UNIT – I GENERAL GEOLOGY

Guide questions

1.) What is geology? What is the importance of studying geology to civil

engineering?

-Otherwise called 'geoscience' or 'Earth Science',it concerned with the solid

Earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they
change over time.Geology is the investigation of the design, advancement
and elements of the Earth and its characteristic mineral and energy assets.
Geography researches the cycles that have molded the Earth through its
4500 million (rough!) year history and utilizations the stone record to
disentangle that set of experiences. It is worried about this present reality past
the research center and has direct importance to the requirements of society.
Additionally, Geology describe the structure of the Earth on and underneath
its surface, and the cycles that have formed that structure. It additionally gives
devices to determine the family member and supreme times of rocks found in
a given area, and furthermore to portray the histories of those stones.
Geology is not only a mere subject. It is the application of geology to
engineering study for the purpose of assuring that the geological factors
regarding the location, design, construction, operation and maintenance of
engineering works are recognized and accounted for. Withal, geology is very
crucial in the aspect of civil engineering for a fact that studying geology helps
future civil engineers to understand the engineering implications of certain
condition that is related to the area of construction and help to understand the
nature if geological information which is absolutely essential for a safe design
and construction of a civil engineering projects.Likewise, constructing a
project involves geological aspect suchlike soil, rocks, stone, valleys and
other features of the earth. For which this geologic details are being utilized by
civil engineers to build and construct a safe, stable land economical design
and construction.Moreover, civil engineers also predict and determine the
external factors or loads that might affect the construction. It ensures the
safety and firmness of the structures. Thus, it is essential for an engineer to
study geology for a fact that this unveil and give awareness about gelogical
work of the wind, glaciers, rivers, oceans and groundwater. Additionally,
geology pour out knowledge to the engineer about natural phenomena
suchlike landslides, earthquakes and weathiring.Moreover, there are a lot of
factors and possible formation that may affect the construction.Hence,
studying geology is the main solution that could solve this possible problem.
Studying geology, structural geology specifically open up the mind of every
engineers about the rocks that are from the earth crust for which undergo
various deformations, dislocations and disturbances under the influence of
tectonic forces and thus resulted to the occurence of different geological
structures suchlike folds, faults joints and uncomformities in rocks. Structural
geology helps engineers to be aware of the mode of formation, causes, types,
classification and importance of this geological structures.Indeed geology is a
pivotal aspect in civil engineering field for this aspect-assurance, stable land
and safety is pinned into the civil engineering construction.

2.) What is weathering. Describe briefly the two types of weathering.

 - Weathering is the process of decay, disintegration and decomposition of
rocks under the influence of earth physical and chemical agencies. The
process of weathering is obtained depends on the nature of rocks, the length
of time and the climate. Simply, it is the separating or dissolving of rocks and
minerals on Earths surface. When a stone has been separated, an interaction
called disintegration moves the pieces of rock and minerals away. Water,
acids, salt, plants, creatures, and changes in temperature are altogether
specialists or agents of weathering. Weathering has two forms of classification
which are Physical and Chemical Weathering. Physical weathering is the
physical breakdown of rock masses under the attack of certain atmospheric
agents for which a single rock block is broken gradually into smaller irregular
fragments and then into particles of still smaller dimensions. Physical
weathering is the most active in cold, dry and higher areas of the earth
surface.Physical weathering is caused by the effects of changing temperature
on rocks, causing the rock to break apart. The process is sometimes assisted
by water. This happens especially in places places where there is little soil
and few plants grow, such as in mountain regions and hot deserts.The two
type of weathering are Freeze-thaw and Exfoliation. While ,Chemical
Weathering happens when water breaks down minerals in a stone, creating
new mixtures. This response is called hydrolysis. Hydrolysis happens, for
instance, when water interacts with rock. Feldspar gems inside the rock
respond artificially, framing earth minerals.Chemical weathering in simple
manner it is the decomposition of rock which is nothing but chemical reaction
between gases of the atmosphere and minerals of the rocks. The chemical
changes invariably take place in-the presence of water generally rainwater- in
which are dissolved many active gases from the atmosphere like CO2,
nitrogen , Hydrogen etc. These conditions are defined primarily by chemical
compositions of the rocks humidity and the environmental surrounding the
rock under attack. Moreover, chemical weathering is essentially a process of
chemical reactions between gases of the atmosphere and the surface of the
rocks.

