbs is overturned, the
order of superposition of beds in that particular limb will be in reverse
order, such a fold is called an overturned fold.
 Simple fold overturned fold

Open and Closed folds: If the thickness of beds is uniform throughout the
fold, it is called an open fold. On the other hand, if the beds are thinner in
the limb portions and thicker at the crests and troughs, such fold is called a
closed fold.

Open Fold Closed

Fold

Chevron Fold: A Chevron fold is one in which the hinges are sharp

and angular.

Normal type of fold chevron fold

Isoclinal Fold: An Isoclinal Fold in which, the two limbs dip at equal
angles in the same direction. These isoclinals folds may be vertical or
inclined or horizontal

Recumbent Fold: A recumbent fold is one in which, the axial plane is

essentially horizontal. All recumbent folds if satisfactory exposures are
available, may be traced back to the Root Zone - ie the place on the
surface of the earth from which they arise. Also characterized by the
presence of digitations (look like great fingers extending from a hand ).

Normal Type of Fold Isoclinal Fold

Recumbent Fold

Box Fold: Usually, the crests and troughs of beds are smooth, broad
and flat.

Fan Fold: In simple anticline, the limbs dip away from one another
and in simple syncline, the limbs dip towards each other. In case of
Fan Folds, this is just Opposite.

In Fan Fold, the two limbs dip toward each other in case of Anticlinal
Fan folds and the two limbs dip away from each other in case of

Synclinal Fan Fold.

Normal Type of Fold Fan

Fold

Anticlinorium & Synclinorium: A major anticline that is composed of

many smaller folds is called an Anticlinorium . Similarly, a
Synclinorium is a large syncline also composed of many smaller folds
too.
 Normal Fold Anticlinorium and
Synclinorium Fold

Geo-anticlines and Geosynclines: The Anticline and Synclines with a

normal shape but of very large magnitude are called Geo-anticlines (
Giant anticlines ) and Geosynclines. Geosyncline is a large depression,
hundreds of miles long and tens of miles wide in which sediments
accumulate to greater feet.

Eg: Appalachian ( North America ) Geosyncline was 40,000 feet depth.

The Cordilleran ( North America ) Geosyncline

The Ouachita ( North America ) Geosyncline

The Geosynclines can become great mountain ranges and the

examples are mentioned above.
Drag Fold: Drag Folds are those that develop in an incompetent bed
( weaker beds ) lying between two competent beds ( strong beds ).

In the broader sense, drag folds refer to any minor folds genetically
associated with major folds. When the competent beds ( stronger beds
) slide past in opposite directions due to shearing effect / dragging
effect, the drag folds ( minor folds ) develop in the incompetent beds (
weaker beds ).

IMPORTANCE OF FOLDS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING POINT OF VIEW:

Folding of rocks takes place by different ways of stress acted upon it.
Most of the folds are due to tectonic causes and a few folds are due to
non-tectonic causes such as landslides etc…

Due to weathering and erosion, the Anticlines will change over to

Valleys while the Synclines change over to Hills. This feature is called
as Paradoxical phenomenon is popularly expressed as ANTICLINAL
VALLEY & SYNCLINAL HILL.

Folds as a result, the affected rocks get deformed, distorted or

disturbed. This results in the occurrence of great strain in rocks which
may cause bulging , caving etc.. Because of folding, the affected rocks
possess fractures of different types in different parts of folds ie limbs,
crest, trough and becomes weak. Such type of locations especially for
construction of dams, reservoirs, tunneling, etc.. leads to collapse the
civil structures.

For eg: At the dam site, the beds of limb shall be dip in the upstream
direction to hold the accumulated water as a load.

FAULTS
Faults may be described as fractures along which relative displacement of
adjacent blocks has taken place. The relative displacement caused during
faulting may be horizontal, vertical and inclined.

Some faults are only a few inches long, and the total displacement is
measured in fractions of an inch while there are faults that are hundreds of
miles long. The strike and dip of a fault are measured in the same way as
they are for bedding planes. The magnitude of faulting obviously depends on
the intensity and the nature of shearing stress ( various tectonic forces )
involved.

Occurrence of faulting is often accompanied by earthquakes and it is an

indication of subsurface instability of the region concerned.

PARTS OF A FAULT

Fault plane, foot wall, hanging wall, slip, hade, heave and throw which are
important parts of a fault
Fault Plane: This is the plane along which the adjacent blocks were
relatively displaced. Like, bedding plane (or axial plane) the fault plane can
be expressed by strike and dip. Its intersection with the horizontal plane
gives the strike direction. The direction along which the fault plane has the
maximum slope is its true dip direction. The amount of inclination of fault
plane with reference to the horizontal plane along the true dip direction is
called its true dip amount. Hade is the angle between the inclined fault
plane and a vertical plane. Dip + Hade = 900

Foot wall and Hanging wall: When the fault plane is inclined, then the
faulted block which lies below the fault plane is called the foot wall and the
other block which rests above the fault plane is called the hanging wall.

Slip: The displacement that occurs during faulting is called the slip. This
may be along strike direction (i.e. Strike slip) or along dip direction (i.e. Dip
slip) or along both (Strike and Dip slip). Eg: The fault is an inclined plane
that strikes N-S at dips 35° East and has a Hade of 55o East.

Hade: The angle between the fault plane and a vertical plane.

Heave: The horizontal displacement of the blocks is called as heave. Heave

can be seen only in vertical faults.

Throw: The vertical displacement of the blocks is called as Throw.

Throw can be seen only in vertical faults.

HANGING WALL

FOOT WALL
Classification and types of faults: Faults like folds
may be classified on the basis of geometry or their genesis or different
principles as follows.

1. Type of displacement along the fault plane.

( eg: Translation fault; Rotational Faults )

2. Relative movement of FW & HW.

(eg: Normal Fault / Gravity Fault; Thrust / Reverse
Fault ).

3. Types of slips involved ( classification based on Net Slip )

eg: Strike Slip Fault; Dip Slip Fault ; Oblique Slip Fault
)

4. Mutual relation of attitudes of the fault plane.

(eg: Strike Fault; Dip Fault; Oblique
Fault)

5. Inclination of the fault plane.

(eg: High Angle Fault; Low Angle Fault )
6. Mode of occurrence of faults.
(eg: Radial Fault; Arcuate Fault; Enehelon Fault )

7. Miscellaneous Faults: (eg: Step Fault; Parallel Fault; Horst & Graben
Faults )
1. Type of Displacement: Based on the displacement principle, faults
are divisible into Translational faults and Rotational faults.

Translational Faults: The displacement of the foot wall with respect to the
hanging wall is uniform along the fault plane.

Rotational Faults: In rotational faults, the FW and the HW appears to have

been fixed at a place or can be seen the gradual changes in displacement.
 Translational Fault Rotational Fault

2.Relative Movement of FW/HW: ( In case of inclined faults )

Normal Fault: If the HW goes down with respect to the FW, it is called the
Normal Fault. Since the blocks are expected to move or slide down along
the influence of gravity, it will be also called as Gravity Fold.

Reverse Fault: If the HW goes up with respect to the FW , it is called as

Reverse Fault. This is also called as Thrust Fault

Normal Fault / Gravity Fold Reverse Fault / Thrust Fault

3.Type of Slips: The displacement that occurs during faulting is

called the slip. The total displacement is known as the Net slip. The net
slip may be along the strike direction (strike slip) or the dip direction (Dip
slip ) or along both

Strike slip fault / Wrench Fault: The displacement is only along the
strike direction of the fault plane, such a fault is described as strike slip
fault.

Dip Slip Fault: If the displacement is completely along the dip direction of
the fault plane it is called a dip slip fault.

Oblique Slip Fault: If the displacement occurs partly along the strikes
direction and partly along the dip direction, such a fault is called as oblique
slip fault.

Dip Slip Fault Strike Slip Fault Oblique

Fault

4.Mutual relation of attitudes of the fault plane:

If the strike direction of fault plane is parallel to the strike of the beds of
adjacent strata, such fault is called as strike fault. On the other hand, if
the strike direction of the fault plane is parallel to the true dip direction of
adjacent strata, such fault is described as a dip fault. If strike direction of
fault plane is neither parallel to strike direction nor parallel to dip direction
of adjacent beds, it is called oblique fault.
5. Inclination of the fault plane: This is simple classification which makes
account the dip amount of the fault plane. If it is steep i.e. more than 450,
the fault is called a high angle fault and if it is gently sloping i.e. less than
450 the fault is called a low angle fault. Generally, normal faults / gravity
faults are high angle faults, while Reverse / thrust faults are low angle
faults.

High angle Fault: If the dip amount of the fault plane is > 45°, the fault is
called a high angle fault.

Low angle Fault: If the dip amount of fault plane is < 45° the fault is
called a low angle fault.
 High Angle Faults Low Angle
Faults

6.Mode of occurrence of faults: Based on the mode of occurrence or

pattern in the field, the following types of faults are examples:

Radial Faults: When a set of faults occur on the surface and appears to be
radiating from a common point, they are called radial faults.

Arcuate Faults: A set of faults occur in a peripheral manner, enclosing

more or less a circular area.

Enechelon Faults: A set of faults which appear to be overlapping one

another.

MISCELLANEOUS FAULTS
STEP FAULTS: When a set of parallel normal faults occur at
regular intervals, they give a step-like appearance and are called step
faults.

PARALLEL FAULTS: When a set of parallel normal faults occur

without a regular interval, such type of fault is called as Parallel fault
though similar appearance of step faults.
 Step faults Parallel faults

HORST AND GRABENS: When normal faults with mutually diverging

or converging fault planes occur, then a few wedge-shaped blocks called
“ horsts” are displaced upwards and a few other (alternated with the
raised blocks) called “grabens” are displayed downwards.

Horsts and Grabens of large magnitudes are called BLOCK mountains

and RIFT valleys, respectively .Eg:(1) Ruby mountains of Navada in Russia
(2)Teton Mountain Range in USA are good examples for Horsts.

EFFECTS OF FAULTS FROM THE CIVIL ENGG POINT OF VIEW

• Faults are the most unfavorable and desirable geological
structures, for any LOCATION OF RESERVOIR
FOUNDATION FOR CONSTRUCTION OF A DAM
BRIDGES / BUILDINGS
TUNNELLING
LAYING ROADS OR RAILWAY TRACKS.

• As long as the faults are active, the site is unstable and

susceptible to upward or downward movement along the fault
plane. eg; St Francis Dam, California & Austin dam in Texas

JOINTS
Joints are fractures found in all types of rocks. These are cracks or
openings formed due to various reasons. Naturally, the presence of
joints divides the rock into a number of parts or blocks. Usually, the
openings of joints are filled up by secondary minerals such as calcite,
quartz etc as veins.

Joints occur in a definite direction and as a set. Some places 2,3,4

or even more sets of joints may occur. Every set of joints shall have
their own strike and dip.

Joints may be measured only a few cms in length but some may be
large measuring mts. In nature joints may occur as vertical or
horizontal or inclined. Most joints are smooth but some display
plumose markings ( ridges & depressions a mm ).

CRACKS, ON THE OTHER HAND LIKE FRACTURES ARE RANDOM OR

IRREGULAR IN THEIR MODE OF OCCURRENCE.

VARIOUS TYPES OF JOINTS:

Columnar Joints which may occur due to Tensional forces ( pull apart )
eg Basalts.

Shear Joints develop where shearing forces prevail ( due to stress )

Longitudinal / Transverse Joints: These joints are sometimes

described whether they are parallel to or across some large scale
features such as mountain ranges .

Sheet Joints : A set of joints may develop which are more or less
parallel to the surface of the ground. Eg: sandstones; cuddapah slabs,
flaggy limestones.

Shrinkage Joints: as a result of cooling, by tensional forces, these

joints develop in the rocks.

IMPORTANCE ON CIVIL ENGG POINT OF VIEW:

Joints cause the leakage of water in case of reservoir. Joints may

pose groundwater problems in tunneling. The orientation of joints is
very significant in engineering projects. Large joint dipping in the
construction site cause a landslide. Quarry operations obviously greatly
influenced by the joints.

Jointed rocks allow the movement of fluids and may act as

AQUIFERS. Bore wells drilled in civil construction areas for water
supply will be more productive in highly jointed rocks than in less
jointed rocks.

UNIT – V GEOPHYSICAL
STUDIES
Contents:
Introduction
Classification of Geophysical methods
Importance of Geophysical methods

GRAVITY METHODS

MAGNETIC METHODS

ELECTRICAL METHODS……. Wenner configuration

Schlumberger Configuration
Resistivity methods…. Profiling method
Sounding method
Potential method
Profiling ( lateral exploration )

Sounding ( vertical exploration )

SEISMIC METHODS size of earthquakes

Intensity of earthquakes
Magnitude of earthquakes
Precautionary measures:
for construction of buildings
for construction of Dams
RADIOMETRIC METHODS
GEOTHERMAL METHODS

FUNDAMENTAL ASPECTS OF ROCK MECHANICS

LANDSLIDES …… Classification of earth movements
…Earth flows
Landslides
Subsidence
Recent landslides with examples
Effects of landslides
Prevention of landslides

UNIT 5 – QUESTIONS FROM PREVIOUS PAPERS

1. Explain in detail various seismic belts of India?

Explain the precautions to taken for the construction of buildings in
seismic areas?

2. Explain the following:

 (i) Equipotential method (ii) Werner method
(ii) Resistivity method (iv)Self potential method

3a) Explain the geophysical studies by seismic and radiometric methods in

detail?
3b) What are the fundamental aspects of rock mechanics and environmental
geology?

4) Explain various electrical methods associated with geophysical studies?

5) Explain various seismic methods associated with geophysical studies?

6) Write a short notes on

• Earthquake waves
• Intensity of earthquakes
• Magnitude of earthquake
• Safety factors in building construction in seismic areas.

7) Describe different Geophysical methods in terms of principle, parameters,

methods, equipment and applications of Gravity methods, Magnetic
methods, Electrical methods?

8) Explain the following:

• Terminology of earthquake
• Classification and causes of earthquake

9) Explain the types of electrode configuration, profiling, sounding and

applications of resistivity methods and their importance of civil
engineering?

10) Define the rock mechanics? What are the problems and scope of rock
mechanics?

11a) What is meant by earthquake? What are the effects of earthquake?

11b) What are the precautionary measures taken in the construction of
buildings in earthquake prone zones?

Geophysics is the study of the earth by making use of the principles

of Physics.

