Geoscience Frontiers 11 (2020) 597–611

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Research Paper

Characterization of partial melting events in garnet-cordierite gneiss from

the Kerala Khondalite Belt, India
Nilanjana Sorcar a, Kumar Batuk Joshi a, *, Elson P. Oliveira b, J.K. Tomson a, V. Nandakumar a
a
ESSO–National Centre For Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
b
Department of Geology, Institute of Geosciences, University of Campinas, Brazil

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: Richard M Palin Phase equilibria modelling coupled with U–Pb zircon and monazite ages of garnet–cordierite gneiss from Valli-
kodu Kottayam in the Kerala Khondalite Belt, southern India are presented here. The results suggest that the area
Keywords: attained peak P–T conditions of ~900
C at 7.5–8 kbar, followed by decompression to 3.5–5 kbar and cooling to
Kerala khondalite belt (KKB) 450–480
C, preserving signatures of the partial melting event in the field of high to ultra-high temperature
Garnet-cordierite gneiss
metamorphism. Melt reintegration models suggest that up to 35% granitic melt could have been produced during
Partial melting
metamorphism at ~950
C. The U–Pb age data from zircons (~1.0 – ~0.7 Ga) and chemical ages from monazites
Pseudosection
Monazite-zircon geochronology (~540 Ma and ~941 Ma) reflect a complex tectonometamorphic evolution of the terrain. The ~941 Ma age
reported from these monazites indicate a Tonian ultra-high temperature event, linked to juvenile magmatism/
deformation episodes reported from the Southern Granulite Terrane and associated fragments in Rodinia, which
were subsequently overprinted by the Cambrian (~540 Ma) tectonothermal episode.

1. Introduction HT–UHT metamorphism across crustal fragments, necessitating an

Partial melting of lower crustal rocks is an important mechanism for
crustal differentiation and granulite genesis (Vielzeuf et al., 1990).
Numerous natural and experimental data sets (Le Breton and Thompson,
1988; Vielzeuf and Holloway, 1988; Peterson and Newton, 1989; Car-
rington and Harley, 1995; Carrington and Watt, 1995; Stevens et al.,
1997) have firmly established the significance of dehydration melting
(e.g. muscovite, biotite and hornblende melting) under varying
physico-chemical conditions within the middle and lower crust. Pre-
cambrian HT/UHT terranes are important domains to understand the
melting processes and scales of melt transfer. Regarded as exhumed root
zones of ancient orogenic belts, these terranes provide an excellent
window into middle–lower crust evolution (Nandakumar and Harley,
2019). In southern India, vast exposures of deep crustal rocks in the
Southern Granulite Terrane (SGT) make it a key region in the recon-
struction of the Gondwana supercontinent. The exact spatial and tem-
poral evolution of the distinct crustal blocks within the SGT, and their
correlation to similar tectonic units in the presently dispersed Gondwana
continental fragments, have been the subject of active debate. This is, in
part, due to the paucity in data for correlating the precise chronology of
approach that combines the use of petrology, phase equilibrium model-
ling and in-situ geochronology of HT and UHT assemblages within such
terranes. Here, this method is adopted to characterise lower crustal
partial melting processes, under varying P–T conditions and at different
times in the evolutionary history of the Kerala Khondalite Belt (KKB),
which is among the most important crustal segments of the SGT.
1.1. Geological setting
The SGT is a collage of Precambrian high-grade crustal blocks sepa-
rated by transcrustal brittle–ductile shear/suture zones with an crustal
evolutionary history that ranges from the Late Archean to the Neo-
proterozoic (Fig. 1). The four distinct crustal domians of the SGT, from
north to south, are the Salem Block, the Madurai Block, the Trivandrum
Block, and the Nagercoil Block. They retain a record of multiple
magmatic, metamorphic and deformation episodes in the history of the
SGT (Bhaskar Rao et al., 2003, 2008; Chetty et al., 2003; Collins et al.,
2007; Clark et al., 2009; Santosh et al., 2009, 2012; Plavsa et al., 2012;
Peucat et al., 2013; Tomson et al., 2013; Brandt et al., 2014; Collins et al.,
2014; Plavsa et al., 2015; Kumar et al., 2017 and references therein). The

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: kr.batukjoshi@gmail.com (K.B. Joshi).
Peer-review under responsibility of China University of Geosciences (Beijing).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2019.05.013
Received 5 July 2018; Received in revised form 28 April 2019; Accepted 23 May 2019
Available online 19 July 2019
1674-9871/© 2019 China University of Geosciences (Beijing) and Peking University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the
CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
N. Sorcar et al. Geoscience Frontiers 11 (2020) 597–611

Fig. 1. A simplified geological sketch of southern

India showing (from south to north) the Southern
Granulite Terrane (SGT), the metamorphic transition
zone (TZ), and the western and eastern parts of the
Dharwar craton (WDC and EDC); modified from
Vijaya Kumar et al. (2017). Sample locations, and the
Neoarchaean and Neoproterozoic (more specifically,
Ediacaran–Early Cambrian) granulite blocks are
marked; the latter includes the Madurai Block (MB)
comprising the Northern Madurai Block (NMB),
Southern Madurai Block (SMB), Trivandrum Block
(TB), and Nagercoil Block (NB). Prominent highland
massifs include Coorg (C), Nilgiri (NG), Biligiri
Rangan (BR), MaleMahadeshwara (MM), Shevaroy
(SH), Kollimalai (Ko), Madras (MA), Kodaikanal
(KH), Varusanadu (VH), Cardamom (CH), and
Nagercoil (NH). Major shear zones include the Moyar
Shear Zone (MSZ), Bhavani Shear Zone (BSZ), Mettur
Shear Zone (MtSZ), Salem-Attur Shear Zone (SASZ),
Gangavalli Shear Zone (GSZ), Palghat–Cauvery Shear
System (PCSS), Palghat–Cauvery Shear Zone (PCSZ),
Karur–Kambam–Painavu–Trichur Shear Zone
(KKPTSZ), Suruli Shear Zone (SSZ), and Achankovil
Shear Zone (ASZ).

