GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES-

 It refers to the physical and chemical interactions between the Earth’s surface and natural forces
acting on it bringing about changes in the configuration of the surface of the earth are known as
geomorphic processes.
 The word Geomorphic has derived from the Greek words ‘Geo’ meaning Earth and ‘Morphus’
meaning outer appearance. Together it refers to the outer appearance of the Earth.
 The Geomorphic processes are responsible for producing various landforms. Land has a
tendency to attain equilibrium. Landform is thus, a product of Structure, Processes (Endogenic
and Exogenic) and Stages (time).

GEOMORPHIC AGENTS- Mediums through which the the eroded materials are transferred from the
place of origin to the place of destination. E.g.- Running Water, Glaciers, Wind, Waves and Currents.

 A process is a force applied on earth materials affecting the same.

An agent is a mobile medium which removes, transports and deposits earth materials. Running
water, groundwater, glaciers, wind, waves and currents, etc.,

ENDOGENIC PROCESSES-
 Generated in the Interior of the Earth.
 The energy emanating from within the earth is the main force behind endogenic geomorphic
processes.
 This energy is mostly generated by-
o Radioactive decay in the Aesthanosphere which causes the conventional currents
o rotational and tidal friction
o primordial heat from the origin of the earth.
 This energy due to geothermal gradients and heat flow from within induces diastrophism and
volcanism in the lithosphere.
 The action of endogenic forces are not uniform and hence the tectonically controlled original
crustal surface is uneven.

DIASTROPHISM- All processes that move, elevate or build up portions of the earth’s crust come
under diastrophism. All these processes cause pressure, volume and temperature (PVT) changes which
in turn induce metamorphism of rocks.

 OROGENIC FORCES- involve Mountain building through severe folding and affecting long
and narrow belts of the earth’s crust. They are driven from Compression and tensional
movement. These forces destroy land.
 EPIROGENIC FORCES- involve uplift or warping of large parts of the earth’s crust. They are
driven by upward and downward movements. These forces create land and result in continental
building.
 EARTHQUAKES- Occurs when massive accumulated stress releases from the weak zones of
the Earth. Changes the contour spacing and river course due to which various landforms are
formed.
 PLATE TECTONIC MOVEMENTS- Forces in the opposite direction leads to fractures and
faults. They involve horizontal movements of crustal plates

VOLCANISM- Volcanism includes the movement of molten rock (magma) onto or toward the
earth’s surface and also formation of many intrusive and extrusive volcanic forms.

EXOGENIC FORCES
The exogenic processes derive their energy from atmosphere determined by the ultimate energy from
the sun and also the gradients created by tectonic factors. They are caused by the elements of weather
and climate such as Heat, pressure, wind, precipitation etc.
  GRAVTIATIONAL FORCE-Gravitational force acts upon all earth materials having a sloping
surface and tend to produce movement of matter in down slope direction.
 STRESS- Force applied per unit area is called stress. Stress is produced in a solid by pushing
or pulling. This induces deformation. It is this stress that breaks rocks and other earth materials.
The shear stresses result in angular displacement or slippage.
 MOLECULAR FORCE- may be caused by a number of factors amongst which temperature
changes, crystallisation and melting are the most common. Chemical processes normally lead to
loosening of bonds between grains, dissolving of soluble minerals or cementing materials.
 CLIMATE- Within different climatic regions there may be local variations of the effects of
different climatic elements Further, due to differences in the elements of weather and climate,
the geomorphic processes vary within any climatic region.
 DENUDATION- All the exogenic geomorphic processes are covered under a general term,
denudation. The word ‘denude’ means to strip off or to uncover. Weathering, mass
wasting/movements, erosion and transportation are included in denudation

WEATHERING- Weathering is action of elements of weather and climate over earth materials.
Weathering is defined as mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition of rocks through the
actions of various elements of weather and climate

FACTORS AFFECTING WEATHERING

 PARENT ROCK-The mineral composition and physical structure of rock determines the art of
weathering and the effects it creates on rocks. The presence of Joints and bedding planes
determine the rate of weathering.
 CLIMATE- Weathering processes differ from climate to climate. The elements of Climate or
Weathering like temperature, soil, wind, pressure, humidity etc., affect the weathering process.
 RELIEF- Slope processes such as landslides, slump, solifluction can result into the exposure of
rocks, making them susceptible to weathering.
 VEGETATION COVER- The presence of Vegetation increases the rate of weathering through
biological weathering. Decaying plant and animal matter help in the production of humic,
carbonic and other acids which enhance decay and solubility of some elements.
 ANIMALS- Burrowing and wedging by organisms like Rodents, Insects, worms contribute
actively to weathering. They loosen up the material and expose the rocks to the agents of
weathering.

TYPES OF WEATHERING

1. CHEMICAL WEATHERING - A group of weathering act on the rocks to decompose,

dissolve or reduce them to a fine clastic state through chemical reactions by oxygen, surface
and/or soil water and other acids.
2. PHYSICAL WEATHERING- Physical or mechanical weathering processes depend on some
applied forces. The applied forces could be: (i) gravitational forces (ii) expansion forces (iii)
water pressures. Many of these forces are applied both at the surface and within different earth
materials leading to rock fracture.
3. BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING- Biological weathering is contribution to or removal of
minerals and ions from the weathering environment and physical changes due to growth or
movement of organisms.