By measuring certain physical properties of rock types, the

subsurface data, the location of ore deposits, groundwater conditions
etc can be achieved by using Geophysical investigations.
To ensure safety, economy in construction of civil engineering structures,
it is necessary to aware of the geology and subsurface structure of
the concerned site. In order to acquire the subsurface details, only
two approaches exist. They are:

Direct observations by means of digging, trenching and drilling of the

ground. Such processes are expensive and time consuming process.

Indirect inferences are drawn by means of Geophysical methods

which provide the subsurface date quickly without much expensive.
The other advantages include:

Large areas can be investigated in short period and hence time is

saved. The Geophysical devices are simple, portable and can be
operated easily. The Geophysical investigation does not include any
consumables and these methods are economical.

CLASSIFICATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS. These include:

GRAVITY METHODS;
MAGNETIC METHODS;
ELECTRICAL METHODS;
SEISMIC METHODS;
RADIOMETRIC METHODS and
GEOTHERMAL METHODS.

Importance of geophysical methods: The Geophysical investigations are

multipurpose. The obtained data can be interpreted for knowing the
subsurface rock types, regional geology of an area; geological structures
which are favourable for accumulation of oil and gas; groundwater potential
and its quality; locating and estimation of ore deposit reserves and also to
solve the Engineering Geology problems such as:

1. To determine the thickness of overburden

2. Locating fault zones, shear zones which act as places of leakage in

reservoirs or as places of weakness in foundation sites;
3. To locate places where building materials occur at a shallow depth
4. To solve some of the Non-geological problems such as

• location of buried iron pipe lines (by magnetic methods);

• location of areas of buried pipes carrying oil & gas (by electrical
methods);
• location & liquidation of underground fire (by geothermal methods)
• location of cavities in masonry constructions of dams (by radio wave
absorption methods)

GRAVITY METHODS: In gravity methods, the nature of

distribution of gravity (g) on the surface is analyzed. The instruments
for gravity prospecting may be divided into three types.
(a) Pendulum
(b) Torsion balance
(c) Gravimeters ( WORDEN GRAVIMETER)
Among these, only gravimeters are very popular. A gravimeter measures
the relative variations in the vertical component of the gravitational force. It
is somewhat like a spring balance which weighs a constant mass and
detects the relative difference in weight with great accuracy of the
region.

If the subsurface has a relatively heavier body, the gravity pull is more there
(+g) and the spring extends becoming longer. If the subsurface has relatively
a lighter body there the gravity pull is less (-g) and the spring contracts
becoming shorter. Hence, g values reflect the subsurface geological strata.

Gravity methods are carried out during oil and gas exploration. These
investigations are also useful in finding iron ore, manganese ore, graphite,
coal, Chromite and bauxite deposits.

Spring spring
of gravimeter

(-g)

(+g)

Lighter body local body heavier body

Thus in a particular region, if subsurface bodies whose densities are
different from the surrounding rocks exist, the gravity field deviates
from the normal value that is expected . From these deviations, it is
possible to locate the inhomogenous bodies in the subsurface.
Geological age Lithology Av density
(gm/cc)
Gondawanas Calcareous Sandstones 2.55
Ferruginous sandstones 2.33
Vindhyans shales 2.65
Limestones with shale 2.72
intercalations
sandstones 2.13
cuddapahs Calcareous shales 2.77
limestones 3.10
Phyllites 2.72
Quartzites 2.65
Archaeans Granites 2.65
gneisses 2.65
charnockites 2.82
Khondalites 2.50

MAGNETIC METHODS: Like gravity methods, these

investigations also related to the findings of subsurface geology. In general,
the magnetic field of the earth or one of its components (vertical or
horizontal component) is measured on the surface to know the subsurface
bodies data by studying the anomaly. Any deviations in the measured
quantities help to locate the anomalous objects.. For eg a dolerite dyke
which is occurring in a granitic terrain shows variations in the
magnetic anomalies.

During the magnetic surveys in the field, when the dyke is approached
the magnetic intensities ( z) becomes more and then becomes less
after the dyke is crossed. Away from the dyke, on either side ( z) is
nearly same and only over the dyke anomaly can be noticed.
Positive magnetic (vertical) ANOMALY
z
500
400
300
200
100

SURFACE SURFACE
 GRANITE DYKE GRANITE
The different parameters measured during magnetic investigations are total
magnetic field and different space components (ie vertical component z;
horizontal component H; inclination I and declination D). The magnetic
field is measured in terms of gamma.

Different magnetometers are available at present for conducting

magnetic surveys. Some of them are as follows:

The SCHMIDT MAGNETOMETER

TORSION MAGNETOMETER
FLUX GATE MAGNETOMETER

A magnetometer is a measuring instrument used to measure the strength

or direction of magnetic fields.

The SI unit of magnetic field strength is tesla. As this is a very large unit
for most practical uses, scientists commonly use the nanotesla (nT) as their
working unit of measure. Engineers often measure magnetic fields in Gauss
(1 Gauss = 100,000 nT, or 100,000 gamma).

The Earth's magnetic field (the magnetosphere) varies both temporally (there
is a daily variation of around 30 nT at mid latitudes and hundreds of nT at
the poles) and spatially (from around 20,000 nT near the equator to 80,000
nT near the poles) for various reasons, such as the in homogeneity of rocks
and the interaction between charged particles from the Sun and the
magnetosphere.

Applications:

Magnetometers can detect magnetic (ferrous) metals.

Magnetometers can be used to help map basin shape at a regional scale,

and commonly used to map hazards in coal mining.

Also used to demarcate the basaltic intrusions such as dykes, sills etc

Magnetometers can also locate zones ignited by lightning and map siderite
(an impurity in coal).

Modern surveys generally use magnetometers with GPS technology to

automatically record the magnetic field and their location.
Magnetometers are one of the primary tools used to locate the deposits of
gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, platinum and diamonds.

Types: Magnetometers can be divided into two basic types:

• Scalar magnetometers measure the total strength of the magnetic

field to which they are subjected, and
• Vector magnetometers have the capability to measure the
component of the magnetic field in a particular direction, relative to
the spatial orientation of the device.

Scalar magnetometers Fluxgate magnetometer

Vector magnetometers: The Earth's magnetic field at a given point is a

vector. A vector magnetometer measures both the magnitude and direction
of the total magnetic field.. Examples of vector magnetometers are fluxgates.

Scalar magnetometers: Scalar magnetometers measure the total magnetic

field strength but not its direction. A magnetograph is a magnetometer that
continuously records data.

Since magnetic surveys have certain inherent limitations (ie orientation of

instruments), magnetic prospecting is often carried out alongwith gravity or
other geophysical methods for accurate solutions. Magnetic
investigations are employed for solving the following geological issues:

1. Delineation of large structural forms where usually accumulation of

oil and gas deposits takes place
2. Detection & demarcation of basic and ultrabasic bodies such as dykes.
3. Locating iron ores and other deposits such as chromite, manganese
and bauxite deposits.
4. Also to demark the ore bodies of copper and nickel sulphides.
ELECTRICAL METHODS: Electrical resistivity methods,
electromagnetic methods, self-potential methods and induced polarization
methods are the important categories of electrical methods. All geological
formations have a property called electrical resistivity (ƿ) and this resistivity
is expressed in the units of Ohm-meters (Ωm). The electrical resistivities of
subsurface formations vary from one another if they are inhomogeneous
and are studied with the help of the electrical resistivity methods.

The various geological factors which influence the electrical resistivity of the
subsurface formations are :
1. Mineral content (most of the rock forming minerals have high resistivity
except sulphide minerals)
2. Compactness
3. Moisture (moisture may occur in the rocks)
4. Salinity of moisture.
5. Texture of the rock (fine grained rocks show a higher resistivity
compared to coarse grained ones)

EQUIPMENT: A resistivity meter is used in carrying out the electrical

methods to calculate the apparent resistivity (Pa). It is necessary to
remember that what is measured in the field during resistivity investigation
is the “Apparent resistivity” and not the true resistivity of the subsurface.
To get true resistivity, the apparent resistivity is to be multiplied by a
constant (K) as per the spacing pattern. Electrical resistivity values
decreases considerably if the rocks contain moisture in the pore spaces (not
for always).
Fig shows the pattern of distribution of current and equipotential lines
in a homogeneous ground. Current is sent inside the ground through
metallic electrodes C1 and C2. The potential difference is measured by
non-polarising electrodes P1 and P2.

BATTERY ammeter
A

V Voltmeter

C1 P1 P2 C2
C 1 and C2 = current electrodes & P1 and P2 = Potential electrodes
- - - - - - distribution of current lines
______ distribution of equipotential lines
Resistivity methods are classified into:

1. Profiling Method (Lateral exploration)

2. Sounding method (Vertical exploration)
3. Potential Method

Profiling is done to detect lateral changes in resistivity which reflects

the subsurface lithology in a large area whereas sounding (also known as
Vertical Electrical Sounding VES) is done to determine vertical changes
in resistivity which reveals the changes in Lithology at a particular
place with increasing depth.

In profiling or sounding, there is scope for electrode arrangements to be

made in different ways in the field as such arrangements are called
“electrode configurations”.
Profiling method is carried out by adopting the Wenner configuration.

The Wenner configuration: This method was developed by Wenner in

1915. In this configuration, the outer electrodes, C1 and C2 are used to
send current into the ground and the inner electrodes, P1 and P2 are used
to measure the potential. The important feature of this setup is that the
distance between any two successive electrodes is equal. The apparent
resistivity measured in the Wenner method is given by Pa = 2πa(V/I) where
a = Electrode separation
v = Potential difference measured
I = Current sent into the ground
Pa = apparent resistance (ohm-mts )

Profiling Method: This is also known as Lateral Electrical investigation. In

this process, the electrode array i.e., setup as a whole is moved from place to
place with same intervals (constant electrode spacing) along a given line and
the Pa value at each of the station is determined. The changes in pa
indicate lateral variations in the subsurface to a certain depth.

It is obvious that the profiling technique will be useful in detecting only the
dyke bodies or vertical beds. The presentation of profiling data is done on a
ordinary graph sheet on X-axis (station) and true resistivity values on Y-axis
(ohm-mts). The interpretation of profiling data can demarcate the high and
low resistivity values of the sub-surface.
 C1 P1 P2 C2 DIRECTION OF LINE

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

C1 P1 P2 C2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

C1 P1 P2 C2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

C1 P1 P2 C2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

PROFILING METHOD (The diagram shows four steps, denoting how

an electrode arrangement with fixed separation is moved along
successive stations of a traverse line) .
C1 and C2 are current electrodes & P1 and P2 are Potential electrodes.
Ohm-mts

stations 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
9

Graph shows a plot of resistivity data for the above traverse

The Schlumberger Configuration: This method was developed by

Schlumberger in 1916. In this method, potential electrodes are kept at
smaller side compared to the current electrodes. In general, the electrode
separation MN < 1/5 AB relation is maintained in this investigation. Here A
and B are the current electrodes and M and N are the potential electrodes.
The apparent resistivity measured in the Schlumberger configuration is
given by Pa= K (V/I) where K is a constant and the value varies as per AB
distance

Sounding: This method is popularly known as Vertical Electrical Sounding

(VES). In this method, a number of pa values are measured at the same
place by increasing the distances between the current electrodes each
time after taking the reading. The successive increasing in distance
makes the current penetrate more and more deeply. Generally, the
depth of penetration of the current (ie depth) is about 1/3rd of the
distance between the current electrodes. It is necessary to cancel the
self-potential before taking V and I readings for every electrode separation.
From I/V values of each electrode separation, pa is obtained and it is
multiplied by the configuration constant (K) to obtain true resistivity values.

The values are plotted on log–log sheet by plotting the electrode separation
(station/distance) on x-axis and true resistivity values (ohm-mts) on y-axis.
The obtained curve is to be matched with master curves.

Self-Potential methods: In self-potential methods, the natural electric

field existing in an area is investigated whereas in other methods, the
ground is charged by an artificial electric field and the results on the
surface are investigated.

Self-potential method involves measuring the potential between the

potential electrodes for different electrode spacing without any current
into the ground. This method is also known as the “Spontaneous
Polarization method”. This means the potential measured is the natural
potential existing in the ground all the time. Several sulphide ores
such as pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, molybdenite, cobaltite etc..
show spontaneous polarization. Anthracite (coal) and graphite are
known to give strong SP effects.
The instruments required for carrying out SP surveys are:
(1) A pair or non-polarizing electrodes to pick up the potentials
from the ground.
(2) A devise ie DC potentiometer or electronic milli volt meter to measure
the value of the potentials (voltages) in the ground picked up through
electrodes.

The ground immediately above the ore body will therefore be an area
of lowest potential, theoretically speaking the negative centre. The
location of such negative centres is the target of S.P. surveys, since
the ore body can be discovered usually below such centres.
The negative centres can be located either by determining the lines of
equal electric potential ( ie equi-potential lines ) directly on the ground.
The ore body is often met below the negative centre.
SEISMIC METHODS
Seismology, the science dealing with the natural phenomena relating
to earthquakes. The Greek word seismos means shaking. Earthquakes
are vibrations or oscillations due to sudden disturbances in the earth,
which produce elastic waves which travel away in all directions from
the point of origin. These elastic waves are called seismic waves.

In seismic prospecting, artificial explosions (explosives, dynamites may

produce elastic waves if they fire ) are made to study the travel times
of seismic waves through geological formations, suffer reflection or
refraction and arrive at the surface of the earth where they are
detected by geophones.

With the help of geophones fixed at suitable intervals on the ground,

the different seismic waves (P,S and L waves) reaching the surface are
recorded and time-distance curves ( hodographs ) are constructed.
Seismic waves are classed into three types:

1. Primary waves or P waves

2. Secondary waves or S waves
3. Surface waves or L – waves

Terminology of an earthquake:

• Focus: Place of origin of the earthquake in the interior of the

earth.
• Epicenter: A point on the ground surface, which is vertically above the
focus.
• Seismic waves: The enormous energy released from the focus at
the time of earthquake is transmitted in all directions in the form
of waves.
• Elastic waves: A wave propagated by a medium having inertia and
elasticity in which displaced particles transfer momentum to
neighbouring particles and are themselves restored to original
position.
• Isoseismal: The imaginary line joining the points of same intensity
of the earthquake.
• Hodograph: time - distance curve
• Seismograph: an instrument is used to detect/ record the seismic
waves
• Seismogram: Recorded data in seismic methods

Of all geophysical methods, seismic prospecting is more complicated

and expensive. However, seismic method consists of a number of
geophones; an amplifier and a galvanometer are used in addition to
explosive material.