transcrustal shear/suture zones in the SGT can be traced across conti-

nents, which is suggestive of their imporatance in establishing spatial
relationships with other fragments of supercontinents such as Rodinia
and Gondwana (Kriegsman, 1995; Ghosh et al., 2004; Collins et al., 2007;
Santosh et al., 2009; Kr€ oner et al., 2012; Brandt et al., 2014 and refer-
ences therein).
The Trivandrum Block also known as the Kerala Khondalite Belt
(KKB; Chacko et al., 1987), is composed of granulite facies metasedi-
mentary rocks like khondalite (aluminous garnet þ cordierite þ silli-
minite gneiss), highly migmatized garnet-bearing felsic gneiss
(leptynitic), granitic orthogneiss, charnockite and localised mafic gran-
Fig. 2. Field photographs of garnet-cordierite gneiss from the Vallikodu Kot-
ulite. The KKB is separated from the Madurai Block by the Achankovil
tayam quarry showing (A) near-parallel fabric defined by gneissic layering
Shear Zone (AKSZ) to the north, and bounded by the Nagercoil Block in comprising Grt þ Crd mesosomes of 2–3 cm width (coin for scale, 2.4 cm
the south. For the KKB, metasedimentary packages and associated rocks diameter) and a quartzo-feldpsathic leucosome; and (B) cordierite overprinting
record Nd model protolith ages from the Archean to the Paleoproterozoic the foliation in a garnet-bearing leucosome.
(Harris et al., 1994; Cenki et al., 2004; Tomson et al., 2013) whereas
U–Pb protolith crystallization ages range from 2.1 Ga to 1.7 Ga (Kr€ oner 700–800
C to 6.5–7.0 kbar at 900–950
C (Chacko et al., 1987; Nan-
et al., 2012, 2015; Whitehouse et al., 2014; Harley and Nandakumar, dakumar and Harley, 2000; Cenki et al., 2002; Braun and Broker, 2004)
2016; Kumar et al., 2017 and references therein). Detrital zircon U–Pb and between 830 and 925
C at 6–9 kbar (Blereau et al., 2016). These
ages from metasedimentary gneisses in the KKB are sourced from calculations were contradicted by Tadokoro et al. (2008), who reported
Palaeoproterozoic and Neoarchaean rocks, and were deposited after ca. UHT conditions of >950
C at pressures up to 12 kbar.
1900 Ma. They are correlated with Paleoproterozoic metasedimetray For the present study, a garnet-cordierite gneiss sample (Fig. 2 A, B)
rocks from Madagascar and Sri Lanka (Collins et al., 2007, 2014), sug- was collected from the Vallikodu (V) Kottayam quarry, hereafter referred
gesting that they originated from East African rocks (Collins et al., 2003). to as V. Kottayam (N 09
130 12.4"; E 76
480 40.600 ), which is situated
Neoproterozoic to Cambrian age regional granulite-facies metamorphism within the KKB, close to the Achankovil Shear Zone.
has been reported from the KKB at ca. 570–515 Ma in zircons from
orthogneisses, paragneisses and migmatitic leucosomes, which coincides
2. Petrography
with the final stages of Gondwana amalgamation (Cenki et al., 2004;
Shabeer et al., 2005; Collins et al., 2007, 2014; Kr€
oner et al., 2012, 2015;
The dominant lithology from V. Kottayam is migmatitic garnet-
Harley and Nandakumar, 2014; Taylor et al., 2014; Whitehouse et al.,
cordierite gneiss that is characterized by the alternation of quartzo-
2014). Monazite chemical ages have been used to date the HT–UHT
feldspathic leucosomes and mesosomes (Fig. 2A) containing a combina-
metamorphism (Santosh et al., 2003, 2005, 2006a, b); P–T estimates for a
tion of garnet–cordierite–orthopyroxene–spinelss–plagioclase–K-feld-
high to ultra–high temperature (UHT) rock range from 5.5 to 7.0 kbar at
spar–quartz–ilmenite, with minor biotite making up the main

598
N. Sorcar et al. Geoscience Frontiers 11 (2020) 597–611

assemblage. Garnet, cordierite, orthopyroxene and spinelss are generally

present as large irregular-shaped porphyroblasts. Texturally, cordierite
occurs as porphyroblasts (Fig. 3A), inclusions within garnet porphyro-
blasts (Fig. 3B) and as rims over porphyroblastic garnet (Fig. 3C). Garnet
porphyroblasts usually engulf spinelss, sillimanite, biotite, zircon and
monazite as inclusions. Cordierite porphyroblasts also contain small in-
clusions of rounded plagioclase, alkali feldspar, opaques, and spinel-
ilmenite aggregates. Partial resorption of garnet, orthopyroxene and
cordierite is widespread, which gives rise to a variety of textures.
Plagioclase and cordierite rims are typically observed around garnet
crystals, though plagioclase corona structures may also be seen around
orthopyroxene. Locally, cordierite breaks down to fine-grained in-
tergrowths of biotite  plagioclase  K-feldspar (Fig. 3A). Textural
studies further suggest that the leucosome is essentially composed of
quartz and plagioclase, with perthitic K-feldspar and minor biotite,
cordierite and garnet (Fig. 2B). The leucosome could be overprinted by
fine-grained vermicular intergrowths of different phases like plagioclase
and quartz, appearing to corrode coarse alkali feldspar (Fig. 3D) and by
biotite-quartz symplectites surrounding cordierite (Fig. 3E). Cuspate
quartz grains in the domain of feldspar (Fig. 3F) and rounded quartz
grains within large perthitic feldspar suggest the presence of a pre-
existing melt. In migmatite leucosomes, a narrow plagioclase rim
within the quartz layer indicates evidence of melt migration (Fig. 3G).
Monazite and zircon form inclusions in porphyroblasts and are also
present in leucosomes.

