GEOENG – GEOLOGY FOR

ENGINEERS

• Geology in Civil Engineering

• Branches of geology
• Earth Structure and Composition
• Elementary knowledge on continental drift and plate tectonics.
• Earth processes – Weathering, Work of rivers, wind and sea and their
engineering importance
• Origin, occurrence of earthquake- Mode of occurrence
• Prospecting Ground water - Importance in civil engineering
 What is Engineering Geology?
Engineering Geology is the application of geology to engineering studies to
ensure that the geological factors related to the location, design, construction,
operation and maintenance of engineering works are recognized and taken into
account.

Engineering Geology provide geological and geotechnical recommendations,

analysis and design related to human development and different types of
structures. The engineering geologist’s realm is essentially about earth-structure
interactions or investigating how earth or earth processes impact human-made
structures and human activities.

Geological engineering studies can be performed during the planning phases,

environmental impact analysis, civil or structural engineering design, value
engineering and construction phases of public and private works projects, and
post – construction and forensic phases of projects. Geological hazard
assessments, geotechnical, material properties, stability of landslides and slopes,
erosion, flooding, dewatering, and seismic investigations, etc.
 Branches of Geology
PHYSICAL GEOLOGY
Physical geology is the study of the Earth's physical structure and material,
including its rocks, minerals, and landforms. It involves the study of processes
such as plate tectonics, erosion, and weathering, as well as the history of the
Earth's development.

GEOPHYSICS
Geophysics is the study of the Earth's physical properties and processes using
methods from physics, mathematics, and computer science. It encompasses a
wide range of topics, including the structure and composition of the Earth's
interior, plate tectonics, earthquakes, volcanoes, and the Earth's magnetic and
gravity fields. Geophysicists use a variety of techniques, such as seismic surveys,
gravity measurements, and magnetic surveys, to study the Earth and its
subsurface. These techniques are also used in a variety of applications, including
mineral and oil exploration, environmental assessment, and hazard assessment.
GEOCHEMISTRY
Geochemistry is the study of the chemical composition and behavior of elements
and compounds in the Earth's crust and in other planetary bodies. It involves the
use of chemical and isotopic techniques to understand the processes that shape
the Earth's surface and interior, as well as the history and evolution of the planet.
Geochemists study a wide range of topics, including the origins of minerals, the
formation of rocks and soils, the cycling of elements in the Earth's systems, and
the relationships between geology, chemistry, and biology.

PETROLOGY
Petrology is the study of the origin, composition, structure, and alteration of
rocks. It is a branch of geology that uses the principles of mineralogy,
petrography, and geochemistry to understand the processes that have formed
and modified rocks over time. Petrologists study a wide range of rock types,
including igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks, and use this
information to infer the conditions and environments under which they formed.
They also use petrology to understand the tectonic history and evolution of the
Earth's crust, and to explore for natural resources such as oil, gas, and minerals.
MINERALOGY
Mineralogy is the study of minerals, which are naturally occurring inorganic
substances with a definite chemical composition and a specific crystal structure.
Mineralogists study the properties, occurrence, and origins of minerals, as well as
their identification and classification. They use techniques such as X-ray diffraction,
spectroscopy, and electron microscopy to study the physical and chemical properties
of minerals. They also use mineralogy to understand the processes that form and
alter minerals, such as igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary processes. In
addition, mineralogy has many practical applications, such as in mining, geology,
and environmental science.

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
Structural geology is the study of the internal structure and shape of the Earth,
including the processes and forces that have shaped it. It includes the study of rock
formations, faults, folds, and other structural features, as well as the forces and
deformation that have created them. This field is important for understanding the
Earth's history, natural resources, and hazards such as earthquakes and landslides.
Techniques used in structural geology include field mapping, geophysics, and
laboratory analysis of rock samples.
SEDIMENTOLOGY
Sedimentology is the study of the physical and chemical properties of sedimentary rocks
and the processes that lead to their formation. This includes the study of the origin,
transport, deposition, and diagenesis of sedimentary materials, such as sand, silt, and
clay. It also includes the study of fossils and ancient environments that are preserved in
sedimentary rocks. Sedimentologists use a variety of techniques to study sedimentary
rocks, including field mapping, laboratory analysis, and geophysics. This field is
important for understanding the earth's history, natural resources, and hazards such as
floods and landslides. It also helps in exploration of hydrocarbon and mineral resources.