Seismic methods are effective for depths more than a km but are not
suitable for shallow exploration. Seismic methods are important to
locate the anticline and synclinal structures in oil exploration, and to
identify fault zones. It is also helped a great deal in understanding the
internal structure of the earth.

Many seismological observations have been established in India. The major

ones among them are at New Delhi, Colaba (Mumbai) Alipore (Kolkatta);
Shillong etc maintained by the Indian Meteorological Department and at
Hyderabad by the National Geophysical Research Institute.

CLASSIFICATION AND CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES: Earthquakes are

grouped based on their depth of origin, and described as shallow or
intermediate or deeper earthquakes. Earthquakes with a focus depth <
60 km are called shallow earthquakes. If the depth is > 60 kms but <
300 kms, they are called intermediate earthquakes. Other which have
a focus depth > 300 kms are called deeper earthquakes. Earthquakes
originating at depths > 700 kms are extremely rare.

TYPES: Based on the causes responsible for their occurrence,

earthquakes are described as TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES AND NON-
TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES.

Tectonic earthquakes are exclusively due to internal causes ( ie

disturbance of geological formations) that takes place in the earth’s
interior. Generally, Tectonic earthquakes frequency is less with high
intensity and more destructive in nature.

Non-tectonic earthquakes are generally due to external causes. These

are very frequent but minor intensity and not destructive in nature.

These earthquakes occur due to variety of reasons as follows:

• Due to huge water falls.
• Due to meteorites: Meteorites are bodies of various sizes wandering
in space. When they come under the influence of the earth’s
gravity field, they suddenly fall on the earth’s surface.
• Due to landslides
• Due to volcanic eruptions: Some volcanoes pour lava by throwing out the
fire, smoke etc to greater heights. Such violent eruptions sometimes
cause earthquakes. eg: Indonesia volcano(1883) due to eruption of
volcano.
• Due to tsunamis: Tsunamis are giant sea waves. They move shore
wards and dash against the coastline. Eg: Lisbon earthquake of
1775.
• Due to man-made explosions: During mining, and quarrying, many
explosions are carried out.
• Due to collapse of caves, tunnels etc..
• Due to dams and reservoirs: when the reservoir was filled with
water shows the signs of tremors. This is due to lateral thrust of
reservoir water contributing stress.

SIZE OF EARTHQUAKES: The size of an earthquake is defined by its

intensity and magnitude. Intensity is expressed based on the degree
of destruction caused and varies from place to place. It is maximum
around the epicentral area.

Earthquake intensities

Intensity Effects
I Not serious
II Felt by few persons at rest, particularly on upper floors of
buildings
III Vibrations similar to a moving truck
IV Windows and doors rattle; loose objects disturb
V Breakage of dishes; wall plaster breaks
VI Walls crack
VII Slight to moderate damage in well-built structures
VIII Falling of walls
IX Ground cracks; breakage of underground pipes;
considerable damage to buildings
X Bending of rails; occurrence of land slides
XI Buildings destroy
XII Total destruction, surface displacements; objects thrown
into air
The intensity at a place depends on several factors such as distance
from the epicenter; depth of focus, geological formations and also on
the type of construction of a structure..

Magnitude: Energy released during the time of an earthquake is commonly

expressed as Richter’s magnitude. Magnitude of an earthquake does
not vary from place to place.

Energy released (E) is obtained from the expression: √E = c (a/h)(d2 + h2)

Where E = total energy released ( ergs)
c = constant ( taken as 0.625 )
a = ground acceleration
d = distance (km) of the recording station from the epicenter
h = depth of focus (km )
Richter’s scale has magnitude numbers upto 10. But the maximum known
magnitude is around 9.6 only. An earthquake magnitude of 6.0 involves
energy of around 2.5x1020 ergs (equivalent to that of an atom bomb) while
for magnitude of earthquake is 7.0, it is around 80x1020 ergs (equivalent to
that of a Hydrogen bomb ). For an earthquake of magnitude is 8.0, then
the energy may be around 2500x1020 ergs ( most powerful).

The magnitudes of some of the important earthquakes in India are

given below:
City Date Magnitude of
earthquake
Shillong June12, 8.7
1897
Kangra April 4, 8.0
1905
North Bihar Jan 15, 8.3
1934
Assam Aug 15, 8.6
1950
Koyna Dec 11, 6.4
(Maharashtra) 1967
Chamoli Oct 20, 6.5 Sand and mud
(Uttaranchal) 1991 with water was
ejected
Killari ( Latur ) Sept30, 6.5
1993
Jabalpur (MP) May 22, 6.0
1997
Bhuj (Gujarat) Jan 26, 7.5 Vertical & partial
 2001 collapse of a
building
Andamans Dec 26, 9.0
2004

SEISMIC BELTS & SEISMIC ZONING MAP OF INDIA: On a seismic

map, the country has been divided into 7 zones in terms of severity
(magnitude). First seismic map (zoning map) was prepared in 1962 on the
basis of historical data available regarding the occurrence of earthquakes
all over the country. Subsequently the zoning map was revised in
1966.

Many of the areas in zone V and VI were merged into one because of
their high risk. In the zone map brought out in the year 2000, the
earlier zones II and I were merged. So the number of zones got
reduced from 7 to 5. Zone – I is least severe and the Zone VI is
most severe.
Entire NE regions, parts of Uttaranchal, Rann of Kutch ( Gujarat ) &
Srinagar are included in zone V where the earthquake severity is
high. All regions in Southern India are included in Zone III. Rest of
the parts of India are included in Zone I & II. Zone 4 is also treated
as severity.

Precautionary measures for the construction of buildings,

dams/reservoirs etc in seismic areas: To make suitable constructions in
seismic areas, IS codes 1893 – 2970 give guidelines.

For Construction of Buildings: In addition to the safety factors

considered there are other precautionary measures which help in
increasing the stability of buildings in seismic areas. They are as follows:

• Buildings should be founded on hard bedrock and never on loose soils or

fractured rocks. This is so because loose ground can easily expose to
earthquake vibrations.
• Foundation should be of same depth throughout for continuity.
• Buildings situated near hill sides, near steep slopes, on undulating
ground or on marshy ground always suffer more when earthquake occurs.
Therefore these situations may be avoided.
• Buildings should have light walls.
• Different parts of a building should be well tied together so that the whole
structure behaves like a single unit to the vibrations.
• Proper proportionate of cement and mortar should be used.
• Doors and windows should be kept to a minimum and they should not be
in vertical rows but preferably along the diagonals.
• The building should have uniform height and additional features such as
parapets, cantilevers, domes and arches are undesirable.
• Buildings should have flat RCC roofs and they should be designed not to
yield to lateral stress.
• Projections above the roofs are undesirable.
For Construction of Dams: Dams being very costly projects their
consideration in seismic areas needs careful study to ensure their safety
precautionary measures which are as follows:

• Forces in the dam due to reservoir water and due to the dams weight are
to counter balanced by introducing additional stress in the design of the
dam.
• Design of the dam is to be made such that during an earthquake they
move along with the foundations below.
• Dams should not ordinarily be built along or across the faults because
possible slipping along these planes during earthquakes will introduce
additional complications.
• The resonance factor value (vibrations due to sound) should be given
due consideration because a coincidence in the period of vibration of the
dam and the earthquake vibrations can produce cumulative effects.

RADIOMETRIC METHODS: The nuclei of certain elements

are unstable (U, Th) and change spontaneously into the nuclei of other
elements. This change is accompanied by emission of radiations known
as alpha; beta and gamma rays. Hence, these rays are measured in the
study of radiometric methods. Instruments used in radiometric
prospecting are called radiometers. A radiometer consists of three
basic components:

(i) a detector of radiations

(ii) an amplifying and recording unit and
(iii) a power supply unit .

The radioactivity is different in various types of rocks.

In igneous rocks, the radio activity decreases with decreasing acidity as:
Plutonic rocks basic rocks ultrabasic rocks
(Radioactivity is high) ………………………………. (Radioactivity is least)

In sedimentary rocks, the radioactivity decreases as :

Shales sandstones limestones
Thus based on radioactivity, it is not only distinguish different rock
types but also to detect ore bodies. Under favourable conditions, it
may be possible to identify geological structures such as faults and
folds in the subsurface.

Positive anomaly over ore body

50

40
30
20
10

Fault
SURFACE SURFACE

Granite ore body Granite Gabbro

Fault
Radiometric methods of investigation are useful in:
• Exploration of U and Th mineral deposits
• Indirect location of rare elements such as Zr, Be, Li etc occurring in
pegmatites and Tantalum, Niobium etc occurring in some alkaline
rocks.
• In case of exploration of oil and gas due to the low values of
gamma rays.
• By means of radioactive techniques, it is possible to study the
velocity of ground water, its direction, salt water bodies etc.
• Radioactive tracer techniques may be utilized for finding leakages
in water storage structures.

GEOTHERMAL METHODS: Geothermal methods deals

with measurements of the physical properties of the earth. The emphasis is
mainly related to temperature and fluid content of the rocks. The
important physical parameters in a geothermal system are:
temperature;
porosity;
permeability;
chemical content of fluid (salinity); and
(pressure)
The aim can be to delineate a geothermal resource, to locate aquifers, or
structures that may control aquifers etc..

Temperature distribution on the surface of the earth is due to three

different sources. They are:

(i) Heat received from the sun ( varies with the time of the day and
with the season ) up to a few meters depth only.
(ii) Heat conveyed from the hot interior of the earth due to conduction
and convection processes
(iii)Heat due to decay of radioactive minerals in the crust of the earth.

By eliminating (i) and (ii), the solar heat component and the heat
contribution of radioactive mineral decay, the only one is to interpret the
values of temp of the earth’s surface. For the measurement of the
temperature on the surface of the earth, in shallow holes or in deep bore
holes, THERMISTOR THERMOMETERS and PLATINUM RESISTANCE
THERMOMETERS can achieve an accuracy of 0.01oC are used. The
geothermal methods find application to locate structural bodies, oil
and gas structures, ore deposits, ground water studies etc…

Thermal methods include direct measurements of temperature and/or heat,

and thus correlate better with the properties of the geothermal system than
other methods. To measure temperatures close to the surface, in the
uppermost part of the earth crust is fairly simple. Knowledge about status
at deeper levels is based on the existence of wells, usually shallow gradient
wells (e.g. 30-100 m deep), from which the thermal gradient can be
calculated and possibly the depth to the exploitable geothermal resource.
Drilling is though usually fairly expensive, and puts practical limits to the
use of the method. Furthermore, shallow wells are not always adequate to
get reliable values on the thermal gradient.

The heat exchange mechanism in the earth is important for interpretation of

thermal methods. A distinction is made between:

• Conduction, which is based on atomic vibrations, and is important for

transfer of heat in the earth's crust;
• Convection, which transfers heat by motion of mass, e.g. natural
circulation of hot water; and
• Radiation, which does not influence geothermal systems.

The parameter k, the thermal conductivity (W/m°C), is a material constant,

which ranges between 1 and 5 W/m°C, with the low values usually
associated with sedimentary formations and the higher for crystalline rocks.
The thermal gradient, )T/ )z, gives information on the increase of
temperature with depth, and its distribution can be important information
for understanding and delineation of the geothermal resource, both on a
regional scale and local scale. If the conductive hear transfer, Q, is 80- 100
mW/m2 or higher, it may indicate geothermal conditions in the subsurface.

FUNDAMENTAL ASPECTS OF ROCK MECHANICS: “Rock mechanics”

is the name given to the study of behavior of rocks under loads
imposed upon them in the laboratory with all possible combinations.

From civil engineering point of view, rocks are used for various
purposes ie for laying foundations, as building stones (for walls, columns,
lintels and arches ); as concrete aggregate, as roofing material, as
flooring material, as polished stones for face work, as paving stones of
roads, for making statues, as road metal, as railway ballast, as
construction stones for bridges, piers, abutments, retaining walls, light
houses, dams, for tunneling and so on..

Certain rock mechanics (physical properties of rocks ) are necessary to

make rocks suitable for certain purposes. A number of IS codes are
available to determine the different engineering properties for rocks
such as Crushing strength, shearing strength, density, toughness,
resistance to abrasion, durability. For eg:

Strength of a rock is important for foundation purposes to withstand

heavy loads ( colour, appearance etc are unimportant ).

Resistance to abrasion is also important when rocks are used for

flooring purposes.
Durability ( resistance to weathering ) for roofing purpose
Absence of reaction with chemicals for concrete aggregates;
Softness for carving purpose
Lightness is important for rocks/stones used in arches and so on.

Eg: Marble, is well known for its pleasant colors, good appearance, easy
workability, ability to take a high degree of polish is selected for sculpture
works whereas it is unsuitable to serve as a foundation rock whereas
basalt is just the opposite of marble in its nature and suitability.

Hence, the engineering properties of rocks can be studied under:

(i) For construction purposes especially foundation of dams
 (ii) Rocks utilized as materials of construction ie building stones
(iii) Rocks used as aggregate ( small broken pieces ) of concrete.
Engineering properties to be tested for rocks

Foundation purposes Building stone for As aggregates for

construction concrete purpose
purpose
Uniaxial compressive Crushing strength Hardness test
strength
Tensile strength Transverse strength Toughness test
Shear strength Porosity Binding properties
Modulus of elasticity Density Crushing strength
Abrasive resistance
Frost & fire resistance
Durability

Uniaxial compressive strength: This test is carried out on

cylindrical specimens with a length - diameter ratio of 2 and the
results are reduced to a length – diameter ratio of 1 by using the
formula:

Co = Cs [ 0.8 + (0.2 / ( L/D)] where Co is the observed compressive

strength, Cs is the standard Uniaxial compressive strength ; L is the
length of the cylinder and D is the diameter of the cylinder.
Tensile Strength: The test consists of loading a test cylinder
diametrically in such a way that the applied loads would develop tensile
rupturing along the diametrical plane of the specimen. The loads are
gradually increased till the cylinder is fractured. The load P at
rupture thus being known, Transverse strength Ts is calculated by
using the formula: Ts = 2 P / DL; where D and L are the diameter
and length of the specimen respectively and P is the load.

