ROCKS AND MINERALS

A mineral is defined as a naturally occurring organic and inorganic substance, having an orderly
arrangement of atoms and a definite composition and physical properties.

 The elements found in the lithosphere combine in different ways to form minerals of
various types. About 2000 minerals have been found in the earth’s crust, but most of the
commonly occurring ones are related to six major mineral groups that are called
major rock-forming minerals.
 The hot magma in the interior of the earth is the main source of all minerals. The magma
cools and crystals of minerals get formed. A systemic series of minerals are formed in
sequence to solidify so as to form rocks.

PHYSICAL FEATURES OF ROCKS

 External crystal form – External shape of a mineral is determined by its internal
arrangement of molecules. It can be cubic, tetrahedral, tabular, hexagonal, etc.
 Cleavage – The property of breaking along specific planes is called cleavage. Crystals
have one plane along which the bonding between the atoms is weaker than along other
planes.
 Fracture — internal molecular arrangement so complex there are no planes of
molecules; the crystal will break in an irregular manner, not along planes of cleavage.
 Lustre — appearance of a material without regard to colour; each mineral has a
distinctive lustre like metallic, silky, glossy etc.
 Colour — some minerals have characteristic colour determined by their molecular
structure — malachite, azurite, chalcopyrite etc., and some minerals are coloured by
impurities. For eg, because of impurities quartz may be white, green, red, yellow etc.
 Streak — colour of the ground powder of any mineral. It may be of the same colour as
the mineral or may differ — malachite is green and gives green streak, fluorite is purple
or green but gives a white streak.
 Transparency — transparent: light rays pass through so that objects can be seen plainly;
translucent — light rays pass through but will get diffused so that objects cannot be seen;
opaque — light will not pass at all.
 Structure — particular arrangement of the individual crystals; fine, medium or coarse
grained; fibrous — separable, divergent, radiating.
 Hardness — relative resistance being scratched; ten minerals are selected to measure the
degree of hardness from 1-10. They are: 1. talc; 2. gypsum; 3. calcite; 4. fluorite; 5.
apatite; 6. feldspar; 7. quartz; 8. topaz; 9. corundum; 10. diamond. Compared to this for
example, a fingernail is 2.5 and glass or knife blade is 5.5.
 Specific gravity — the ratio between the weight of a given object and the weight of an
equal volume of water; object weighed in air and then weighed in water and divide
weight in air by the difference of the two weights.

Metallic Minerals 
These minerals are composed of metals and can be divided into three subtypes –

1. Precious metals – Platinum, gold, silver, etc.

2. Ferrous metals – Iron mixed with other metals.
3. Non-ferrous metals – Metals other than iron like copper, aluminium, lead, zinc, tin, etc.

Metallic minerals are generally obtained from igneous rocks, and are malleable and ductile.
Non-Metallic Minerals 
These minerals are composed of non-metals like sulphur, silicon, phosphorus. For example,
cement is a mixture of non-metallic minerals. Non-metallic minerals are generally obtained
from sedimentary rocks, lacking malleability and ductility.
Igneous Rocks 

 DEFINITION- “Ignis” in Latin means ‘fire’. Igneous rocks are formed out of magma and
lava from the interior of the earth. When magma in its upward movement cools and turns
into solid form, it is called igneous rock.
 TYPES- There are two types of igneous rocks – intrusive rocks e.g., granite and extrusive
rocks e.g., basalt Deccan Traps.

 Intrusive rocks are formed when magma rises and cools within the crust which
gives rise to various forms like batholiths, laccoliths, dyke, etc.
 Extrusive rocks are formed when cooling and solidification takes place on the
surface of the earth.
 CLASSIFICATION- Igneous rocks are also classified based on the texture, size and
arrangement of grains or other physical conditions of the materials. If the magma cools
slowly at great depths, mineral grains increase in their size. Sudden cooling at the surface
results in small and smooth grains. Intermediate cooling would lead to intermediate rock
formation.
 EXAMPLES- The igneous rocks are the oldest of all the rocks. Pegmatite, gabbro,
granite, basalt, tuff are some of the examples of igneous rocks.

Sedimentary Rocks 
 The word ‘sedimentary’ is derived from the Latin word sedimentum, which means
settling. Rocks of the earth’s surface undergo denudation and are broken into various
fragments. These fragments are transported by different exogenous forces and deposited.
These deposits through compaction turn into sedimentary rocks. The process is called
lithification.
 Sedimentary rocks occupy only 5% of the earth. They are layered or stratified of varying
thickness. Sedimentary rocks are also called detrital rocks.
 Sedimentary rocks are of three types depending upon the mode of formation –
o Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks – For example, conglomerate, loess,
limestone, sandstone, etc.
o Chemically formed – For example, potash, halite, etc. 
o Organically formed – For example, chalk, coal, limestone, geyserites, etc.
Metamorphic Rocks 

 The word metamorphic means ‘change of form’. The metamorphic rocks form under the
action of pressure, volume and temperature (PVT change). 
 Metamorphism is a process by which the already consolidated rocks undergo
recrystallisation and reorganization of materials within original rocks. The igneous and
metamorphic rocks together account for 95% of the earth.
 The breaking and crushing of the original minerals within rocks without any significant
chemical changes is called dynamic metamorphism.
 When the materials of the rocks alter chemically and recrystallise, the process is known
as thermal metamorphism. Thermal metamorphism is of two types – contact
metamorphism and regional metamorphism.

 Contact Metamorphism – In this case, the rocks come in contact with hot magma
and lava as a result of which rock materials recrystallise under high temperatures.
Generally, new materials form when lava/magma interacts with the rocks.
  Regional Metamorphism – Due to deformation caused by tectonic shearing
together with high temperature or pressure or both, rocks undergo recrystallisation
which is known as regional metamorphism.
 Sometimes rock grains or minerals form layers or lines during the process of
metamorphism. Such an arrangement in metamorphic rocks is called foliation or
alienation.
 Sometimes minerals of different nature form alternating arrangements of thin and thick
layers which appear in light and dark shades. Such an arrangement in metamorphic rocks
is called banding and such rocks are called banded rocks.
 Slate, diamond, marble, quartzite, schist, gneiss are some examples of metamorphic rocks

ROCK CYCLE
The Rock Cycle is a continuous process through which old rocks are transformed into new
ones.

 Igneous rocks are primary rocks and other rocks, sedimentary and metamorphic form
from these igneous rocks.
 These primary rocks under the influence of high pressure/temperature transform into
metamorphic rocks.
 The igneous and metamorphic rocks can break into fragments and these fragments can be
the source of sedimentary rocks.
 The crustal rocks – igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic once formed may be carried
down into the mantle (interior of the earth) through the subduction process and the same
melt and turn into magma which is the source of igneous rocks. In this way, the rock
cycle is a continuous process.