PALEONTOLOGY
Paleontology is the study of fossils and the history of life on Earth. This field covers the
study of the diversity, evolution, and extinction of organisms throughout geologic time.
Paleontologists use fossils to understand the past and present distribution of living
organisms, their adaptations to different environments, and the relationships among
different species. This field is important for understanding the history of life on Earth and
the processes that have shaped it, such as evolution and extinction. It also helps in the
understanding of the Earth's past climate, environments and tectonics. Paleontology is
multidisciplinary and draws on knowledge from other fields like geology, biology, and
chemistry.
GEOMORPHOLOGY
Geomorphology is the scientific study of the Earth's surface and the processes that
shape it. This includes the study of landforms, such as mountains, valleys, and
coastlines, as well as the processes that create and alter them, such as erosion,
weathering, and tectonic activity. Geomorphologists use a variety of techniques,
including fieldwork, remote sensing, and computer modeling, to understand the
Earth's surface and the forces that shape it. The goal of geomorphology is to
understand the natural processes that shape the Earth's surface and the human
impact on these processes.

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
Economic geology is the study of how geologic processes have created and
continue to create mineral and energy resources that are used by human society. It
involves the study of the location, extraction, and processing of these resources,
as well as the economic and environmental impacts of their use. This field
encompasses a wide range of topics, including the study of metallic and non-
metallic mineral deposits, fossil fuels, groundwater, and geothermal resources.
Economic geologists use a combination of geologic, geochemical, and geophysical
techniques to locate and assess the potential of these resources.
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY
Environmental geology is the study of how Earth's geology and geologic processes
interact with and affect the environment and human society. This includes topics
such as natural hazards (e.g. earthquakes, landslides, floods), soil and water
resources, air and water pollution, and the impacts of human activities on the
geologic environment. Environmental geologists work to understand and mitigate the
potential impacts of natural and human-induced changes to the Earth's surface and
subsurface. They also work to ensure that natural resources are used sustainably
and that the environment is protected for future generations.
Earth Structure and Composition

Our Earth is divided into four main layers. Each layer with its own unique
physical properties. These layers are Crust, Mantle, Outer core, and Inner
core.
Crust
This is the layers on which you stand on. All the mountain, jungles and oceans
you know are carried on this layer. It is the thinnest layer of the four layers. This
layer is 70 Km thick on the land, and 5 Km thick at some ocean floors. The crust
is mostly composed of silica, alumina, lime, magnesia, and iron oxide (rust).

Mantle
This layer starts below the crust layer, and is denser than the crust. It is 3,000
Km in thickness. It is mostly made of silicate rocks rich in magnesium and iron.
This layer is not a perfectly solid. At some locations, the rock is completely
melted, which is called magma. When this magma reaches near the crust, it
erupts as Lava from the volcanoes.

In this layer, rocks are in constant motion. They rise and sink due to internal heat
from the core, and set up the convective currents. These convective currents
also cause the tectonic plates to move and crash into each other causing
earthquakes.
Outer Core
This layer of the Earth is in a liquid state at a temperature of 5000 C. This layer is
mostly made of iron and nickel. Both of these two metal are in a liquid state due
to intense heat.
The outer core is always in constant circulatory motion, which creates a magnetic
field around the Earth. This magnetic field protects our Earth from the Sun’s
deadly wind.
Without this layers, our Earth couldn’t have a magnetic field. Without this
magnetic field, our Earth could never have atmosphere, oceans, and life.

Inner Core
This is the hottest layer of the Earth, reaching a temperature of 7000 C; much
hotter than the surface of the Sun. It is also composed of iron and nickel metal.
But, this layer is in the solid state. Despite the fact that, it is the hottest part of the
Earth. This is because the inner core is under tremendous pressure due to the
weight of the other layers.
 Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics
Continental Drift
Today, most people know that the landmasses on Earth move around. But people
haven’t always believed this. It wasn’t until the early 20th century that German
scientist Alfred Wegener suggested that the Earth’s continents were drifting. He
called this movement Continental Drift. He was not the first or only person to think
this, but he was the first to talk about the idea publicly.

Wegener came up with this idea because he noticed that the coasts of western
Africa and eastern South America looked like puzzle pieces. He wondered if they
might have once fit together and then drifted apart. Looking at the continents he
theorized that they had once been joined together as a supercontinent around 225
million years ago. This continent was later named Pangaea.
The idea of moving landmasses seems obvious now, but Wegener’s Theory of
Continental Drift was not accepted for many years. Why? Well, for one thing,
Wegener did not have a convincing explanation for the cause of the drifting. First,
he suggested that the continents were moving around due to the Earth’s rotation.
This later turned out to be wrong. Secondly, he was a meteorologist, not a
geologist. This meant that geologists didn’t think he knew what he was talking
about and did not take him seriously.
Fossil Evidence
One type of evidence that strongly supported the Theory of Continental Drift is the
fossil record. Scientists have found fossils of similar types of plants and animals in
rocks of similar age. These rocks were on the shores of different continents. This
suggests that the continents were once joined.

For example, fossils of Mesosaurus, a freshwater reptile, have been found both in
Brazil and western Africa. Also, fossils of the land reptile Lystrosaurus have been
found in Africa, India and Antarctica.
Plate Tectonics
The Theory of Plate Tectonics builds on Wegener’s Theory of Continental Drift. In
the Theory of Plate Tectonics, it is tectonic plates, rather than continents, which are
moving.