3. Analytical techniques

Major elements were analysed using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) tech-

Fig. 3. Microscopic features of the garnet-cordierite gneissic samples showing
textural features: (A) Cordierite porphyroblast surrounded by the fine-grained
intergrowth among K-feldspar, plagioclase and biotite; (B) cordierite inclusion
within garnet porphyroblast which is rimmed by plagioclase; (C) garnet rimmed
by cordierite in association with orthopyroxene porphyroblast; (D) worm-like
intergrowths of plagioclase, quartz and cordierite corroding alkali feldspar;
(E) biotite–quartz symplectites surrounding cordierite grain; (F) cuspate quartz
grains in the domain of feldspar; (G) narrow rim of plagioclase within the layer
of quartz. Mineral abbreviations are used after Kretz (1983): Kfs–K-feldspar;
Crd–Cordierite; Grt–Garnet; Pl–Plagioclase; Bt–Biotite; Opx–Orthopyroxene;
Qtz–Quartz; Spl–Spinel.
nique using a Bruker S4 Pioneer wavelength dispersive (WD) XRF in-
strument at the National Centre for Earth Science Studies (NCESS),
Trivandrum, India. The detection limit for major elements was ~0.01%
and analytical precision was always better than 1%. The precision and
accuracy of calibration curves and data reliability is available at http://
cess.res.in/groups/crustal-processes-crpgroup/laborataries/xrf-lab-2
(Ravindra Kumar and Sreejith, 2016). The XRF data of representative
samples are given in Table 1.
Mineral compositions and monazite U–Th–total-Pb concentrations
were analysed using a CAMECA SX-100 EPMA at the Department of
Geology and Geophysics, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur,
India. The instrument was operated at an accelerating voltage of 15 kV,
15 nA beam current and 1–2 μm beam diameter. Natural silicate and
oxide standards were used for calibration, and raw data were corrected
using the ZAF program. Representative mineral compositions are given in
Appendices A–I.
Matrix as well as inclusion monazite grains were analysed for
U–Th–total-Pb on selected spots, based on backscattered electron (BSE)
imaging and X-ray element imaging. Analytical procedures followed are

Table 1
Bulk compositions used in the construction of phase diagrams.
Oxides XRF whole rock composition (wt.%) Recalculated bulk after addition of 10% Recalculated bulk after addition of 20% Recalculated bulk after addition of 30%
leucosome-composition leucosome-composition leucosome-composition

KKB3 (Grt-Crd KKB3L (wt.%) (wt.%) (wt.%)

Gneiss) (Leucosome)

SiO2 62.85 72.26 63.71 64.42 65.02

TiO2 0.97 0.02 0.88 0.81 0.75
Al2O3 17.26 15.99 17.14 17.05 16.97
FeO 6.28 0.68 5.77 5.35 4.99
MnO 0.13 0.01 0.12 0.11 0.1
MgO 2.26 0.18 2.07 1.91 1.78
CaO 2.86 1.31 2.72 2.6 2.5
Na2O 3.78 3.31 3.74 3.7 3.67
K2O 2.65 5.93 2.95 3.2 3.41
O2 0.45 – 0.41 0.38 0.35