Shear strength: A bar shaped specimen is held under grips and

supported at its ends below. It is loaded from above and rupture
occurs as a result of failure along two planes when the shearing
strength is exceeded. The shearing strength is calculated by using
the formula (P/2) / A, where P is the load at failure and A is the
area of cross-section of the specimen under load.

Modulus of Elasticity ( Young’s modulus ): The modulus of elasticity

of rocks indicates their deformation under loads. Such deformation is
recovered when loads are removed. The value of E is required
especially in tunnel works and the abutments of arch dams. E is
expressed by the relation s / e where s is the stress and e is the
strain.

NECESSITY OF GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS

To ensure safety, success and economy in construction of major civil

engineering structures, it is necessary to be thoroughly aware of the geology
of the concerned site. The relevant details can be readily obtained if a
suitable and large number of outcrops of in situ rocks are noticed on the
surface. This happens due to various reasons such as occurrence of soil
cover, intense weathering of exposed rocks, sprawling cultivated lands,
townships, forests, surface water bodies and so on at the concerned site. In
such cases in order to acquire the subsurface details only two approaches
exist. They are: direct observations or indirect inferences.

(i) Direct observations can be made by digging, trenching or drilling the

ground. Such processes are expensive, laborious and time consuming. But
they give exact data of the existing subsurface conditions of the site.

(ii) Indirect inferences are drawn by means of geophysical methods of

investigation. These provide quick, inexpensive, easy and fairly reliable
means to get subsurface details.

IMPORTANCE OF GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS: Geophysical

investigations are gaining importance very rapidly because of their success
in solving a vast variety of problems. The other advantages are:

(1) These investigations are carried out quickly. This means large areas can
be investigated in a reasonably short period and hence time is saved.

(2) The geophysical instruments used in the field are simple, portable
(mostly) and can be operated easily. This means the fieldwork is not
laborious.

(3) Since the work is carried out quickly and only physical observations are
made without the use of consumables (like chemicals), it is economical too
(particularly in the case of gravity, magnetic and some electrical methods of
investigations).

(4) Different inferences to suit different purposes can be drawn from the
same field data.
(5) Scope to check the correctness of conclusions is possible

(6) To suit the requirements and to be economical, geophysical

investigations are amenable to be carried out on different scales. This means
that if only preliminary information is required; reconnaissance surveys are
enough. Then the scale of survey may range from 1: 100,000 to 1:
1,000,000. However, if more details are required, detailed surveys can be
taken up with the scale of survey ranging from 1: 1000 to I: 10,000.

Applications of geophysical investigations which account for their inherent

importance are as follows:

(I) Non-geological: Detecting hidden treasures, ammunition dumps, buried

Pipeline patterns or pipes come under this category. Such applications are
not many.

(2) Geological: Such applications are numerous, important and widely

varied.

These can be broadly grouped into five kinds as follows:

(i) Investigations aimed at solving problems of regional geology;

(ii) Investigations aimed at locating geological structures which are
favourable for accumulation of oil and gas;
(iii) investigations aimed at locating and estimating economically important
mineral deposits;
(iv) investigations aimed at locating and assessing ground water potential
and its quality; and
(v) investigations aimed at solving problems connected with "engineering
geology". "Exploration geophysics" comprises five branches, namely;
regional geophysics, oil and gas geophysics, ore geophysics, ground water
geophysics and engineering geophysics
LANDSLIDES

The term landslide refers to the downward sliding of huge quantities

of land masses. Such sliding occurs along steep slopes of hills or
mountains.. It may be sudden or slow in its occurrence. Also, in
magnitude, it may be major or minor.

Often, loose and unconsolidated surface material undergoes sliding.

But sometimes, huge blocks of consolidated rocks may also be
involved. If landslides occur in places of importance such as highways,
railway lines, valleys, reservoirs, inhabited areas and agricultural lands
leads to blocking of traffic, collapse of buildings, harm to fertile lands
and heavy loss to life and property. In India, landslides often occur in
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and in the mountains of Uttar Pradesh.
CLASSIFICATION OF EARTH MOVEMENTS: All movements of land
masses are referred to as landslides and grouped them under “earth
movements”. The classification of earth movements us as follows:

Solifluction
EARTH FLOWS Creep
Rapid flows
Debris slides and slump
EARTH MOVEMENTS
LANDSLIDES Rock slides
Rock falls
SUBSIDENCE Compaction
Collapse

Earth Flows: There are three types of earth flows viz., solifluction; creep
and rapid flows.

Solifluction refers to the downward movement of wet soil along the

slopes under the influence of gravity.

Creep refers to the extremely slow downward movement of dry surface

material. This is very imp from the civil engg point of view due to
slow movement of mass. On careful examination, bending of strata ;
dislodgement of fence posts ; telephone poles, curvature of tree trunks;
broken retaining walls etc offer clues to recognize creep.

Rapid flows are similar to creep but differ with reference to the
speed. Rapid flows generally accompany heavy rains. Mud flows are
similar to rapid flows.

Landslides include Debris slides, rock slides and rock falls.

Debris slides are common along the steep sides of rivers, lakes.
Debris slides of small magnitude are called slumps..

Rock slides are the movements of consolidated material which mainly

consists of recently detached bedrocks. For eg: a rock slide that took
place at Frank, Alberta in 1903 killing 70 people.

Rock falls refer to the blocks of rocks of varying sizes suddenly

crashing downwards along steep slopes. These are common in the
higher mountain regions during the rainy seasons.
Subsidence may take place to the compaction of underlying material
or due to collapse.

Subsidence due to compaction: Sediments often become compact

because of load. Excessive pumping out of water and the withdrawal
of oil from the ground also cause subsidence.

Subsidence due to collapse: In regions where extensive underground

mining has removed a large volume of material, the weight of the
overlying rock may cause collapse and subsidence.

CAUSES OF LANDSLIDES: Landslides occur due to internal causes

(inherent). The internal causes are again of various types such as Effect
of slope; Effect of water; Effect of Lithology; Effect of associated
structures ; Effect of human factors etc..

1.Effect of slope: This is a very important factor which provides

favourable conditions for landslide occurrence.

Steeper slopes are prone to land slips of loose overburdens due to

gravity influence. However, it should be remembered that hard
consolidated and fresh rocks remain stable even against any slope.

2.Effect of water: The presence of water greatly reduces the

intergranular cohesion of the particles of loose ground causing
weakness of masses and prone to landslide occurrence.

Water, being the most powerful solvent, not only causes

decomposition of minerals but also leaches out the soluble matter of
rocks. This reduces the compaction of rock body and makes it a
weak mass.

3.Effect of Lithology; Rocks which are highly fractured, porous and

permeable are prone to landslide occurrence because they give scope
for the water to play an effective role. In addition, rocks which contain
clay minerals, mica calcite, glauconite, gypsum etc are more prone to
landslide occurrence because, all these minerals are easily leached out.

4.Effect if associated structures ; The geological structures such as

bedding planes, joints, faults or shear zones are planes of weakness
and cause landslide occurrence.
5.Effect of human factors Human beings sometimes, interfere with
nature by virtue of their activities and cause landslides. For eg: laying
roads ; railway tracks etc..

When construction works are carried out on hill tops, the heavy loads
on the loose zone of overburden create a sliding of rock masses.

Land slides in India: Land slides are reported in the hilly terrains in
different regions of India. The most disastrous land slides that have
taken place in recent past are in the Himalayan terrain in the North
and the Nilgiri hill region in south.

In July 1970, heavy debris from Patalganga valley has been

transported into Alaknanda in the Garhwal region of Uttaranchal. The
flooding in Alaknanda due to these landslides has resulted in a silt
and rock fragment accumulation of about 9 M cum.

Another disastrous land slide took place on 18th Aug 1998 in Malpa
village which is located on the banks of Kali River in Pithorgarh
district of Kumaon Himalayas. The piled debris was around 20 m in
height.

In 1968, numerous landslides occurred during heavy rainfall of about

500 to 1000 mm in the Darjeeling and Sikkim regions where the 60
km highway between Darjeeling (West Bengal) and Gangtok (Sikkim)
was disrupted.

EFFECTS OF LANDSLIDES: From the civil engineering point of view,

landslides may cause (1) disruption of transport
(2) damaging roads and railways and telegraph poles
(3) obstruction to the river flow in valleys
(4) damaging sewage and other pipe lines.
(5) destruction of buildings and civil structures

Recent landslides in the Himalaya terrain are listed below:

Himachal Pradesh region:

Nathpa (Nov 1989): Road destroyed about a km
Kullu (Sep 1995): Road 1km destroyed and 32 persons killed

Uttaranchal region:
Kalisaur ( July 1968): Road damaged extensively
Malpa (Aug 1998): Road to Manasarovar damaged & 205 persons
killed

Jammu & Kashmir region:

Nashri ( Jan 1982) Every year causes damage to the roads
Malori ( Jun 1995): National Highway 1-A damaged and 6 persons
killed

West Bengal Region:

Kalimpong, Darjeeling (Aug 1993):40 persons killed with heavy loss of property

Arunachal Pradesh Region:

Itanagar ( July 1993): 2 km road damaged and 25 persons killed

Mizoram region:
Aizwal ( May 1995): 25 persons killed and road extensively damaged

Nagaland region:
Kohima ( Aug 1993): 200 houses and 5 km road damaged. 500 persons killed.

Selected landslides in South India are listed below:

Major Land slides took place in the Nilgiri Hill region include
Runnymede, Glenmore, Coonoor areas. Amboori landslide in Kerala: On
Nov 9th, 2001, a disastrous land slide occurred around Amboori (20 km
from Thiruvananthapuram ) due to heavy rains and water logging.

PREVENTION OF LANDSLIDES:
1. Provision of adequate surface and subsurface to enable water to
freely drain out . Construction of suitable ditches and waterways
along slopes to drain off the water from the loose overburden.
2. Construction of retaining walls against slopes, so that the rock
masses which rolls down is not only prevented from further fall but
also reduces the slope.
3. Modifying the slopes to stable angles.
4. Growing vegetation to hold the material together.
5. Avoiding heavy traffic and blasting operations near the vulnerable
places naturally helps in preventing the occurrence of landslides.
UNIT - VI: DAMS &
RESERVOIRS

The enormous requirement of water for irrigation, industries, power

generation, constructional activities, domestic and other purposes are met
either by surface water resources (like tanks, lakes and rivers) or
underground water. Surface water resources are fairly amenable for definite
assessment and exploitation. Among the surface water resources, rivers
provide copious supplies of water which can be stored in man-made
reservoirs by constructing dams across the rivers.

A dam is a prestigious civil engineering structure which blocks a river

channel and compels the running water to accumulate within the
reservoir. In other words dams are constructed for impounding
water.

Dams are the costliest multipurpose civil engineering constructions. They

deliver beneficial results for a long time to mankind. But the same dams, if
they fail, create a heavy toll of life and property through lightning floods.
They may even cause the failure of other dams built along the downstream
course. Each dam consumes millions of tons of building materials
including cement, aggregates, sand and steel and other items.

Whenever this accumulation of water exceeds the desired limit of

storage in reservoir, the surplus water is allowed to flow downstream.
The openings which control the discharge of surplus water from
reservoir together constitute the SPILLWAY. The Spillway is commonly
placed on a sound foundation within or outside the body of the dam
and the openings are controlled by suitably designed gates.
Among various constructions, dams throw the toughest challenge to the civil
engineer. Barrages are similar to dams and are mainly meant to raise the
level of water along the course of a river to reap certain advantages.

The location of a dam or the selection of a dam site is mainly based

on the Geology of the site because the stability or success and the
cost of dam are dependant on different geological conditions of the
site.

In India, more than 90% of the dams operating are primarily for
irrigation. Various purposes of dam construction are:

• To generate hydro-electric power

• For flood control
• For water supply to meet domestic, industrial ..
Parts of a Dam: The chief parts of a dam are as follows:

Heel: It is the part where the dam comes in contact with the
ground on the upstream side

Toe: It is that part where the dam comes in contact with the
ground on the downstream side

Free board: It is the difference in level between the top of the dam
wall and the highest storage level.
Galleries: These are small rooms left within the dam for checking
operations.
Spillway: An arrangement is made in a dam near the top or inside to
allow excess water of the reservoir to the downstream side
Sluice: It is an opening in the dam near the ground level. It is
useful in clearing the silt of the reservoir.
Cut-off wall: It is an underground wall-like structure of concrete
in the heel portion. It is useful in preventing leakage
under the foundation.
Abutment: These are the sides of the valley on which the dam
structure rests.

TYPES OF DAMS & BEARING OF GEOLOGY OF SITE IN THEIR

SELECTION

Dams are of different types. Either they can be totally of reinforced concrete
or totally of earth materials or a combination of both.

Based on the construction material used, dams are grouped into concrete
dams, (masonry dams ) and earth dams.

Based on design, the concrete dams may be further grouped in to Gravity

dams, Buttress dams and Arch dams.

Similarly, Earth dams too are grouped in to Earth Fill dams and Rock Fill
dams (based on the kind of material used.)

Gravity dams: It is a heavy concrete structure. The weight of the dam acts
vertically ( whole weight acts vertically downwards ) and plays an
important part in its stability. The stability of a gravity dam depends on the
pressure distribution. This type of dam is to be selected only in such
places where competent and stable rocks occur.

For the dam to be stable, the resultant R of the force, [W (weight of the dam)
and the lateral thrust of the reservoir water (P) ] must be within the middle
of the dam. Foundation treatment like grouting is adopted in case of
any incompetent foundation material present.

--------------

RESERVOIR (P)

(W) (R)

HEEL TOE

FOUNDATION ROCKS

Buttress dams: These are concrete structures in which there is a DECK

sloping upstream, supported by BUTTRESSESS ( or walls ) placed at
right angles to the dam axis. These buttresses are further
strengthened by cross-walls known as STRUTS.

The entire system with all these components distributes the load over the
foundation. Since the load distribution is over a wide area, even formations
relatively weak are considered.

D buttresses

K struts
 FOUNDATION ROCKS ( top view of buttress dam )

Arch dams: This type of dam is preferred for narrow and deep river gorges.
The arch is convex to the upstream side. It can be a single arch dam or
multiple arches. The design of an arch dam is such that the whole part of
the load is transformed to the abutments.

Since a substantial part of the load is transmitted to the abutments,

the formations constituting the abutments must be very competent.
Arch dams need better monitoring. Arch dams are best suited to
narrow, deep, river-cut gorges.