3.) What is the importance of rock weathering to engineering?

-As engineer is straightforwardly or in a roundabout way intrigued by rock

weathering specially when he needs to choose a reasonable quarry for the
extraction of stones for underlying and beautiful purposes. The way toward
enduring consistently causes a lose in the strength of the stones or soil.
Likewise, Weathering degrades the mechanical properties of rocks causing
failure or large settlements in many rock-engineering structures. Weathering
also affects the civil engineering works located on or within the rock mass.
The degree of weathering has been correlated with engineering properties
and behavior of rocks. According to study, it is quite evident that weathering
affects the mechanical properties of rock material and mass on the surface
and at depths through physical and chemical weathering processes. Physical
weathering leads to the opening of discontinuities by rock fractures,
progressively breaking down the original rock to a soil-like material
representing advanced stages of weathering. Chemical weathering results in
chemical changes in minerals. Both physical and chemical weathering
changes hard mineral into softer ones and loosens up the structure of a rock.
Thus, reducing its strength (complete weathering creates soil). This means
that even a hard rock like granite can be a lot softer when exposed to
weathering conditions. Thus, weathering affects the engineering structures
built at or near the Earth’s surface. The weathering of soft rocks is one of the
primary causes of slope failure and shallow landslides in hilly areas.
Therefore, understanding the nature of weathering is an important step in
predicting the occurrence of slope failure and land-slides, including their
timing, style and extent. Thus, the knowledge about rock weathering is quite
important in the field of civil engineering.

4.) Discuss the two erosion processes that causes wind erosion.

-Wind erosion is a natural process that moves soil from one location to
another by wind power.This involved two process of erosion- Deflation and
Abrasion. Deflation is is a term of geomorphology used for the removal of
solid particles by wind (from Latin: deflare, to blow away). It is is the cycle of
basically eliminating the free sand and residue measured particles from as
territory, by quick breezes. Wind flattening can effectively work in similarly dry
areas with practically zero precipitation and where the mantle is unprotected
because of nonattendance of vegetation. Such an evacuation of free fine
particles may at specific spots leave a bared surface comprising generally of
hard shakes or coarse materials like rock and is called slack rock. This rock
layer forestalls further emptying. On the other hand, Abrasion is when an area
is eroded directly by airborne particles. The wind loaded with such particles
accomplishes an extensive erosive force which helps an impressive erosive
force which helps in dissolving the stone surfaces by scouring and pounding
activities and produce numerous changes. This kind of wind disintegration is
known as scraped area. Vertical segment of rocks are accordingly more
promptly worm out towards their lower parcels and an outcome platform rocks
are framed which more extensive tops have upheld on similarly smaller
bases. Such sort of rock developments is called Pedestal or Mushroom rocks.