Tectonic plates are pieces of the lithosphere. The lithosphere is made up of the crust
and the upper mantle. These pieces float on a layer of partly liquid rock called the
asthenosphere. Tectonic plates are able to move because the lithosphere is stronger
and more dense than the rock below it.

There are currently seven plates that make up most of the continents and the Pacific
Ocean. They are:
1. African Plate
2. Antarctic Plate
3. Eurasian Plate
4. Australian Plate
5. North American Plate
6. Pacific Plate
7. South American Plate
Moving Plates
Geologists came to accept the Theory of Plate Tectonics in the late 1950s and
early 1960s after coming to understand the concept of seafloor spreading. Seafloor
spreading happens on the seafloor where oceanic plates are moving away from
each other. We say that these plates are diverging. When this happens, cracks
occur in the lithosphere. This allows magma to come up and cool, forming a new
seafloor.
The opposite of divergence is convergence. This happens when plates are
moving towards each other. Material may push upwards forming mountains or
downwards into the mantle. When the material from one plate is pushed on top of
another, we call that obduction. When material is pushed downwards, we call
that subduction. The material lost through subduction is roughly balanced by the
formation of new ocean crust by seafloor spreading.
Mountains and Volcanoes
When two oceanic plates diverge it forms, undersea volcanoes. Volcanoes are
caused by cracks in the Earth’s crust.

When two continental plates converge on land, one plate will slide
beneath the other. This causes rock to get all folded and bunched
up. These folded rocks form mountains.
Earth processes – Weathering, Work of rivers, wind and sea and their engineering
importance

Rivers, wind, and sea all have significant impacts on the engineering of various
projects and infrastructure.
Rivers can have a major impact on the design and construction of bridges, dams, and
other water-related infrastructure. Engineers must take into account factors such as
river flow, sedimentation, and potential flooding when designing and building these
structures.
Wind can also have a significant impact on the design and construction of various
projects, particularly those related to energy production. Engineers must consider
wind speed and direction when designing wind turbines and other wind energy
systems to ensure they can withstand the forces of wind and operate efficiently.
The sea also has a major impact on engineering projects, particularly those related to
coastal and offshore infrastructure. Engineers must consider factors such as wave
action, tide, and storm surges when designing and building coastal structures like
seawalls, breakwaters, and offshore platforms.
Overall, engineers must take into account the forces of rivers, wind, and sea when
designing and building projects to ensure they are safe, efficient, and can withstand
the forces of nature.
 Origin, occurrence of earthquake- Mode of occurrence
Earthquakes happen every day all over the world, along both tectonic plate
edges and interiors. Earthquakes occur along faults, which are fractures
between blocks of rock that allow the blocks to move relative to one another.
Faults are caused by the bumping and sliding that plates do and are more
common near the edges of the plates.

Plates, Motion, Faults, Energy Release

The Earth's crust (the outer layer of the planet) is made up of several pieces
called tectonic plates and most earthquakes occur along their edges. The plates
under the oceans are called oceanic plates. Plates that are not under the ocean
are continental plates. The plates are moved around by the motion of a deeper
part of the earth (the mantle) that lies underneath the crust, and by the weight of
oceanic plates that pulls them down below oceanic plates. These plates are
always moving apart, bumping, or sliding past each other at about the same
speed that your fingernails grow. Earthquakes usually occur where two plates
are running into each other or sliding past each other.
Types of Faults
Faults are defined by the kind of motion that happens where they are. Normal faults
show cracks where one block of rock is sliding down and away from another block
of rock. These faults usually occur in areas where the crust is very slowly stretching
or where two plates are pulling away from each other. A normal fault is defined by
the hanging wall (a term that comes from mining) moving down relative to the
footwall (where the miner would stand), which is moving up.
Reverse faults are formed where the Earth’s crust is under compression. They also
occur where the crust is folding up because it's being compressed by another plate
pushing against it. At these faults, one block of rock is sliding underneath another
block or one block is being pushed up over the other. A reverse fault is defined by
the hanging wall moving up relative to the footwall, which is moving down.
Strike-slip faults lie between two sides of the crust that slide past each other and
are common in places like California where the Pacific Plate is moving northwest
relative to the North American Plate. In a pure strike-slip fault, there is no motion up
or down along the fault. The well-known San Andreas fault is predominantly strike-
slip.
Why Do Earthquakes Happen?
Most faults in the Earth’s crust don’t move for a long time. But in some cases, the
rock on either side of a fault slowly deforms over time due to tectonic forces.
Earthquakes are usually caused when underground rock suddenly breaks and
there is rapid motion along a fault. This sudden release of energy causes the
seismic waves that make the ground shake. During and after the earthquake, the
plates or blocks of rock start moving—and they continue to move until they get
stuck again. The spot underground where the rock first breaks is called the focus,
or hypocenter of the earthquake. The place right above the focus (at the ground
surface) is called the epicenter of the earthquake.