599
N. Sorcar et al.
Fig. 4. Cathodoluminescence images of the zircons analysed in this study;
measured points marked by hollow white circles.
described in Pant et al. (2009) and Bhowmik et al. (2014). For the
chemical mapping of monazite, X-ray element maps were generated for
Y, Th and U at 20 kV and 100 nA, with 50 ms dwell times and a step size
of 0.1 μm at a resolution of 512  512 pixels. Spot analysis of monazite
was conducted at an accelerating voltage of 20 kV, a beam current of 200
nA and with a beam size of 1 μm. X-ray data were calibrated against
well-characterized natural and synthetic standards. The specific stan-
dards used for monazite analysis were: galena for Pb; UO2 for U; ThO2 for
Th; synthetic silica–aluminium glass containing 4% rare earth element
(REE) for La, Ce, Nd, Pr, Sm, Ho, Dy and Gd; apatite for P and Ca; Yttrium
Aluminium Garnet (YAG) for Y; corundum for Al; hematite for Fe; and
Th-glass for Si. X-ray lines selected for age analysis were Y Lα, Pb Mβ, U
Mβ and Th Mα. Pb Mα was measured on a large pentaerythyritol (LPET)
crystal; counting time at the peak was 300 s while the background was
measured on both sides for 150 s. For U, the U Mβ line was used to avoid
interference with the Th Mβ line; the counting time was 200 s on the peak
and 100 s on the background. The Th Mα peak was also counted for 200 s,
with 100 s measured on the background. U and Th were measured on PET
crystals. The X-ray lines used to measure REE were La (Lα), Ce (Lα), Nd
(Lβ), Pr (Lβ), Sm (Lα), Ho (Lβ), Dy (Lα) and Gd (Lβ). Background positions
were selected using wavelength dispersive spectroscopy (WDS) spectra,
with care taken to avoid major interferences. The reproducibility of the
analytical data was further checked with the reference, a Moacyr
monazite from Brazil with a207Pb/235U age of 483  1 Ma (Crowley et al.,
2005). The age calculated during calibration was 492  13 Ma (MSWD ¼
0.79, n ¼ 7) at the 95% confidence level. However, the age calculation
was carried out by employing an improved method by Cocherie and
Albarede (2001), and plotted by Isoplot/Ex version 3.0 (Ludwig, 2008).
The results of all the analyses are presented in Appendices J–K.
Zircon separation from the samples were carried out at the National
Centre for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India and
at the Institute of Geosciences, UNICAMP, Brazil. Sample preparation
involved crushing approximately 10 kg of the sample to approximately
0.25 mm grain-size, and then washing the crushed sample with de-
ionized water to remove ultra-fine particles to prevent muddying the
heavy liquid used in later stages. Magnetic minerals were separated from
the dried sample powder, first by a hand-held magnet and subsequently
using an isodynamic separator. The separation of heavy minerals was
600
Geoscience Frontiers 11 (2020) 597–611
done using heavy liquids like bromoform and methylene iodide. Zircons
were finally handpicked under a binocular microscope.
Approximately 90–100 handpicked zircons from the heaviest non-
magnetic fractions of each sample were mounted in transparent epoxy
resin and polished to expose the interiors of the crystals. BSE and cath-
odoluminescence (CL) images were obtained prior to analysis, using a
scanning electron microscope (SEM) in order to characterise the internal
structures of individual grains. The U–Pb zircon analytical work was
performed at the Institute of Geosciences, UNICAMP. Isotope data were
acquired on an SF-ICP-MS Element XR (Thermo Scientific), coupled with
an Excite.193 (Photon Machines) laser ablation system, equipped with a
two-volume HelEx ablation cell. The acquisition protocol followed Nav-
arro et al. (2015) with details from Verma et al. (2016); 25 μm was used
as the spot size. Data were reduced off-line using the Iolite software
(version 2.5) following the method of Paton et al. (2010), which involves
the subtraction of gas blanks followed by down-hole fractionation
correction and comparison with the behaviour of the 91500 reference
zircon (Wiedenbeck et al., 1995). Peixe zircon standard (ID-TIMS age of
564  4 Ma; cf. Dickinson and Gehrels, 2003) was used to monitor the
quality of the reduction procedures; during the analytical sessions 15
Peixe zircon analyses yielded an average age of 564.4  9.5 Ma.
Representative CL images and geochronological data from zircons are
given in Fig. 4 and Appendix L respectively.
4. Mineral chemistry
The overall composition of garnet in the garnet-cordierite gneiss from
the KKB is Alm54–64Prp24–39Sps1–7Grs2–4. Garnet porphyroblasts associ-
ated with cordierite do not show typically show any zoning, except for
the few which are in contact with biotite. Zoned garnet show very faint
diffusion zoning, with a rimward depletion of Mg and an increase in Fe
and Mn.
Cordierite, irrespective of their texture, are highly magnesian with
XMg (¼ Mg/(Mg þ Fe)) between 0.76 and 0.85. But intergrowth phase
cordierites have lower XMg (XMg ¼ ~0.76).
Orthopyroxene associated with garnet and cordierite has XMg values
between 0.59 and 0.65, with low contents of Ti, Mn and Ca. Al2O3
contents in the orthopyroxene cores range from 5.95 wt.% to 8.17 wt.%,
whereas rims typically have a slightly lower Al2O3 contents (5.67–7.21
wt.%).
Spinel is hercynite rich with XMg (¼ Mg/(Mg þ Fe2þþ Zn)) ranging
from 0.32 to 0.50. The ZnO content is 1.27–4.42 wt.%, providing a
gahnite component, i.e., XZn (¼ Zn/(Mg þ Fe2þþ Zn)) of 0.03–0.09.
Opaques containing only Fe appear to be exclusively magnetite when the
total wt.% is recalculated for Fe3þ.
Ileminite composition is close to the Fe end member having Xilm (¼
Fe2þ/(Mg þ Fe2þþ Mn)) of 0.90–0.97. These coarse-grained ilmenite are
characterized by low to moderate hematite contents (XFe3þ  100 ¼ 5–17
mol.%). Geikelite component is close to 1–6 mol.%.
The alkali feldspar in leucosomes is mostly perthitic, with a compo-
sition of Or65–98Ab2–21An1–7. The overall composition of plagioclase is
Ab65–75An23–34Or1–3 with anorthite content independent of the textural
position of the phase. However, the albite content is higher in plagioclase
inclusions and intergrowths, and lower for plagioclase in the leucosome;
matrix plagioclase also has a higher albite component as compared to
those lying close to garnet or orthopyroxene.
Biotite is mostly unzoned; those lying adjacent to garnet and the ones
included within garnets have higher XMg values ranging from 0.69 to
0.80 and 0.70–0.75, respectively, as compared to the ones present in the
matrix (XMg ¼ 0.66–0.74). Biotite grains that are present as intergrown
phases are more ferric (XFe ¼ 0.41–0.42) than those in the matrix or
contact biotite. TiO2 content of biotite is variable, ranging between 3.79
wt.% and 8.08 wt.%. Biotite present within the intergrowth has higher