ABUTMENT

- ----------------

Upstream Down stream

- RESERVOIR - - - - -

River course

( top view of an arch dam )

- ----------------

ABUTMENT

NOTE: Masonry dams are suitable where the geological

formations at the dam site are very strong and stable, so as to
withstand heavy loads associated with the dams.
EARTH DAMS: These structures are large in size and trapezoidal in
shape. These are preferred in broad valleys and where the foundation
material is weak or where suitable competent rocks occur at a great
depth.

The earth dams, relatively of smaller height are lighter structures and
broad based. Because of the broad nature of the dams, the weight of the
dam is distributed over a wide base and the force per unit area is
consequently less.
The earth materials used in the construction are gravel, sand, silt and
clay is called an Earth Fill Dam and if the material used is rock, it is
called a Rock Fill Dam.
The side slopes are maintained at 1 in 2.5 and an impervious clay
core is provided to arrest seepage across the structure.
Eg: Ft. Peck, Wyoming dam…. It is 41/2 miles long, 4000 feet thick
at the base and 250 feet high.

---------------------------------

--Reservoir -----------------------------
Clay core

FOUNDATION ROCKS

LOCATION OF A DAM: The ideal site for location of a dam should

satisfy the following requirements:

• A narrow river valley along with steeper side slopes

• Stable slopes both at the dam location and along the reservoir
sides
• Absence of weathered formations
• Competent geological formations devoid of weak zones
• Absence of clay and fractured material
• Absence of fault zones
• Stability of formations below the dam and reservoir area
• Easy access and supply of materials for construction of the
structure

It may be mentioned here that all these attributes never exist in any
one particular site. Consequently, appropriate foundation treatments
are resorted for making the dam site and reservoir area most
suitable.

GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS for selection of a dam site:

(A) Topography and geomorphology of the site: At the proposed

dam site, if the valley is narrow, only a small dam is required,
which means the cost of dam construction will be less. On the other
hand, if the valley is wide, a bigger dam is necessary which means
the construction cost will be very high.

Therefore, it is preferable, from the economy point of view, to select

such a site along the river valley which has the narrowest part of the
river. However, narrow river valley may have severe defects which may
lead to leakages.
Quite often the valleys have TALUS and flood deposits along the slopes, thus
giving a narrow appearance to the valley but in fact it may be a wider river
valley.

(B) Impact of Geological structures (occurrence of rock formations at

shallow depths) :

The rock formations at the dam site should be dipping towards upstream
or horizontal. This will counter the seepage, compared to the situation where
the formations dip in the downstream direction.

To ensure the safety and stability of a dam, it should necessarily rest the
dam on strong (physically) and very stable rocks (structurally).

• Usually the foundations will have greater stability when the load is
normal in case of horizontal formations or with low dip formations.
• Fault zones present in the formations result weakness in the rock
formations.
• Extensive joints in the rocks threaten the safety of the structures by
means of seepage.
• Presence of Anticlinal or Synclinal structures in the rocks also
contribute to the seepage.

To know the bedrock profile ( ie the depths at which bedrock occurs

at different places ) in the river valley along the axis of a proposed
dam, geophysical investigations such as ‘Electrical Resistivity “ or
“Seismic Refraction” methods are to be carried out.

Following examples reveal the impact on dams where the cost was
high as well as the presence of structures in the rock formations:

1. Bhakranangal dam on sutlez river, the bed rocks were at a great depth
caused more excavation for foundation .

2. Koyna dam is located on an excellent competent basalts with 6 to 7

metres thick but followed by weak volcanic breccia upto 20 mts below the
ground level. This naturally rise in the construction cost of the dam.

3. Presence of a fault and incompetent rocks of conglomerate in St. Francis

dam of California caused for enormous leakage of water through the
conglomerates and failed

4. Similarly the presence of cavernous limestones in the foundations

caused for the collapse of Halesbar dam on the Tennessee river.
(C) Competent rocks to offer a stable foundation ( Lithology of the
formations ):

Among the Igneous rocks, (either plutonic or hypabyssal rocks) Granites,

Syenites, Diorites, Gabbros, and volcanic rocks viz., Basalts (fine grained)
are most desirable at the dam site. However, adverse effects will be noticed
in basalts only when they are highly vesicular and permeable.

In case of sedimentary rocks, particularly shales, poorly cemented

sandstones and cavernous limestones shall be undesirable to serve as
foundation rocks. However, well cemented siliceous sandstones have good
compressive strength and suitable for the dam foundation.

Laterites and conglomerates are undesirable at dam site. Clay, if present in

any of sedimentary rocks is totally to be excavated since it swells on
saturation with water.

Among the metamorphic rocks; gneisses are generally competent

whereas schists are undesirable due to their well developed cleavages
and foliation.
Quartzites are very hard and highly resistant to weathering and
suitable for foundation of dam sites.

Slates bear a typical slaty cleavage and soft nature are undesirable at
dam sites.

Khondalites which are feldspar rich and contain soft graphite, and are
usually weathered and hence unsuitable at dam sites

Much attention is needed in case where the contact of igneous intrusives

( for example dolerite ) with the host rocks often are fractured and
jointed.
- Eg: (1) In the Ukai dam site in Gujarat, the contacts of basalts
and the dolerite dyke were the weak zones.

- Eg: (2) Similarly, at the contacts of a dolerite dyke with the

host granite gneisses in the Nagarjuna sagar dam area, shear
zone with heavily crushed rock was found. Of course, back
filling with grouting was adopted.
(D)Influence and Effects of various factors:

1. The extent of weathering should be carefully assessed (through trial pits)

to ascertain whether a rock is suitable or unsuitable for the required
purpose.
2. Study of intrusives such as dolerites and quartz veins is important
factor. If they are present they contribute to the heterogeneity at the dam
site causing leakage.

3. Fracturing is a common phenomenon observed in all kinds of rocks and

represents a reduction in the cohesion or compactness of the rock.
Suitable remedial measures taken up to make the site rocks fit for the
location of the dam.

4. Alternating soft and hard beds when inclined are bad and the situation
leads to a variety of problems including slipping of hard beds over softer
ones at the time of excavation.

In civil Engineering point of view, the following cases of geological structures

at dam site are important:
I. Case of undisturbed strata.

Horizontal Strata: This geological situation is good at the dam site because
the load of the dam acts perpendicular to the dam site.

II. Beds Dipping towards Upstream Side

a. Gently Inclined beds:

In this case, rocks are best positioned to take the loads of dam because the
resultant force and the bedding planes are not in the same direction. No
uplift force on the dam and percolated water is returned to the upstream
side only, so this is doubly advantageous.

b. Steep beds:

This situation is not bad but not that competent to take up the dam loads as
compared to gently inclined beds. This may not cause uplift force on the
dam and percolated water is returned to the upstream side only.

III. Beds Dipping towards Downstream

c. Gently Inclined beds:

It is disadvantageous, because the resultant force and the bedding planes
are in the same direction. Percolated water to down stream side cause uplift
force on the dam and percolated water goes out and cause significant water
loss.

d. Steep beds: This situation is similar to the above situation and further
dangerous because the resultant force and the bedding planes are almost
parallel.

IV. Beds dipping vertically

e. Dam Over Vertical Beds:
Occurrence of this situation is rare. It will not pose problems of uplift force
or leakage below the dam. However, it shall not have any advantage in terms
of competence of rocks.

V. Beds which are Folded

Dam Over Folded Beds: Folding of beds, are generally less dangerous than
the faulting, unless the folds are of a complex nature. The folded rocks are
not only under strain but also physically fractured along the crests. Hence
grouting and other precautions may have to be taken, depending upon the
context, to improve the stability and competence of rocks at the site.

VI. Beds which are Faulted

Dam over Faulted Beds: Occurrence of faulting at the dam site is most
undesirable. If the faults are active, under no circumstances, dam
construction can be taken up there. This is due to relative movement of bed
and also possible occurrence of an earthquake.
1. If the faults occur in the downstream side, they will not be much harmful
directly.

2. If the faults occur in the upstream side, the downstream dipping faults
are dangerous because they have all the disadvantages of a case with
bedding planes of such attitude ( i.e., risk of uplift pressure, heavy leakage
water), but if the faults dip in the upstream side they need to be sealed to
avoid possible leakage.

VII. Beds Which have Joints

Joints are nothing but gaps of different magnitude that are common in
rocks. They

contribute to the physical weakness of the rock and also more porous and
permeability. These physical features are undesirable for the dam
construction. Hence, by adopting grouting technique, these weaknesses can
be avoided.

VIII. Cases where beds lie parallel to the length of the valley
This is the case where the dam is aligned across the strike, i.e., in the dip
direction of the beds. In this case the danger will almost always be present
as the slope of valley sides are very steep at the dam sites and are very likely
to be steeper than the dip of rocks and causes instability at the site and
slipping of rocks at one side

Stages/Exploratory investigations for site location of dam:

The selection of a site for dam construction is made in various stages.

Stage 1 (Preliminary stage ) : All the available information in terms of

topographic maps, geological maps, seismic information is summarized to
have a preliminary understanding of the area.

Detailed geological mapping by incorporating the rock formation details,

boundaries of formations, strike and dip of the beds, joints, faults, folds
etc…. is to be prepared.

The field geological map is integrated with available aerial photos and
satellite imageries to produce a composite map. Aerial photo interpretation
provides information like litho logical variations of the formations; geological
structures, landslide areas, drainage patterns and structural control of
drainage etc….

On the other hand, satellite data provide a regional picture on various

features related to Geology, Geomorphology and Physiography of the
area under consideration.

Geophysical investigations including seismic and electrical resistivity

surveys are undertaken to obtain information both laterally and
vertically ( depth). Drilling in vertical and inclined directions, is
undertaken. Drill hole data enable structural variations in the
formations to depth. Plate bearing load tests, water pressure tests etc
in bore holes are also undertaken.
Groundwater study and preparation of ground water contour maps are
important in preliminary investigation. Seepage including springs and
the source of seepage water, condition of seepage water, elevation at
which the seepage is present are to be recorded.

Stage 2 ( Detailed investigation ) : once all the field data is

obtained from the above approaches, locations are identified for
samples to be collected for laboratory investigations. Lab investigations
include assessment of properties like UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH (UCS); UNIAXIAL TENSILE STRENGTH; SHEAR STRENGTH;
ELASTIC MODULI or MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (E); PERMEABILITY;
EXTENT OF FRACTURING on the basis of ROCK QUALITY DESIGNATION (
RQD ).

All the data on integration will provide the thickness of overburden,

depth to water table, areas of potential seepage, rock strengths and
enable the delineation of weak zones.

Table depicts the range of values for various rock formations for UCS &
ME

ROCK UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH Modulus of

Elasticity
UCS (kN/m2) UCS ( MPa ) kN/m2 (x106 )
QUARTZITE 200000 350000 200 350 8.28 44.06
GRANITE 40000 290000 40 290 10.35 82.11
BASALTS 180000 275000 180 275 40.71 85.56
GNEISS 151000 248000 151 248 24.15 104.19
SLATE 95000 250000 95 250
MARBLE 48000 230000 48 230
SANDSTONE 10000 23000 10 230 4.14 55.20
SCHISTS 7500 139000 7.5 139
SHALES 6500 200000 6.5 200 2.07 68.31
LIMESTONE 5000 200000 5 200 2.76 97.29

The rock formations RATING are classified as RQD (%) to access the
suitability:

Strength of the rock RQD (%)

Very poor 0 25
Poor 25 50
Fair 50 75
Good 75 90
Excellent 90 100
NOTE: NO SUPPORTS ARE NEEDED FOR FORMATIONS WITH RQD
VALUES EXCEEDING 75.

ROCK QUALITY INDEX SYSTEM ( Q – SYSTEM ): rock mass rating on

the basis of Q value for TUNNEL SUPPORT REQUIREMENT is as
follows:

QUALITY Q VALUE
Excellent 400 1000
Extremely good 100 400
Very good 40 100
Good 10 40
Fair 4 10
Poor 1 4

DAM FAILURES OF THE PAST:

2. The St. Francis Dam was a concrete gravity-arch dam, designed to create a reservoir
The dam was built between 1924 and 1926 under the supervision of William Mulholland

The dam Height is 195 feet (59 m) & its length is 608 feet (185 m).
The dam was constructed on the foundation of Schists and
conglomerates and in turn, separated by a distinct fault. In addition,
conglomerates also had veins of gypsum, a soluble mineral and hence
both Schists and conglomerates are unsuitable to serve as a
foundation to such a dam.

Several temperature and contraction cracks appeared in the dam when the
reservoir had reached full capacity. Enormous leakage of stored water
occurred through the conglomerate and the dam failed by sliding in
1928 resulting more than killing of 450 people.

Huge concrete block from the west abutment of the dam . The block is
approximately 63 feet long, 30 feet high, and 54 feet wide. It was concluded
that the disaster was primarily caused by the landslide on which the
eastern abutment of the dam was built.

3. Hales Bar Dam was a hydroelectric dam located on the Tennessee

River in Marion Country, Tennessee, USA. The Hales Bar Dam was
constructed on the foundation of cavernous limestones. Such rocks
are naturally weak both physically and chemically. To improve the site
conditions and to reduce the seepage, the large openings were filled
up by using more than 3000 tons of cement and 1100 barrels of
asphalt. The height of the dam is 113 feet with a length of 2315 feet
The dam was planned to complete in 1909, but numerous difficulties
brought by the soft bedrock ie limestone upon which the dam was built.

Leaks began to appear almost immediately after completion. However. in

1919, engineers attempted to minimize the leakage by pumping hot asphalt
into the dam's foundation. This was temporarily successful, but by 1931, a
study leaking at a rate of 1,000 cubic feet per second was noticed .

In the late 1950s, however, the water below Hales Bar Dam, was again
leaking, this time at an alarming 2,000 cubic feet per second. Dye tests
carried out in 1960 suggested that many of the leakage channels had
interconnected, increasing the possibility of a future dam failure.

GEO HAZARDS : Geological hazards such as Earthquakes;

volcanoes ; landslides etc.. pose a threat to the earth’s stability. All
these geological hazards cause considerable destruction in many ways.
During earthquake, the ground motion results in damaging buildings,
dams, dislocating the roads and railway tracks; alter the course of
surface water and groundwater flow etc..

Volcanic activity brings devastation on large scale due to emission of

a number of gases.. Thick forests are denuded, vast areas are buried
under thick volcanic debris.
Land slides are common phenomena during earthquakes. Huge flow of
pyroclastic materials mix with water flows and cause damage to
whatever lies in its path.