IMPORTANCE OF WEATHERING

 Disintegrates the rock- Weathering processes are responsible for breaking down the rocks into
smaller fragments and preparing the way for formation of regolith and soils, but also erosion and
mass movements.
 Adds valuable ores in the soil- Weathering of rocks and deposits helps in the enrichment and
concentrations of certain valuable ores of iron, manganese, aluminium, copper etc., which are of
great importance for the national economy.
  Biomes and bio-diversity is basically a result of forests and Forests depend on the depth of the
weathering mantles as it satisfies the nutritional needs of plants.
 Erosion is not possible without weathering- weathering aids mass wasting, erosion and reduction
of relief and changes in landforms are a consequence of erosion

MASS MOVEMENT-These movements transfer the mass of rock debris down the slopes under the
direct influence of gravity.

 weathering is not a pre-requisite for mass movement though it aids mass movements.
 Mass movements are very active over weathered slopes rather than over unweathered materials.
 Mass movements are aided by gravity and no geomorphic agent like running water, glaciers,
wind, waves and currents participate in the process of mass movements.
 Weak unconsolidated materials, thinly bedded rocks, faults, steeply dipping beds, steep slopes,
abundant precipitation, scarcity of vegetation etc., favour mass movements.

CAUSES OF MASS MOVEMENT-

(i) removal of support from below to materials above through natural or artificial means
(ii) increase in gradient and height of slopes
(iii) overloading through addition of materials naturally or by artificial filling
(iv) overloading due to heavy rainfall, saturation and lubrication of slope materials
(v) removal of material or load from over the original slope surfaces
(vi) occurrence of earthquakes, explosions or machinery
(vii) excessive natural seepage
(viii) heavy drawdown of water from lakes, reservoirs and rivers leading to slow outflow of water
from under the slopes or river banks
(ix) indiscriminate removal of natural vegetation. Heave (heaving up of soils due to frost growth
and other causes), flow and slide are the three forms of movements.

SOIL- Soil is a thin surface layer on the Earth comprising mineral particles formed by the breaking
down of rocks, decayed organic material, living organisms, soil water and soil atmosphere.

 A pedologist is a scientist who studies soil. In other words, Pedology is concerned with the study
of soils.
 The process of soil formation begins with the breaking of rocks into small pieces by various
agents of weathering and erosion.
 The rock contains a mixture of minerals with different elements. Later on, decaying plant
remains are added to it. This is known as humus and forms organic part of the soil. Animals and
Insects with countless bacteria also form organic matter of the soil. Soil holds water which
provides life to the plants and trees.
 There are open spaces within the soil containing CO2, O2 and N2. All these constituents of soil
act as nutrients and provide food to plants and trees.
 The cyclic nutrients keep the soil fit for humidisation for a long period. Thus, soil is the final
product of interactions between the weathering of underlined rock, climate, Plants and the
activities of millions of insects.

FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL FORMATION

PARENT MATERIAL

 The underlined rock containing minerals are called bed rock or parent material. The soil forming
mineral is obtained by weathering of this rock.
 Although, All three types of rocks, namely- Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic, provide
soil forming material. It is largely derived from the sedimentary rock because these rocks are
soft, brittle and widely distributed on Earth’s surface.
 The colour, structure and mineral contents of Soil depend upon the Parent Material.
CLIMATE- The Climate of an Area is a major factor of soil formation.

 Two different parent material may develop the same soil in one type of climate in the same soil.
For eg- Sandstone and Granite are two different rocks in Rajasthan but they give birth to the
same type of sandy soil under arid climatic conditions.
 Similarly, same parent material may form different types of soils under different climate. For
Eg- Crystalline Granite produces Laterite Soil in Chhotanagpur Plateau under moist climate and
clayey soil under dry climate of Andhra Pradesh.

TOPOGRAPHY

 Elements of Topography such as altitude, slope, shape and relief, affect the deposition and
erosion of soil and runoff of the water on the steep slopes.
 There is a lot of erosion caused by rivers, glaciers and wind. Only a thin layer of coarse soil is
left. This is known as residual soil. The eroded material is deposited in the areas of gentle slope
and a thick layer of soil is formed. Such soils are very fertile because they are formed from
different kinds of rocks over a white catchment area.
 But, in certain flat areas, soils are poorly drained and suffer from leeching. Thus, the best quality
of soils is found in areas of gentle slope with good drainage.

BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY

1. VEGETATION includes trees, shrubs, grasses and moss.

a. The decay of leaves and roots of different forms of vegetation provides humus to the soil
which increases its fertility. It increases chemical action and the rate of soil formation.
b. Humus accelerates weathering of minerals in the process of Soil Formation.
2. BACTERIA acts differently in different climates and forms different kinds of soil.
a. Bacteria live on humus in humid tropical climate. Bacterial activity is intense and
consumption is so much that the soils are left poor in it.
b. In cold climate, Bacterial activity is limited and the soils are also rich in it. Bacteria also
changes N2 from air into a chemical form which is usable by the plants. That is why
Bacteria are termed as a N2 fixing agent.
3. ANIMALS- Burrowing animals like ants rodents, ants, termites and some birds move from the
surface soil downwards and the subsoil from its lower horizon upwards. The mixing of two soil
layers help in improving texture and aeration.
a. Soil organisms like Earthworms live in millions in the soil and help in reducing its grain
to small sized and in mining the mineral with the Organic matter.

TIME- Time is an important factor in the formation and development of soil.

The process of formation of soil is very slow. It may take thousands of years to form ½ cm thick soil
under the most favourable conditions.

The characteristics of soil undergo drastic changes with the passage of time. There are 3 stages of
development of soil: Young, Mature and Old.

 The fresh river alluvium or glacial teal are soils of young stage. They have a greater control of
the parent material and poorly developed soil profile.
 Mature soils are developed over a long time. The influence of climate and organic matter is
clearly visible on matured soils. They have a well developed soil profile.
 With further lapse of time, humus is properly mixed with soil and its colour changes. The
importance of parent material is almost negligible/ absent when the soil attains its old age.