5.) Discuss the engineering considerations regarding wind and sand

dunes.
-Clearly natural sand dunes are an effective defence against coastal
flooding and erosion. However, a problem arises in that wide, sandy beaches
– the environment where most sand dunes occur – are highly appealing for
development. As such, natural sand dunes are in decline.Thus, engineers are
constrained to work on at such site. Engineers incorporates works in dune
constructions suchlike the construction of artificial dunes and rehabilitation. At
its simplest, artificial dune construction involves the placement of sediment
from dredged sources on the beach. This is followed by reshaping of these
deposits into dunes using bulldozers or other means. As a result, dune
construction is most frequently carried out at the same time as beach
nourishment, because sand is readily available. There are a number of
methods of dune rehabilitation. One such method is to build fences on the
seaward side of an existing dune to trap sand and help stabilise any bare
sand surfaces (USACE, 2003). This method can also be used to promote
dune growth after a structure has been created using bulldozers (Nordstrom &
Arens, 1998). Natural materials such as branches or reed stakes are
commonly used for fence construction, because they break down once they
have accomplished their sand-trapping objective (Nordstrom & Arens, 1998).
Alternatively, vegetation planting may be used to stabilise natural or artificial
dunes. This promotes the accumulation of sand from wind-blown sources
around their stems – over time, this causes dune growth. Planting can be
achieved by transplanting vegetative units from nursery stocks or nearby
intact dunes (USACE, 2003). It can be undertaken at the community level
using widely available tools. Over time, dune vegetation root networks also
help to stabilise the dune. Overall no site is chosen for a significant work on
the moving ridges on the grounds that such hills are consistently a difficult
situation to an architect. It has been capable that occasionally the moving
rises harm certain significant works. Yet, on the off chance that a engineer is
constrained to choose such a site, uncommon techniques ought to be
embraced to check the movement of the moving ridges. For ex: Either to build
wind breaks or developing vegetation on the encompassing regions.

6.) What is ground water hydrology?

-Groundwater hydrology is water that happens beneath the outside of Earth,

where it involves all or part of the void spaces in soils or geologic layers. It is
likewise called subsurface water to recognize it from surface water, which is
found in enormous bodies like the seas or lakes or which streams overland in
streams. Both surface and subsurface water are connected through the
hydrologic cycle (the ceaseless flow of water in the Earth-climate framework).
Where Most groundwater comes from precipitation. Precipitation infiltrates
below the ground surface into the soil zone. When the soil zone becomes
saturated, water percolatesdownward. A zone of saturation occurs where all
the interstices are filled with water. There is also a zone of aeration where the
interstices are occupied partially by water and partially by air. Groundwater
continues to descend until, at some depth, it merges into a zone of dense rock

7.) Discuss porosity and permeability of rocks.

-Porosity and porousness are connected properties of any stone or free

dregs. Both are identified with the number, size, and associations of openings
in the stone. All the more explicitly, porosity of a stone is a proportion of its
capacity to hold a liquid. Numerically, it is the open space in a stone
partitioned by the complete stone volume (strong and space). Porousness is a
proportion of the simplicity of stream of a liquid through a permeable strong. A
stone might be amazingly permeable, however in the event that the pores are
not associated, it will have no porousness. In like manner, a stone may have a
couple of ceaseless breaks which permit simplicity of liquid stream, yet when
porosity is determined, the stone doesn't appear to be permeable. Louisiana
subsurface silt comprise generally of rock, sand and mud. Mud is the most
permeable dregs however is the most un-penetrable. Dirt typically goes about
as an aquitard, blocking the progression of water. Rock and sand are both
permeable and penetrable, making them great spring materials. Rock has the
most noteworthy porousness.
8.) What is an earthquake. How does it occur?

-An earthquake is the aftereffect of an unexpected arrival of put away

energy in the Earth's covering that makes seismic waves.Earthquakes may
happen normally or because of human exercises. More modest earthquakes
can likewise be brought about by volcanic movement, avalanches, mine
impacts, and atomic analyses. Earthquakes are generally caused when rock
underground abruptly breaks along a shortcoming. This unexpected arrival of
energy causes the seismic waves that make the ground shake. At the point
when two squares of rock or two plates are scouring against one another, they
stick a bit. They don't simply slide easily; the stones get on one another. The
stones are as yet pushing against one another, however not moving. Sooner
or later, the stones break as a result of all the pressing factor that is
developed. At the point when the stones break, the seismic tremor happens.
During the seismic tremor and subsequently, the plates or squares of rock
begin moving, and they keep on moving until they stall out once more. The
spot underground where the stone breaks is known as the focal point of the
quake. The spot directly over the center (on top of the ground) is known as
the focal point of the quake.