Thus, earthquakes, volcanic activity and land slides are all inter-
related.

1. Earthquakes & earthquake hazards : The earth’s crust is

broken into 13 major plates which are in constant movement ( 1 to 2
cm / year on average ) due to the convection currents in the interior
of the earth. These plates are called as Tectonic Plates .

The pate boundaries move away from each other at some places
while they converge and collide against each other at some places.

An earthquake is a sudden motion of the ground. In the Earth’s crust,

at different places , stresses accumulate causing slow and continuous
deformation of rocks. As the stress exceed its elastic limit, the rocks
break . Due to this sudden breakage, the strain energy is released in
the form of shock waves.
The focus is the place where this slippage has initially taken place.
Vertically above the focus, the location on the ground surface is
known as epicenter of the earth quake.
Recording of the shock waves is done with the help of an instrument
known as Seismograph. The record ( chart ) is known as a
seismogram. These records for an earthquakes are useful in locating
the epicenter of the earthquake and also to define the size of the
earthquake.

The size of an earthquake is defined by its intensity and magnitude.

The intensity at a place depends on several factors such as distance
from the epicenter, depth of focus, geological formations and the
type of a civil structure.

The magnitude of an earthquake does not vary from place to place.

Magnitude is a function of the energy released in an earthquake and
is common ly expresses as Richter’s magnitude . Richter’s scale has
magnitude numbers upto 10 but the maximum known magnitude is
around 9.6 only.

In civil engineering practice, earthquake resistant designs have been

needed for all civil structures.

Earthquake Hazards:

• Destruction of buildings eg: Bhuj earthquake ( 7.5 ) on 26-01-

2001

• Dislocation of transportation routes ( highways, bridges, railway

tracks ).

Eg: (1) California earthquake of 1994, caused subsidence and

landslides.

(2) Alaska earthquake ( 8.7) on 27-03-1964 causing the

displacement of a road bridge.

• Generation of Tsunamis for eg: Mexico, Chile , Indonesia (

Tsunami means the rapid displacement on the sea floor during
the earthquake. These waves travel several thousands of
kilometers.

• Power lines breakdown and cause for fires

2. Volcanic and volcanic hazards: The earth’s crust is
highly fractured and these fractures extending to certain depths and
facilitate migration of magma upwards . The rate of travel of magma
depends on its composition (ie silica rich magma) granitic magma ;
Basaltic magma (Fe - Mg rich with deficiency of silica).
The molten rock material emerges on to the surface as Lava. Volcanic
activity involves eruptions with ejection of lava along with several
volcanic gases.

Volcanic Hazards: Volcanic eruptions are hazardous and occur in

many forms. The details are as follows:

Volcanic gases: When a volcano erupts, gases ( water vapour; CO2; SO2;
HCl; HF;
CO; H2S ) spreads into the atmosphere.

SO2 contributes acid rain and CO2 causes depletion of Ozone layer.
Fluoride and Chloride gases contaminate water and may also cause
skin irritation.

Lava flows: Lava flows, being hot, are very disastrous. Volcanic flows
vary in their temperature between 200oC and 1000oC causing
extensive burning of all the material they encounter. The volcanic
flows follow stream valleys resulting floods in case of snow or ice
terrains.

Volcanic Fragments / ash is also called as TEPHRA. If the fragments

are < 2 mm, it will be called as VOLCANIC ASH whereas the large
fragments are known as LAPILLI.

The volcanic ash spreads as a cloud covering enormous areas

following the wind direction. The fine particles sometimes gets
electrically charged causing for lightning. Volcanic ash causes
breathing problems.
Lahars: Volcanic material mixed with water forms a slurry, similar to
wet concrete mix. Lahars containing around 80% of the volcanic
materials and destroy bridges and buildings.

Ground Subsidence: Movement of material vertically down is

known as subsidence (or) Ground subsidence involves vertical collapse of
ground. Sinking of the ground takes place due to underground
presence of open spaces. Subsidence can be slow or relatively fast
depending upon the type. Subsidence can be caused by natural or
through human activities. Carbonate dissolution in the subsurface;
underground mining; ground water withdrawal etc are some of the
examples for subsidence.
Carbonate dissolution in the subsurface: This is common to
limestone terrains. If the ground water is slightly acidic, it reacts with
CaCO3. In this reaction, the bicarbonate formed is soluble and is
carried away by the underground circulating water.
Cavities or caverns are common in limestone formations. In the caves,
the evidences of solution and the enrichment of carbonate ions in
water can be seen from the formation of stalactites (hanging
carbonate precipitate) from the leaking water on the cave roofs and
also the growth of these deposits from the leaked water falling on the
floor of the cave ( stalagmites ).

Underground mining: in coalmines, the subsidence of the ground is

common due to collapse of the roof of the mine. During the mining,
inadequate supports or excessive mining of coal results the roof
collapse. In addition, underground fires taking place in some coal
fields due ground subsidence. Eg: Jharia coal fields.

Groundwater withdrawal in the subsurface: Excessive withdrawal of

groundwater from the subsurface results in subsidence. This process
is known as hydro-compaction, usually which takes place by
dewatering from the geological formations.

In oil and gas fields, withdrawal of the fluids ( crude oil ) also
results in subsidence.

ARCH DAM in India ( Idukki Dam ): The 'Idukki Dam' - Asia's biggest
Arch Dam of 555 feet height proudly standing between the two mountains -
'Kuravanmala' (839 meters) and 'Kurathimala' (925 meters ) in Idukki
district in Kerala. . This prestigeous project power House is located at
Moolamattom which is about 43 kms away from Idukki.

The Idukki Dam was commissioned in 1976. This is India’s first & only
Arch Dam. This is also the second highest concrete dam in India. It has a
thickness of 19.81 m, at the deepest foundation & 7.62 m at top.

The shape and the quality of rock at the deep gorge where this dam was
built was immensely suitable to adopt the arch shape of the dam. The
double curvature arch shape has resulted in an saving in concrete volume
by 60 % as compared to a gravity dam of this height.

Reservoir
Principal sources of natural recharge include precipitation, stream
flows, lakes etc whereas artificial recharge include excess irrigation
water, seepage from canals. Reservoirs are the results of human attempts
to make effective use of the run-off water which is otherwise going waste
i.e., flowing into the sea. However, the reservoir basin should be of
adequate water capacity to hold a large and desirable quantity of water to
derive optimum benefit.

Geological investigations are carried out in advance to study the suitability

of the site to serve as the reservoir. In addition, non- geological aspects
such as

• Water tightness of the reservoir site

• The life of the reservoir (rate of silting)
• The capacity of the reservoir
• The area covered by the reservoir
• The effect of evaporation
• Possible submerge of economic minerals
• Submerge of fertile land, forests.
• Submerge of places of interest like temples and historical monuments.

Considerations for successful reservoir: In general, a reservoir

can be claimed to be successful if it is watertight (doesn’t suffer from any
serious leakage of water) and if it has a very low rate of silting (long life of
reservoir) in the reservoir basin. Of course, the reservoirs capacity is very
important and it depends on the existing topography and the proposed top
water level (TWL) of the reservoir.
(A) Water- tightness and influencing factors: As a consequence of
weathering (due to natural process), the surface is covered by loose and
below it lies the fractured rock and massive rock occurs further below.
When a river flows over such loose soil or fractured ground, it is natural that
some river water percolates into underground through cracks and may
even cause for leakages. .

Before the construction of a reservoir, priority for leakage shall be

considered as less or limited to some extent. When a dam is constructed, the
accumulated water occupy in large quantities in a reservoir which cover a
very large area. Due to the considerable height of the water in the reservoir,
significant hydrostatic pressure develops which will make the leakage more
effective on the sides and the floor of the reservoir through the cracks. .

Buried river channels which are more frequent in glaciated regions are a
serious source of leakage when they occur at the reservoir site. Eg: A buried
channel noticed in Tapoban dam site of river Dhauli Ganga which is a
tributary of the river Alaknanda (U.P)

Water tightness of a reservoir basin is very much influenced by the kind of

rocks that occur at the reservoir site. If the rocks are porous and permeable
(i.e., aquifers) they will cause the leakage of water and hence such rocks are
undesirable at the reservoir site.

The Influence of commonly occuring rock types at the reservoir site play
also a major role:

Granite: will not cause leakage unless the presence of joints/faults.

Basalts: Not desirable because of presence of vesicles, cracks, fractures,

joints etc… except if it is compact in nature .

Shales: shall not cause leakage due to fine grained and non permeable if
compact

Sandstone: well cemented and compact sandstones will naturally be less

porous and less permeable and hence cause less leakage.

Limestone: Undesirable but not so always. Compact limestone have

negligible porosity may be suitable.

Conglomerate and Breccia cause leakage at the reservoir site.

Gneiss: will not cause.

Schists: Cause leakages due to the presence of soft and cleavage bearing
minerals.
Quartzite: will not cause.

Marble: though compact not advisable by virtue of CaCO3 composition.

Slate: Cause leakage due to cleavages.

Influence of Geological structures such as folds, faults, joints, fractures have

a significant influence in increasing the leakage through the rocks at the
reservoir. Among the different structures, the bedding planes and fault
planes are also represent planes of weakness and provide scope for leakage.
Of course this depends on their attitude i.e., their Strike and Dip.

(B) Reservoir Silting (Life of Reservoir): The streams flowing

through the catchment area into the reservoir carry sediments and in
turn the sediments deposit in the reservoir. Silting of a reservoir is
harmful and can cause the failure of the reservoir and the quantity of
water stored gets reduced. Ofcourse, the life of the reservoir is
based on the siltation rate.

If the rate of silting is very low, the life of the reservoir will be long
and useful for a long period and proves worthy. The total volume of
the silt likely to be deposited during the designed period of life of
the reservoir /dam is therefore estimated and approximately that much
volume is left unused to allow for silting and is known as dead
storage. The remainder is known as effective storage. The dead
storage is generally > ¼ of the total capacity.

For eg: Total capacity of a reservoir is estimated as 30 million cubic

mts.

Estimated dead storage is 6 million cubic mts.

Estimated average volume of sediment deposition is 0.15 m cu

mts/year

Estimated dead storage in years is 6 / 0.15 = 40 years

Total storage of silt occupied in 30 / 0.15 = 200 years

Hence, after 200 years, the reservoir simply consists of silt only and
no water.
 UNIT - VII: GROUNDWATER
Hydrogeology deals with occurrence, storage and movement of groundwater
in the subsurface. All water below the earth surface is referred to as the
groundwater or subsurface water.

The surface water percolates or infilters into the ground through the
fractures/cracks and its distribution and movement in the subsurface is
controlled by the Porosity and Permeability of the geological rock materials
such as soils, rocks etc….

Porosity in the rock formations facilitates the storage while permeability

contributes to movement of groundwater. Based on the porosity and
permeability characteristics all geological formations are named as
aquifers, aquiclude, aquitard and aquifuse.

Aquifers: A geological formation that yield significant quantities of water

has been defined as an aquifer. A few Sedimentary rocks are permeable
considered as good aquifers ( eg: porous Sandstone, gravels,
cavernous limestones ) while Igneous and Metamorphic rocks are relatively
impermeable and hence serve as poor aquifers

Aquiclude: A rock formation has porosity but no permeability, then it is

called aquiclude. That means it can store water and the flow of water does
not take place. Eg: clay.

Aquitard: A saturated but poorly permeable strata that impedes

groundwater movement and does not yield water freely but may transmit
appreciable water to the adjacent aquifers. Eg: Sandy clay with a small
quantity of silt.

Aquifuse: A rock neither containing water nor transmitting water. Eg:

Solid granite

AQUIFER PARAMETERS: The quantity of water stored by an

aquifer and the quantity of water released by the aquifer depend on
the nature and composition of the rocks through certain parameters
such as Porosity, Permeability etc.
Groundwater can be drawn either from consolidated rocks or
unconsolidated sediments. The occurrence of groundwater in a geological
formation and scope for its exploitation primarily depend on porosity and
permeability properties of that formation.

Porosity (α ): In simple terms, porosity may be described as the amount

of openings ( or ) interstices ( or ) empty spaces present in a rock.
However, Porosity may be defined as “the ratio of openings or pores or voids
( Vi ) in the soil/rock to the total volume of the soil / rock ( V )
expressed as percentage”.

If α is the porosity, then α = Vi / V where Vi is the volume of

interstices and V is the total volume. The average porosity values for some
common geological formations are as follows:

Rock Porosity %
Granite, Quartzite 1.5
Shale, Slate 4
Limestone 5 - 10
Sand with gravel 20 - 30
Only Gravel 25
Only Sand 35
Only Clay 45

Prob: A rock sample has ( dry weight ) of 0.655 kg. After saturation
with water its weight is 0.732 kg. It is then immersed in water and
found to displace 0.301 kg of water. What is the porosity of the
sample?

Solution:

Sample ( dry ) weight W1 = 0.655 kg

Wt of saturated sample with water W2 = 0.732 kg

Wt of the water required to saturate the sample ( W2 – W1 ) = 0.732 – 0.655

= 0.077kg

Wt of water displaced by the saturated sample (W3) = 0.0301

kg

Porosity of the sample: (W2 – W1 ) / W3 = 0.077 / 0.301* 100 = 25.58

%
Permeability : The permeability of a rock or soil defines its ability to
transmit a fluid or water. Permeability depends on the porosity and
interconnected pores character of the rock. Permeability in a rock is
measured in darcies ( 1 darcy = 0.987 µ m2 )..square micrometer

Eg: 1.Shales are porous but less permeable because of fine grained nature
which does not allow water to pass through the rock due to less
interconnected pores.

Eg: 2. Vesicular basalts are highly porous but less permeable because the
vesicles in them are not interconnected (i.e., the effective porosity is less).

HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY OR COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY (

K): The movement of groundwater depends on the prevailing effects of
gravity, velocity and pressure of water. According to DARCY’s law, the flow
of water through porous medium is proportional to a factor known as
Hydraulic conductivity or coefficient of Permeability (k). It is expressed as
Q=KiA where Q= volume of water flowing / unit time through a cross
sectional area (A) under a hydraulic gradient ( i ) usually i = 1.

Hence K= Q / iA (K will be called as velocity of flow) .