TiO2 concentration than that of contact, matrix and inclusion biotite.
Fluorine content in the studied biotites is negligible, irrespective of its
mode of occurrence.
N. Sorcar et al.
5. Mineral reactions
The garnet porphyroblast in association with cordierite contains in-
clusions of biotite, sillimanite and quartz. This texture suggests the
following reaction might have occurred during the early stages of
metamorphism (Spear et al., 1999):
Bt þ Sil þ Pl þ Qtz → Grt þ Crd þ Melt þ (Kfs) (i)
A local presence of large, subhedral orthopyroxene grains in the
garnet-cordierite gneiss suggests the occurrence of the multivariate
KFMASH melting reaction (Vielzuef and Montel, 1994; Stevens et al.,
1997):
Bt þ Qtz þ Pl → Opx þ Crd þ Melt þ (Kfs) (ii)
Production of K-feldspar in biotite-melting reactions depends on the
K2O/H2O ratio of biotite and melts (Carrington and Watt, 1995).
Such reactions are likely to be multivariant in natural rocks and
therefore, occur over a P–T interval. Other than P and T, factors as bulk
rock XMg and Al2O3 content, fO2, F and Ti in biotite, XCa of plagioclase and
aH2 O , also influence these reactions. Vielzeuf and Montel (1994) in their
experiments produced orthopyroxene þ cordierite by reaction (ii) at
830–850
C and 3 kbar. At higher pressures, spinel and garnet succes-
sively substituted for cordierite. Experimental data from Carrington and
Harley (1995), on a more magnesian pelitic bulk composition (XMg ¼ 86)
in the system KFMASH, defined a narrow stability field for Opx þ Crd þ
Bt þ Qtz þ melt at 900–920
C, where at pressures of 8 kbar and above,
garnet appeared instead of orthopyroxene. Orthopyroxene and cordierite
were also produced by Stevens et al. (1997) in highly magnesian psam-
mopelitic composition (XMg ¼ 81) at 5 kbar and 850–950
C. Garnet
appeared at 10 kbar in the same bulk composition. However, the available
experimental data collectively define an upper limit for melting reaction
(ii) at 7–8 kbar and at temperatures in excess of 850
C.
Locally, aggregates of spinel and cordierite commonly separate
partially resorbed garnets from the leucosome, which can be explained
by the reaction (Cenki et al., 2002):
Bt þ Grt þ Sil þ Pl →Spl þ Crd þ (Kfs) þ Melt (iii)
Again, orthopyroxene þ spinel þ quartz could have been stabilized by
the following reaction in a slightly Fe-rich bulk composition (Vielzeuf
and Montel, 1994):
Bt þ Pl þ Qtz → Opx þ Spl þ (Kfs)þ Melt (iv)
In addition to the factors mentioned earlier, this reaction is also
influenced by the presence of Zn in spinelss (Hensen and Harley, 1990).
The experimental results of Vielzeuf and Montel (1994), and Stevens
et al. (1997) demonstrate that the orthopyroxene þ spinel assemblage is
preferred over garnet in psammopelitic compositions at relatively low
pressure (5–6 kbar) and high fO2. The melt thus produced is mostly
removed from the system, which enabled the preservation of the
HT/UHT assemblage (White et al., 2011). However, we consider relic
textures like cuspate quartz grains in the domain of plagioclase (Fig. 3F),
rounded quartz grains within large perthitic feldspar to be suggestive of
the former presence of melt.
Textural studies further suggest that large garnet grains (containing
inclusions of sillimanite and quartz) show the development of cordierite/
plagioclase corona indicating the following reactions (Sorcar et al.,
2014):
Grt þ Sill þ Qtz → Crd (v)
Grt þ Sill þ Qtz → Pl (vi)
Similar textures were also reported by Santosh (1987), and Nanda-
kumar and Harley (2000) from a nearby area in the KKB. These two re-
actions involve large changes in volume and could have occurred during
post-peak decompression, which provides added constraints on P–T
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Geoscience Frontiers 11 (2020) 597–611
paths followed by these partially molten rocks.
Locally, garnet porphyroblasts are partly resorbed and display
embayed grain boundaries. These embayments are characterized by
vermicular intergrowths with compositions changing gradually from the
garnet boundary towards the leucosome, which could be anhedral
cordierite, cordierite-quartz (Fig. 3D) and locally, biotite-quartz sym-
plectites (Fig. 3E). These textures could be explained by the following
melt consuming reaction (Cenki et al., 2002):
Grt þ Melt → Crd þ Bt þ Qtz (vii)
In addition, porphyroblastic cordierite may have also reacted with the
melt forming biotite-quartz intergrowths. The melt also exhibits graphic
intergrowth involving quartz and plagioclase (Fig. 3D), which surrounds
the perthitic K-feldspar. Hence, the last melt possibly crystallized at the
solidus via (Cenki et al., 2002):
Melt → Qtz þ Kfs þ Pl þ V  Bt (viii)
Late fluid release from the crystallizing melt according to reaction
(viii) may possibly explain the partial chloritization of the Fe–Mg phases
like Opx (Cenki et al., 2002).
6. Phase diagram modelling of melting event
The metamorphic evolution of the garnet-cordierite gneiss from the
KKB has been modelled using calculated P–T pseudosections to under-
stand the paragenetic changes it underwent. Applying free energy
minimization tools in conjunction with internally consistent thermody-
namic databases (e.g., Perple_X from Connolly, 1990, with the database
of Holland and Powell, 1998) to partially molten systems is challenging
due to the open system behaviour of high-temperature rocks which have
local domains of equilibrium. The major problem with this approach
remains the choice of bulk composition because high-grade rocks nor-
mally undergo significant melt-loss during or prior to peak meta-
morphism (Brown, 2002). As a result, present rock chemistry may not
represent pristine bulk composition (which is the composition prior to
melt loss). Here, two different bulk chemistries (pre-peak and post-peak)
are selected to model the partial melting events in the studied granulite.
6.1. Pre-peak metamorphic condition and melting
Pre-peak metamorphic conditions are considered by recasting the
bulk composition which underwent biotite-dehydration melting. In this
study, a melt–reintegration approach is followed to obtain the bulk
composition prior to melt loss. It is a popular approach to reconstruct the
prograde history of melt-depleted rocks using phase equilibria modelling
(White et al., 2004). Different methods of calculating and reintegrating
melt composition have been applied by previous studies (Bartoli, 2017
and references therein). Bartoli (2017) used one-step and multi-step
procedures for melt-reintegration and showed that the overall topology
of phase diagrams is similar, irrespective of the method applied; thus,
reintegrating a certain amount of melt can be sufficient to restore a
convincing prograde history (i.e. melting conditions, melt productivity
etc.) of residual migmatites and granulites. However, in this study, the