9.) Describe
a) Focus and epicenter of an earthquake

-The focus is also called Hypocenter is the place inside Earth’s crust where
an earthquake originates. While Epicenter is the location on the surface of
the Earth directly above where the earthquake starts.

b) Intensity and magnitude of an earthquake

-The intensity is a number (written as a Roman numeral) describing the

severity of an earthquake in terms of its effects on the earth's surface and on
humans and their structures. Several scales exist, but the ones most
commonly used are the Modified Mercalli scale and the Rossi-Forel
scale. While magnitude is the "Earthquake size " it is a quantitative measure
of the size of the earthquake at its source. The Richter Magnitude Scale
measures the amount of seismic energy released by an earthquake.

10.) What are the causes of earthquake?

-An earthquake is caused by a sudden slip on a fault. The tectonic

plates are always slowly moving, but they get stuck at their edges due to
friction. When the stress on the edge overcomes the friction, there is an
earthquake that releases energy in waves that travel through the earth's crust
and cause the shaking that we feel. Moreover, earthquake may be caused
due to various reasons depending upon its intensity. Earthquakes may occur
due to superficial movements this includes the dashing waves causing
vibrations along the seashores, Water descending along high water falls,
impinges the valley floor and causes vibrations along the neighbouring areas
and at a high altitudes- the snow falling down is an avalance causing a
vibration along the neighbouring areas. Secondly, is caused by volcanic
eruption where earthquake is the consequent and effect if a volcanic eruption.
Subsequently is due to folding or faulting- this directly and indirectly change
the structural features of the earth crust.

11.) How are earthquakes classified?

- Earthquakes are usually classified in the no. of basis of an earthquake,

Cause of origin, Depth of focus intensity and magnitude of an earthquake.
The cause of origin are basically determined through Tectonic Earthquakes
occur when the plates move against one another. This movement can create
stress that causes the Earth's exterior shell, the lithosphere, to shift or break.
(ii) Non-tectonic earthquakes. The non-tectonic earthquakes are mainly of
three types due to surface causes, volcanic causes and collapse of cavity
roofs .Secondly is DEPTH OF FOCUS it is determine with Surface-
earthquakes : Surface-earthquakes are those in which the depth of the focus
is less than 10,000 metres. Shallow-earthquakes : The earthquakes with the
hypocentre at a depth of 10 to 50. Intermediate-focus earthquakes : When the
earthquake is originated at a depth of 50 to 300 Kms.Deep-focus earthquakes
: The deep-focus earthquakes or the plutonic earthquakes are those with
hypocentres located at depths more than 300 kms. Majority of the deep focus
earthquakes originate between 500 and 700 kms.
Lastly is the INTENSITY AND MAGNITUDE OF EARTHQUAKES is initially a
scale of earthquakes intensity with ten divisions was given by Rossi and forel.
Which was based on the sensation of the people and the damaged caused.
However it was modified by Mercali and later by Wood and Neuman. Intensity
and magnitude scales used are Rossi-Forrel's Scale, Mercalli Scale and
Richter Scale.

12.) Discuss the engineering considerations regarding earthquake

-To appropriately test their structures, engineers ensure that their shake
tables precisely address the shaking of the Earth during an earthquake.
Accordingly, it is vital that engineers comprehend the distinctive seismic
waves delivered during tremors and precisely how they cause the Earth to
move. Thus, engineers can applied a remedy to this unpredictable disaster is
through providing additional factors in the design of the structures in order to
minimize the losses due to the shocks of an earthquake. Moreover, engineers
can alleviate the possible aftermath or effect of an earthquake through
collecting sufficient data, regarding the previous seismic activity in the area,
Assessing the losses, which are likely to take place in furniture due to
earthquake shocks and providing factors of safety to stop or minimize the loss
due to sever earth shocks. Furthermore, there are few precautions which
make the building sufficiently earthquake proof is as follows. The foundation
of a building should rest on a firm rock bed. Withal, Grillage foundations
should preferably provided. Excavation of the foundation should be done up to
the same level, throughout the building.The concrete should be laid in rich
mortar and continuously. Best materials should be used and etc. This
precautions and consideration is very crucial in civil engineering field for a
fact that it will give the assurance of a safe and stable economical land.
Likewise, an important part of engineering is improving peoples' lives by
increasing their safety.

Submitted by:
Jersie Sarda Anciano
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