For some geological formations, the permeability coefficient values are as
follows:

Formation Co-efficient Formation Co-efficient

values values
Granite- 0.04 Quartzite 0.04
Slate 4.0 Shale 4.0
Sandstone 400 Sand 4000
Sand & gravel 40000 Gravel 400000
Clay 0.04 Limestone 4.0

Hydrologic Cycle: Groundwater is one of the components of the

hydrologic cycle in nature. Hydrologic cycle enables a clear understanding of
the recharge, storage and movement of water in the subsurface.

The continuous circulation of water from land, water bodies etc., which joins
the atmosphere and finally condenses into the form of precipitation. A part
of water is lost by evapo-transpiration and certain portion percolates into
the ground to form ground water reservoir and the remaining water flows on
the ground as runoff and joins the streams, rivers and finally into sea. This
cycle is continuously repeated.
Uses of water: Water is needed for daily use for organisms, for irrigation,
industries, electricity production and domestic use. Hence, water is an
important resource in all economic activities ranging from agriculture to
industry. About 97% of it is salt water in the seas & oceans, 2.6% is
trapped in polar ice caps & glaciers. Only 0.4% is available as fresh water.

Fresh water occurs mainly in two forms namely Ground water and
Surface water. The distribution of fresh water is geographically uneven
varying greatly from country to country & even one region to another region.

1. DOMESTIC USE: Water used in the houses for the purposes of

drinking, bathing, washing, cooking, sanitary & other needs. The
recommended value according to Indian Standard specification for
domestic use is 135 liters/ day.

2. INDUSTRIAL USE: Water is required for various industries such as

cement, mining, textile, leather industries.

3. PUBLIC USE: This includes water used for public utility purpose such
as watering parks, flushing streets, jails etc.

4. FIRE USE: Water is used in case of accidents and to prevent the fire
issues.

5. IRRIGATION: To grow crops which is the main sources for food.

6. OTHER USES: Hydro electric power generation requires water.

Effects of over use of ground water: Over use of groundwater has

following ill effects:
1. Lowering of water table: Excessive use of ground water for drinking,
irrigation and domestic purposes has resulted in rapid depletion of ground
water in various regions leading to lowering of water table & drying of wells.

2. Ground subsidence: When ground water withdrawal is greater than

its recharge rate, the sediments in the aquifer become compacted. This is
called ground subsidence which may cause damage of buildings, destroy
water supply systems etc.

The reasons for shortage of water are:

1. Increase in population,
2. Increasing demand of water for various purposes.
3. Unequal distribution of fresh water.
4. Increasing pollution of existing water sources cause over exploitation.
5. People depend on ground water as it is considered to be fresh water.

How we contaminate groundwater ?

Any addition of undesirable substances to groundwater caused by human

activities is considered to be contamination. It has often been assumed
that contaminants left on or under the ground will stay there. Groundwater
often spreads the effects of dumps and spills far beyond the site of the
original contamination. Groundwater contamination is extremely difficult,
and sometimes impossible, to clean up.

Point sources

• On-site septic systems

• Leaky tanks or pipelines containing petroleum products
• Leaks or spills of industrial chemicals at manufacturing facilities
• industrial waste
• Municipal landfills
• Livestock wastes
• Chemicals used at wood preservation facilities
• Mill tailings in mining areas
• Fly ash from coal-fired power plants
• Sludge disposal areas at petroleum refineries
• Land spreading of sewage or sewage sludge
• Graveyards
• Wells for disposal of liquid wastes
• Runoff of salt and other chemicals from roads and highways
• Spills related to highway or railway accidents
• Coal tar at coal gasification sites
• Asphalt production and equipment cleaning sites
Non-point (distributed) sources

• Fertilizers on agricultural land

• Pesticides on agricultural land and forests
• Contaminants in rain, snow

Water Table: The land surface is covered by loose soil due to natural
weathering phenomenon. Since the effect of weathering decreases gradually
with depth, a fractured zone of rocks exists below the soil zone. Further,
below this zone, occurs the hard formations (bed rock) which are free from
fractures.

Groundwater flows slowly through water-bearing formations (aquifers) at

different rates. In some places, where groundwater has dissolved limestone
to form caverns and large openings, its rate of flow can be relatively fast but
this is exceptional.

Many terms are used to describe the nature and extent of the groundwater
resource. The level below which all the spaces are filled with water is called
the water table. Above the water table lies the unsaturated zone. Here the
spaces in the rock and soil contain both air and water. Water in this zone is
called soil moisture. The entire region below the water table is called
the saturated zone, and water in this saturated zone is
called groundwater.

Hence, when rainfall occurs in any region, the rain water moves downwards
through fractures under the influence of gravity until it reaches the bed
rock. Then, the percolation/infiltration of water leads to the development of
a zone above the bed rock which is called as zone of saturation, in
which all openings or pores of the rocks are filled with water. Such water is
called as groundwater. The upper surface of the zone of saturation is called
WATER TABLE. Above the zone of saturation and below the ground surface
is the zone of aeration in which water fills only a portion of the pore space.

Surface

Soil soil water

Perched water Perched water table

Vadose water

ZONE OF AERATION impermeable strata

capillary water

WATER T A B L E

groundwater

ZONE OF SATURATION

Groundwater fractures
 BED ROCK ( HARD ROCK )

Types of groundwater occuring in zone of AERATION:

1. Soil Water: Water which occurs in the soil and is available to the roots
of plants existing on the surface.
2. Vadose Water: (Gravity water): A fraction of rainfall which percolates
downwards under the influence of gravity and slowly reaches the water
table. In other words, the groundwater recharged this way.
3. Perched Water: When a groundwater body is separated from the
main groundwater by a relatively impermeable strata of small areal
extent within the zone of aeration at a particular place is called as
Perched water. Wells tapping ground water from these sources
yield only a small quantities of water. .
4. Capillary Water: This exists just above and in contact with the water
table.
5. Meteoric Water: Due to rainfall, water is being soaked into the
underlying rock.

Types of groundwater occuring in the zone of SATURATION:

1. Free groundwater (unconfined aquifer): The ground water which lies
below the water table under atmospheric pressure more freely upwards
or downwards within the aquifer.
2. Confined water: This waters occur below the water table and is
confined between aquicludes or aquifuse under hydrostatic pressure.
3. Connate water: Occasionally a sediment or rock may retain some
quantity of water from the beginning of their formation.
4. Juvenile water: Water which has not previously been a part of the
hydrosphere but which forms / rises from a deep, magmatic source.
5. Magmatic water: It is the water derived from magma.

Types of Aquifers: Most aquifers are of large areal extent and may be
visualized as underground storage reservoirs. Aquifers may be classified as
unconfined or confined depending on the presence or absence of water table.

Unconfined Aquifer: An unconfined aquifer is one in which a water table

varies depending on recharge and discharge ( pumping form wells ) in a
region. Rises and falls in the water table correspond to changes in the
volume of water in storage within an aquifer. Wells dug in such an aquifer
will have the water level equal to the level of the water table. The water table
is under atmospheric pressure only.

Confined Aquifer: These are also called artesian aquifers. In this case,
the groundwater should be under pressure more than atmospheric
pressure and sandwiched between two aquicludes or two impermeable
formations i.e., clay / shally formations. Unlike the unconfined aquifer, the
confined aquifer stores less water.

The wells in the confined aquifer are thus artesian wells operating under the
piezometric pressure of the aquifer. If the piezometric surface of any well is
above the ground surface the water level rises above the ground surface. In
such a situation, the well is known as an artesian flowing well.

Confined aquifer diagram

Piezometric surface: A piezometer is a special tool that is used to take

measurements within an aquifer. It is submerged within a well beneath the
saturated zone, through less porous rock. Many piezometer wells are drilled
within a confined aquifer at certain locations. The piezometric surface of
water is the level of water within a piezometric well in a confined aquifer. A
hydro-geologist can determine recharge and discharge rates and most
importantly groundwater-flow direction and rates.
GEOLOGICAL CONTROLS ON GROUNDWATER MOVEMENT:
Groundwater movement in the zone of aeration takes place under the
influence of gravity while in the zone of saturation are of different
kinds based on:

a) The permeability character of rocks is one of the most influencing

factors of groundwater movement.

b) Secondary Porosity associated with the rocks viz. well-developed

joints, sheet joints, presence of faults etc also influence the
groundwater to move along them.

c) The groundwater movement in the zone of saturation also depends

on attitude of bedding places ( The percolated water moves along
the inclined bedding planes, folded beds etc ). Sometimes, tilted
beds, if accompanied by faults, joints, intrusives lead to the
occurrence of springs and seepages.

d) The buried river channels and conformities also influence the

groundwater movement as they are porous and permeable.

e) Presence of dolerite dykes, quartz veins in the associated country

rocks may act as barriers to the natural flow of groundwater and
accumulate on one side part of the dyke.

f) Another factor which influences groundwater movement is the

hydraulic gradient ( ie., slope or difference in the water table ) .
Fluctuation in the level of the water table in unconfined aquifer is of
two different types ie., SEASONAL and CONE OF DEPRESSION.

The water table level rises considerably during rainy seasons because
of heavy rainfall and high recharge. In summer, the water is pumped
out without any recharge. This leads to a significant fall in the level
of water table, thus, this type of fluctuation in the water table is
seasonal.

When water is pumped out in a considerable measure from a dug

well, the level of water goes down, and leading to the depression in
the water table around the dug well in the form of an inverted cone.
This phenomenon is called the Cone of depression (or) the cone of
exhaustion.

This is a temporary fluctuation in the level of water table because

the original position is restored within a short period due to the
seepage of ground water from the sides of the dug well
The boundary of the cone of depression is known as the
GROUNDWATER DIVIDE. The area enclosed by the Groundwater Divide
is known as the AREA OF PUMPING DEPRESSION. The distance
between the well and the Groundwater Divide is termed as the
RADIUS of INFLUENCE.

When water is pumped out from an open well, immediately the level
of water in it goes down, leading to the hydraulic gradient i.e., the
difference in the level of the water table of the aquifer and dug well
water level.

The difference between the original level of water in the dug well and
level after pumping is called DRAWDOWN. If the pumping is
continued, the drawdown increases further and the radius of
influence of the well also increases. In a good aquifer , the draw
down keeps at the same level. It is interesting to know that in all
aquifers, the drawdown rate decreases with pumping time. (5’ in 1
hour and further 5’ in 5 hours and still 5’ in another 10 hours).

Springs: A spring is a continuous flow of water on the ground surface.

Springs are located at the points of interaction of groundwater table with the
surface of ground.

Groundwater and engineering: Groundwater can also have dramatic

implications for engineering and geotechnical studies. The study of
groundwater is essential for engineers who construct dams, tunnels, water
conveyance channels, mines, and other structures. Groundwater must be
considered whenever the stability of slopes is important, whether the slope
is natural or constructed. Groundwater must also be taken into account
when devising measures to control flooding. In all of these situations,
groundwater flow and fluid pressure can create serious geotechnical
problems.

Groundwater, for example, may create structural weaknesses in dams, or it

may flow underground right around the structure. Water flowed so
efficiently through the rock formations surrounding the reservoir that the
dam would hold no water, even though it was structurally sound.

GROUNDWATER QUESTIONS:
1. Origin and occurrence of groundwater
2. Short notes on:
a) Water table,
b) springs,
c) cone of depression,
3 Detail the three possible mechanisms of Arsenic release into
groundwater?
4. Short notes on :
a) Types of aquifers
b) Geological controls and groundwater movement

5. What are effects of water logging in canal–command areas ? Give

Indian examples.

6. What are possible sources of groundwater pollution ?

 UNIT – VIII TUNNELS
CONTENTS………………………

INTRODUCTION

PURPOSES OF TUNNELLING

EFFECTS OF TUNNELLING ON THE GROUND

LINING OF TUNNELS

GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS

LITHOLOGY OF ROCK FORMATIONS

GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES.. Joints at the tunnel site

Tunnels in faulted strata

Tunnels in folded strata

GROUNDWATER CONDITIONS

TUNNEL SUPPORTS

OVERBREAK

Questions:

1. Describe the geologic parameters of rock tunneling?

2. Explain in detail purposes of tunneling and also effects of tunneling on
the ground ?
3. Explain the role of Geological considerations for the construction of
tunnels in detail?
 4. Write a brief note on: (a) purposes of tunneling
(b) effects of tunneling on the ground
(c) Lining in tunnels
5. Write a short note on: (a) Tunnels in faulted strata
(b) Tunnels in folded strata
(c) Over break

Notes on Engineering Geology for III year B.Tech ( Civil )

………………compiled by Dr G.SUBBARAO M.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D., C.S.M.

UNIT – VIII TUNNELS

Terminology

Tunnel: An underground passage for vehicles or pedestrians, especially one which

is created by digging into earth.

Axis: The lengthwise course of a tunnel, especially along the center line.

Cross section : The shape of a tunnel for eg: horseshoe, round or square.

Excavation: The process of digging or the hole which results.

Muck: Debris removed during excavation.

Grouting: Unstable rock and soil is strengthened by the injection of chemicals,

cementious materials .

Lining: Materials used to finish the inside surface of the tunnel.

Overburden : The soil and rock supported by the roof of a tunnel.

Portal: The open end of a tunnel. Usually includes a wall to retain the soil around
the opening.

Adit: Main entrance location of a tunnel

Profile: A side view of the tunnel.

Shaft: A vertical, underground passage from the top to the bottom where there
is initially no access to the bottom.

Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM): A tunneling machine which has cutting teeth at
its front. It creates the tunnel opening while passing the waste material through the
rear.

Ventilation: Circulation of fresh air is called as ventilation.

Tunnels are underground passages through hills or mountains used for
several operations. Tunnels are made by excavation of rocks below the
surface or through the hills.

Like other engineering structures, tunnels too need favourable geological

conditions at their sites for achieving success. In case of tunnels also, success
means safety, stability and economy.

To achieve these objectives, careful geological examinations should be made

with reference to the rock types occurring at the site ( lithology of rock-
formations ), structures associated with them and the prevailing ground
water conditions.

The construction of underground tunnels, shafts and passageways are of course

essential but these are dangerous activities. Working under reduced light
conditions, limited access; the exposure to air contaminants and the hazards of
fire and explosion, underground construction workers face many dangers.

GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS: A tunnel project must start with a

comprehensive investigation of ground conditions by collecting samples from
boreholes and by other geophysical techniques. Involvement of machinery and
methods for excavation and ground support, which will reduce the risk of
encountering unforeseen ground conditions.