single step melt-reintegration approach is followed.
Since the preservation of peak assemblages requires significant
removal of melt from the system, it is mandatory to add the lost melt
component to the present bulk composition. As the melt composition for
a pelitic to semipelitic protolith is almost granitic, we looked for a suit-
able granitic rock which crystallized in the same (peak) metamorphic
realm of the granulite. Pre-peak bulk composition was thus obtained by
adding the adjacent leucosome composition (considered as crystallized
melt formed during the partial melting of the granulite) of the sample
KKB-3L to the whole rock chemistry of the garnet-cordierite gneiss
sample KKB3. The recalculated bulk composition was then used for
constructing P–T pseudosections with the software Perple_X (Version
N. Sorcar et al.
Fig. 5. (A) T–O2 diagram indicating the stability fields of the observed assemblages with changing O2 values; (B) T–H2O diagram showing stability of the mineral
assemblages as a function of temperature and H2O-content at 7.5 kbar. Mineral abbreviations are used after Kretz (1983) as follows: Kfs–K-feldspar; Crd–Cordierite;
Grt–Garnet; Pl–Plagioclase; Bt–Biotite; Opx–Orthopyroxene; Qtz–Quartz; Splss–Spinel solid solution; Ilm–Ilmenite; Sil–Sillimanite; Ky–Kyanite;
O2–Oxygen; H2O–Water.
6.7.9) in the system Na2O–CaO–K2O–FeO–MgO–MnO–Al2O3–SiO2–
TiO2–H2O–O2 (NCKFMASHTMnO). Several types of activi-
ty–composition relationships for solid solutions are used on a trial basis
(with reference to solution_model_v.6.7.9 of Perple_X_6.7.9). The solu-
tion model of Tajcmanova et al. (2009) was considered for biotite. This is
a reciprocal margules solution with dependent end members. There were
two independent mixing sites incorporating Mn, Fe2þ, and Mg at Site 1
and four components (Al, Si, Fe3þ, Ti) at Site 2. The solution models of
Holland and Powell (1998) were used for muscovite, garnet, and
orthopyroxene. The orthopyroxene solution model is a reciprocal with a
speciation-type of solution, whereas the muscovite and garnet solutions
models are margules-type of solutions with end member fractionation.
The spinel solution model, after White et al. (2002), is an ideal,
margules-type of solution. For ilmenite, the macroscopic-type solution
model used was from White et al. (2000). In the case of plagioclase
feldspar, the solution model of Newton and Haselton (1981) was used.
This is also a margules solution. In the case of cordierite, an ideal
anhydrous/hydrous Mg/Fe HP cordierite model with the correction of
hfcrd_i stoichiometry by L. Baumgartner (on 5/6/03) was taken for
pseudosection calculation. This is a reciprocal solution with an internal,
dependent end member. For the melt, the solution model of Holland and
Powell (2001), and White et al. (2001) was taken for pseudosection
construction, in a partially molten system. This is also a margules solu-
tion, and this model uses an internal routine to compute the entropy of
the melt. The pre-peak condition of metamorphism was recomposed by
adding 10%, 20% and 30% anhydrous granitic leucosome composition to
the whole rock chemistry of the granulite (Table 1). The modal percent of
the melt was estimated from the abundance of quartz and feldspar grains
showing melt-crystallizing textures, for which a value of 30% was taken
as the maximum following the method adopted by Ganguly et al. (2017).
Although the actual amount of melt loss in events along the prograde
path is unknown, each melting reaction (described in Section 6) seems to
have been able to produce more melt than required for it to escape, ~7
vol.% (~6 wt.%), corresponding to the melt connectivity transition of
Rosenberg and Handy (2005). Therefore, at least ~10 wt.% of anhydrous
granitic leucosome composition has to be added to the whole rock
chemistry of the granulite to retrieve the bulk rock composition prior to
the melt loss event. On the other hand, under favourable conditions the
biotite breakdown reaction can produce a large amount (40 wt.%) of
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Geoscience Frontiers 11 (2020) 597–611
water-undersaturated melt (Vielzuef and Holloway, 1988; Stevens et al.,
1997). Again, melt segregation requires a rheological critical melt per-
centage (RCMP) to be achieved due to dehydration melting. Experi-
mental data has suggested that the RCMP would occur at about 30 vol.%
melt (Van der Molen and Paterson, 1979). In this study, it is assumed a
maximum 30 wt.% of anhydrous granitic leucosome composition can be
added to the whole rock chemistry of the granulite to retrieve the bulk
rock composition prior to the melt loss event.
The granulite was metamorphosed under oxidized conditions, which
is evident from the coexistence of spinel–magnetite (magnetite solid
solution) and ilmenite–hematite (hematite solid solution). To constrain
the oxygen fugacity, the approach outlined by Korhonen et al. (2012),
and Kelsey and Hand (2015) was followed in this study. Accordingly, a
T–O2 pseudosection is constructed at 7.5 kbar (Fig. 5A) using the
measured composition of the rock to show the stability fields of the
observed assemblages with changing O2 values (Table 1). Fig. 5A shows
that the garnet–orthopyroxene–cordierite–spinel and ilmenite bearing
assemblages stabilize with 0.3–0.6 wt.% of O2, respectively, within the
temperature range 920–980
C. Therefore, a median O2 value of 0.45
wt.% was chosen to construct the P–T pseudosection (Fig. 5A).
The composition of water (H2O) present at the time of metamorphism
cannot be chemically determined; for this, an isobaric (at 7.5 kbar, cor-
responding to the pressure of metamorphism) T–H2O pseudosection
(Fig. 5B) was constructed using whole rock composition (Table 1)
(following the method adopted in Sorcar et al., 2014). It shows that in
order to stabilize the observed mineral assemblage in the rock (gar-
net–orthopyroxene–cordierite–spinel–ilmenite–K-feldspar) at the tem-
perature of metamorphism, the rock should have contained at least ~1
wt.% H2O (Fig. 5B). Moreover, a maximum of 2.0 wt.% H2O can be
present under saturated conditions in a psammitic bulk composition
(Holtz et al., 2001). Similarly, the isobaric (at 7.5 kbar) T–H2O diagrams
are constructed using recalculated bulk compositions (after adding 10%,
20% and 30% anhydrous granitic leucosome composition to the whole
rock chemistry of the studied granulite. For each recalculated bulk
composition, the diagrams demonstrate that the rock should have con-
tained at least ~1 wt.% H2O to stabilize the observed mineral assemblage
in the rock (garnet–orthopyroxene–cordierite–spinel–ilmenite–K-
feldspar) at the temperature of metamorphism. Here, H2O ¼ 1.00 wt.% is
used for pseudosection construction.
N. Sorcar et al. Geoscience Frontiers 11 (2020) 597–611