PURPOSES OF TUNNELLING: Tunnels are constructed for several

operations:

• In mining practice: Adits and shafts for reaching the work spots and
for the transport of workers and materials.

• In certain mines: tunnels are made to extract coal from coal seams

• In hydroelectric projects: Diversion tunnels for channel diversion ( by

diverting the normal flow of river water through the tunnels ) and for
power generation.

• For water supply and sewage disposal: For supply of drinking water
or sewage disposal purposes, tunnels are made.

• Transportation: to lay roads or railway tracks to regularize the traffic

and transportation of goods.
 • For laying cables and service lines: These are utility tunnels for
laying cables and for transport of oil/gas through pipelines.

• To reduce the distance: To reduce the distance between places of interest

across natural obstacles like hills, to save time and to provide conveyance.

Eg (1) In Bihar, between Hazaribagh and Gaya the eastern railway

passes through a number of tunnels across the hills of the Chota
Nagapur Plateau.

Eg (2) A number of tunnels of 1 km in length or less were driven in the

Deccan Traps between Bombay and Pune railway line.

Eg (3) In Jammu and Kashmir, 2 parallel tunnels of 2440 mts long

were made between Jammu and Srinagar in the Pir Panjal mountain
range.

Eg (4): the under sea tunnels made between France and England and
between some islands of Japan.

CLASSIFICATION OF TUNNELS:

Depending on the nature & competency of the ground, tunnels are classified
as:

Hard rock tunnels: The tunnel alignment is essentially through competent

rock mass with little or no ground water seepage.

Soft rock tunnels: The tunnel alignment is through unconsolidated or highly

weathered material which always encounter the groundwater problems.

EFFECTS OF TUNNELLING: When tunnels are made through weak

or unconsolidated formations, they are provided with suitable lining for
safety and stability. Lining may be in the form of steel structures or
concrete.

• Due to heavy and repeated blasting during excavation of a tunnel,

numerous cracks and fractures develop which reduces the compactness
in rocks. In addition, rock become loose/more fractured which allow water
movement .
• Lining of the tunnel helps in checking the leakage of groundwater
into the tunnel.
• Fault zones and shear zones are naturally weak and tunneling
through them further deteriorates and cause stability problem.
• Fall of rocks takes place even in hard rocks like granite though devoid
of bedding or foliation and this process is known as Popping.
• Roof may collapse due to stress and strain of the region due to
overburden.
 • Poisonous gases encountered during the excavation of tunnels,
sometimes.

ROAD TUNNELS IN INDIA:

Tunnel Length State Notes

8 820 Under the 3978 above msl high Rohtang pass on Manali -
Rohtang HP
m Leh road
2 576
Banihal JK Jammu - Kashmir road. 2209 m above sea level
m
2 500
Jawarhar JK Srinagar - Jammu
m
1 843
Kamshet-I MH Mumbai - Pune Expressway.
m
1 658
Bhatan MH Mumbai - Pune Expressway
m
1 000
Gokhale Nagar MH
m
Khambatki -
890 m MH
Ghat
Madap 646 m MH Mumbai - Pune Expressway
Kamshet-II 359 m MH Mumbai - Pune Expressway
Khandala 330 m MH Mumbai - Pune Expressway.
Mumbai - Pune Expressway. Only for Mumbai bound
Aodoshi ?m MH
traffic

LINING OF TUNNELS: When tunnels are made through weak or loose or

unconsolidated formations, they are provided with suitable lining for safety
and stability. Lining may be in the form of steel structures or concrete.

The main purposes of lining are to resist the pressures from the
surroundings (from the roof or the sides or the floor) and to protect the
shape of the tunnel. Lining also helps in the leakage of ground water into
the tunnel . Thus lining is a an effective remedial measure to overcome the
various drawbacks resulting from underground tunneling either geologically
or non-geologically.

Lining provides a regular shape to the tunnel as the excessive excavated

portions ( ie over break ) are filled by concrete. Lining being a very expensive
treatment, needs to be provided only at such places where the rocks are
not capable of supporting themselves,., where the rocks are weak and likely
to collapse.

Lining is also provided in such places where the seepage of water into the
tunnel occurs and creates problems. The zones of faulting or shearing also
need suitable lining to impart strength to them. Strong and complete lining
is required in hydropower tunnels which carry water under great pressure
and even minor leakages can prove hazardous.

GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS: Geological considerations of

tunneling depend on various geological factors prevailing at the site. The geological
considerations in a civil engineering project (ie tunneling) include

Lithology of rock formations;

Geological Structures and

Groundwater conditions.

1. LITHOLOGY OF ROCK FORMATIONS : Massive Igneous rocks ( ie

plutonic and hypabyssal rocks ) are in general compact and competent and
no lining is required for the tunnels designed. Volcanic igneous rocks being
often vesicular, porous and permeable posses a threat of water seepage in
the tunnel. However, sometimes, the vesicular character is also competent
and suitable for tunneling.

Eg: 20 tunnels were excavated for Bombay–Delhi railway line through

amygdaloidal / vesicular basalts.

Sedimentary rocks are less competent. However, sandstones with siliceous

matrix may be considered . If the sandstones have carbonate or iron oxide
as cementing material ( poorly cemented ), the tunnel lining needs
reinforcement otherwise they are undesirable.

Eg: In the Himalayan Ramganga diversion tunnel, a poorly cemented

sandstone formation, had caused a roof fall.

Limestones may expect seepage problems. Among limestones, dolomitic

limestones are harder and more durable. On the other hand, calcareous
limestones or porous limestones are naturally weaker, softer and are
unsuitable for tunneling by virtue of their tendency to corrode. Shales are
the lest competent because of the clay content. The presence of Clay layers
are troublesome as they have low strength.

Among the metamorphic rocks, Quartzites and gneisses are massive and
competent. Phyllites and Schists are problematic due to the presence of
foliation and presence of susceptible minerals like mica and clay. Depending
the orientation of cleavage of minerals in case of slates may be considered.
Marbles are reasonably competent by virtue of their high compactness and
granulose structure.. But their susceptibility to corrosion and softness
necessitates lining.

GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR EFFECTIVE TUNNELLING

Importance of Rock Types

SUITABILITY OF IGNEOUS ROCKS: Massive igneous rocks, i.e., the plutonic and
hypabyssal varieties, are very competent but difficult to work. They do not need any
lining or any special maintenance. This is so because they are very strong, tough,
hard, rigid, durable, impervious and, after tunneling, do not succumb to collapse,
or to any other deformation.

SUITABILITY OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS: Thick bedded, well-cemented and

siliceous or ferruginous sandstones are more competent and better suited for
tunneling. They will be strong, easily workable and, moreover, do not require any
lining. Thus they possess all the desirable qualities for tunneling, provided they are
not affected adversely by any geological structures and ground water conditions.

Poorly cemented or argillaceous sandstones, however, are weak and undesirable,

particularly if they get saturated with water or are thin bedded. Shales, by virtue of
their inherent weakness and lamination, may get badly shattered during blasting.
Mudstones are weaker than shales as they are less compacted.

Among limestones, dolomitic limestones are harder and more durable. They are
better than other varieties. On the other hand, calcareous limestones or porous
limestones are naturally weaker and softer. Conglomerates need not be considered
seriously due to the presence of pebbles and unconsolidation.

SUITABILITY OF METAMORPHICROCKS: Metamorphic rocks such as gneisses

are nearly similar to granites in terms of their competence, durability and
workability. Schists, Phyllites, etc., which are highly foliated and generally soft, are
easily workable but necessarily require good lining.

Quartzites are very hard and hence very difficult to work. Marbles are reasonably
competent by virtue of their high compactness and granulose structure. Slates are
rather soft and possess slaty cleavage. Hence they are weak and require lining.

(1) GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES :

Strike and Dip orientation; Joints, Faults, Folds etc are the most common
structural features associated with rocks.

If the tunnel alignment coincides with the strike of the formations, is

acceptable if the formations are competent but in the case of less
competent formations, the tunnel alignment should be a short span.

(A) Joints at the tunnel site: Closely spaced joints in all kinds of rocks are
harmful ( eg Koyna third stage tail tunnel has been excavated through a
closely jointed basalt causing roof fall with heavy copious leakage of water ).
Joints which strike parallel to the tunnel axis for long distances are
undesirable whereas the joints which are perpendicular to the tunnel axis
have a limited effect.

In sedimentary rocks, the presence of joints may be due to folding ( occur

along crests and troughs ) or faulting is undesirable.

In metamorphic rocks, such as granite gneisses and quartzites are competent

even if the joints present due to their competent nature. Schists and Slates
with joints will become very incompetent and require lining.

(B) Tunnels in Faulted Strata: Faults are harmful and undesirable

because of the following problems:

Fault zones are places where the displacement of rocks occur and lead to
discontinuity in the tunnel alignment. The fault zones are places of intense
fracturing which means physical weakness in rock masses. Fault zones allow
percolation of groundwater which may cause for collapse of walls. Eg: Koyna
(Maharashtra state) third stage tunnel collapsed about 15 mts along a fault
zone.
Fault zones are normally avoided along tunnel alignments. However, if they
cannot be avoided, the fault zone has to be extensively treated with
concrete grout and a strong lining has to be provided.

Problems are severe if the tunnel alignment coincides with the strike of the
fault. If the tunnel is located in the foot wall of a fault, the roof portion
of the tunnel becomes instability and needs reinforcement. In case of
Hanging wall, less effect can be observed.

(C) Tunnels in Folded Strata: Folded rocks are always under

considerable strain. When excavation for tunnels are made in folded rocks,
such rocks get the opportunity to release the strain ( stored energy ). Such
energy cause the rock falls or bulging. In folded regions, the tunnel
alignment may be advisable to have the tunnel located on the limbs than
at the core if possible.

Tunnel alignment parallel to the axis of a fold: This is desirable when

tunneling along limbs is considered. Rock masses may be in a highly
fractured condition along crests, hence there may be frequent fall of rocks
from the roof. Tunnels along troughs encounter harder formations and
difficult to excavate. If bedding planes are inclined, groundwater percolates
and these aquifers are punctured during the process of tunneling.

Tunnel alignment perpendicular to the axis of a fold: This is undesirable

because different rock formations are encountered along the length of the
tunnel due to heterogeneity in physical properties of rock.

In anticlinal fold, the central region will be under lesser pressure when
compared to synclinal fold where the central region will be under higher
pressure in addition to the occurrence of ground water.

However, anticlinal fold is to be considered for tunneling with proper

precautions.

TUNNELS PERPENDICULAR TO THE AXIS OF FOLD

L
Lesser Higher

pressure pressure
(2) GROUNDWATER CONDITIONS: Ground water problem in the tunneling
is the most serious one. If ground water encountered in case of tunneling,
the entire water is to be pumped out to keep the working area dry and
adds the expenditure on tunneling project.

If the water table lies below the level of the tunnel, no severe ground water
problem can be anticipated. But if the tunnel lies below the position of the
water table , then the ground water problem is inevitable. .

TUNNEL SUPPORTS : Supports are used for keeping the tunnel walls and
the roof in safety condition. Several support alternatives are available for use
in tunnels. Following are the types of supports:

Shotcrete : Shotcrete is mortar or concrete pneumatically sprayed at high

velocity through a hose. The process can be a dry process ( Guniting ) or a
wet process.

Rock Bolts: These are steel bolts designed for holding weak formations
together. The bolts are driven into the formations without causing any
disturbance. These are used in tunneling for anchoring the tunnel walls to
sold rock.

Wire mesh; Concrete lining; Pre-stressed anchor cables; Steel ribs etc are
also used wherever is necessary.

Some of these types are used in combination also.

OVERBREAK: Excavations through hard rocks involves the removal of

some of the rocks outside the proposed perimeter of the tunnel.

The quantity of rock removed, in excess of what is required by the perimeter

of the proposed tunnel, is known as the over break.

The geological factors which govern the amount of over break are:

The nature of the rocks

The orientation and spacing of joints or weak zones

The orientation of the bedding planes in case sedimentary rocks.

In general, tunnels which pass through a single homogeneous formation

without structural defects produce little over break, whereas tunnels which
pass through a variety of rocks with structural defects ( like fault zones )
have more over break.
The factor of over break is important because it adds to the cost of
tunneling, particularly if lining is required. Hence, it is desirable that over
break should be as minimum as possible.
Bumping ground
Circular shape tunnel
Discharge tunnels
Diversion tunnels
Fan cut blasting means
Hokoriku railway tunnel
in Japan
Horse shoe shape tunnel;
Joints oblique or perpen-
dicular to the tunnel axis
Joints which are parallel to
the tunnel axis
OVER BREAK
Parallel hole cut blasting
means
Popping effect in tunneling
Pressure tunnels
Purpose of lining
Rock Bursts means
Smooth blasting means
Suitability of shales
Suitability of gneisses &
quartzites
Suitability of Limestone &
dolomitic limestones
Suitability of Mudstones
Suitability of schists &
Phyllites
Suitability of Conglomerates
for tunneling
Suitability of igneous rocks
Suitability of well-cemented
siliceous sandstone
RQD means
RSR
Rock displacement and dislodging in tunneling rocks
Is adopted in case of diversion of water at dam site
Tunnels are those which are meant for conveying
water from one point to another under gravity force.
By diverting the normal flow of river water through the
tunnels dug along the valley sides
To get more face for the excavation of rocks
Is 13.87 km through sandstones and granites.
Is adopted for old tunnel excavations
Are obviously have a limited effect
Are undesirable in all kinds of rocks.
The qty of rock broken and removed in excess of what is
required by the perimeter of the proposed tunnel.
Blast holes are placed parallel to each other with a
RELIEF HOLE of a larger dimension
It refers to the phenomenon of fall of rocks which
takes place in hard rocks like granite devoid of bedding
or foliation.
Tunnels are those which are used to allow water to
pass through them under force. Used for power
generation
Lining refers to the support for the tunnel.
These occur at great depths with enormous overburden
pressure
Small holes are placed along the circumference of
blasting area
Faster progress but proper lining is necessary
Good in all aspects for tunneling
Durable for tunneling purpose
Weaker than shales and undesirable for tunneling.
In competent but require lining for tunneling
Undesirable rocks
Very competent and lining is required
Better suited for tunneling
Rock Quality Designation means the ratio of cumulative
length of rock pieces expressed as a percentage of total
length of the rock
RSR means the rating of the quality of a rock for tunnel
support recommendations.