Fig. 6. P–T pseudosections constructed at re-calculated bulk compositions in

the system Na2O–CaO–K2O–FeO–MgO–MnO–Al2O3–SiO2–TiO2–H2O–O2
demonstrating pre-peak to peak conditions of metamorphism. The pre-peak
condition of metamorphism is recomposed by changing the leucosome compo-
sition from (A) 10% to (B) 20% to (C) 30% of the whole rock chemistry of the
garnet-cordierite gneiss. Each pseudosection is contoured with modal abun-
dance of the melt. Regions of the diagram where stability fields of several as-
semblages are closely juxtaposed on each other are amalgamated and marked as
a single, shaded and unlabeled field for clarity of illustration. The reader is
referred to the text for details. Mineral abbreviations: Ms–Muscovite, others are
same with Fig. 5.

It is to be noted that the ‘melt-in’ curve appears close to 740
C in the

low pressure region (5–8 kbar) in all the pseudosections (Figs. 6A–C and
7) irrespective of the bulk composition used. The resulting diagrams also
show that biotite dehydration melting initiates close to 750
C, at 6–8
kbar and the biotite-out temperature is close to 880
C. This is in
agreement with the experimental data (Bohlen et al., 1983; Peterson and
Newton, 1989; Vielzeuf and Clemens, 1992; Carrington and Harley,
1995; Stevens et al., 1997; Das et al., 2001, 2003) although these ex-
periments did not consider F content in biotite and its effect on dehy-
dration melting (Skjerlie et al., 1993; Bose et al., 2005 and references
therein). It is also noted that the field consisting of peak metamorphic
assemblage found in the studied rock (Grt–Crd–Opx–Splss–Pl–Kfs–
Qtz–Ilm) is extended towards higher temperature with gradual addition
of the melt to the residuum bulk composition. From the calculated melt
modes (Fig. 6 A–C), we found that melt productivity gradually increases
with melt addition; however, up to 35% melt can be generated in the
temperature interval of 740–950
C. Extracting this melt from the system
would cause considerable change in the initial bulk composition.

6.2. Peak to post-peak metamorphic stage

(caption on next column)
The whole rock composition (Table 1) of the sample has been used for
the construction of P–T pseudosections in the oxidized system
Na2O–CaO–K2O–FeO–MgO–MnO–Al2O3–SiO2–TiO2–H2O–O2 (NCKFMA
SHTMnO). We have used the internally consistent thermodynamic
database of Holland and Powell (1998) with subsequent updates
(described in the previous section). Modes of minerals/melts of solid
solution minerals were computed with the software Werami_6.7.9, a part
of the Perple_X _6.7.9 package. The value of O2 is assumed as 0.45 wt.%
following the procedure described above.
The appearance and disappearance of key mineral phases are shown
in the computed pseudosection (Fig. 7). The ‘melt-in’ curve shows a steep
slope (almost pressure insensitive) and successive fields (with increasing
temperature) of an interval of dehydration melting of muscovite (Fig. 7)
followed by a broad interval of dehydration melting of biotite. The low-
variance field with the assemblage of Grt–Opx–Crd–Splss–Ilm–Pl–Kfs–L
closely represents the peak metamorphic assemblage of the sample. This
field has a pressure-temperature window of 6–8 kbar and 900–980
C.
The peak field is confined by the cordierite-in line for the down-
temperature, the garnet-out line for the down-pressure, and the
orthopyroxene-out line for the up-pressure. There is a rapid increase in
the amount of melt produced in the biotite-melting interval after
exhaustion of muscovite in the system (Fig. 8A), in conformity with
experimental data of Le Breton and Thompson (1988), and Clemens
(1990). A maximum of 30% melt can be produced at the highest tem-
perature in this melting interval, and the melt becomes progressively
depleted in XNa (i.e. becomes more granitic) (Fig. 8B). There is an in-
crease in the modal abundance of garnet and spinel (Fig. 8C and D) in the
biotite-melting interval, which indicates that garnet and spinel are per-
itectic phases in the biotite dehydration-melting reaction (see also
textural evidence described earlier). Again, the modal variation of
cordierite and orthopyroxene (Fig. 8E and F) shows that their abundance
increases with temperature rise in the low P region in the pseudosection,
which supports their occurrence as porphyroblasts in the rock. Since

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F-absent biotite in the granulite formed during retrogression, the biotite
þ cordierite þ quartz þ plagioclase þ spinel þ ilmenite þ K-feldspar
retrograde mineral assemblage defines a P–T condition of <6 kbar and
<840
C. The retrograde field is well constrained by the garnet-in line at
the upper pressure and the biotite-out line at the upper temperature. The
above results and the occurrence of cordierite and plagioclase coronas
suggest a clockwise P–T path.
7. Geothermobarometry and P–T evolution
The results of P–T calculations using various thermometers and ba-
rometers are presented in Table 2. Based on petrographic and mineral
chemical studies, the porphyroblastic garnet, orthopyroxene, cordierite,
plagioclase, and quartz are considered to be in equilibrium at the peak
stage of metamorphism. The garnet–orthopyroxene geothermometer
(Lee and Ganguly, 1988) and the garnet–aluminosilicate-(sillimanite
present as inclusion within garnet)–plagioclase–quartz geobarometer
(Ganguly et al., 1996) are therefore used to estimate the peak meta-
morphic P–T conditions of the KKB3 samples. The Fe–Mg exchange
thermometers formulated by Lee and Ganguly (1988), yield maximum
temperatures (based on core analyses) of 870–1000
C at 8.0 kbar for
KKB3 (with the appearance of orthopyroxene as porphyroblasts). Since
orthopyroxene is not present in other samples of garnet-cordierite gneiss
from KKB4, an estimate of peak temperature is obtained from the
spinel–sillimanite–garnet–quartz assemblage (Nichols et al., 1992).
Using the thermometer of Nichols et al. (1992), the estimated
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Geoscience Frontiers 11 (2020) 597–611
Fig. 7. P–T pseudosections constructed at whole rock
composition from the studied sample in the system Na2O–
CaO–K2O–FeO–MgO–MnO–Al2O3–SiO2–TiO2–H2O–O2 to
represent peak- and post-peak conditions of meta-
morphism. Regions of the diagram where stability fields of
several assemblages are closely juxtaposed on each other
have been amalgamated and illustrated as a single, shaded
and unlabeled field for clarity of illustration. The stability
field of the peak assemblage found in the studied sample is
shown in bold black letters. Coloured lines demarcate the
regions where a particular phase is present; the colour code
is explained in the legend. Location of peak P–T point ob-
tained by individual thermobarometry is marked as star
and black dotted line shows the interpreted clockwise P–T
path followed by the rock. The reader is referred to the
figure legend for an explanation of symbols and the text for
discussion of the data. The details of the mineral abbrevi-
ations are mentioned in Fig. 6 caption.
temperatures are 885–920
C from KKB4 at an assumed pressure of 8
kbar. In case of sample KKB 3, also the “peak” T condition (890–960
C)
following the thermometer of Nichols et al. (1992) is in close agreement
with that obtained from KKB4. Estimates of pressure at the thermal
maximum attained by these rocks (based on core analyses) lie in the
range of 8  0.5 kbar using the model by Ganguly et al. (1996).
The pressure and temperature for the retrograde stage was con-
strained by biotites (without fluorine) coexisting with garnet porphyro-
blasts in the studied samples by considering the garnet–biotite Fe–Mg
exchange thermometer and garnet–aluminosilicate–plagioclase–quartz
(GASP) geobarometer of Ganguly et al. (1996). The estimated P–T con-
dition of the retrograde stage (based on rim composition) lies in the range
of 3.5–5 kbar and 450–480
C.
However, the combined results of various geothermobarometric es-
timates indicate that the studied garnet-cordierite gneiss from the KKB
reached peak temperatures of ~845–1000
C, with maximum pressure of
~8 kbar. Individual thermobarometry also determined the retrograde
P–T condition clustering around 3.5–5 kbar and 450–480
C for all the
samples indicating significant decompression, a likely component of
retrogression along a clockwise P–T trajectory. This implies that the peak
assemblage was Qtz–Kfs–Pl–Grt–Crd–Spl–Melt–Ilm (Opx) for all the
KKB samples in this study. In the calculated pseudosection, this field
occupies an area with a small range in temperature (920–980
C) and a
somewhat more extended range in pressure of 5–8 kbar. Peak P–T
calculated using individual thermobarometry for all samples using the
method outlined above lie close to the stipulated stability field.
N. Sorcar et al.
Fig. 8. Contours of modal abundances of different phases and concentrations of different elements in a selected phase in the pseudosection: (A) Melt mode; (B) XNa in
melt; (C) modal abundance of garnet; (D) modal abundance of spinelss; (E) modal abundance of cordierite; (F) modal abundance of orthopyroxene. The details of the
mineral abbreviations are mentioned in the figure caption of Fig. 6.
Finally, overall P–T trajectory for KKB samples can be obtained from
the above combining results of pseudosection calculations (Fig. 7) and
individual thermobarometry (Table 2). In this study, the prograde path of
the KKB rocks are poorly constrained, the first anchor point of the path is
the peak P–T condition, plotted as a star (Fig. 7). The plot shows that the
KKB reached peak temperatures of ~900
C (in spite of some scatter)
with a maximum pressure of ~7.5 kbar. This stage is followed by
decompression, evident from the production of a corona structure on
cordierites over garnet. This is an eventful period in the history of these
rocks, where changes in the modal abundances of garnet and melt take
place. Once this stage is reached, a phase of near isobaric cooling occurs.
During this stage, some of the back reactions involving melts (e.g. reac-
tion vii) along with the development of fine-grained intergrowth
involving biotite and Qtz (e.g. reaction viii) may occur. Such P–T paths
are consistent with clockwise P–T path described by other workers from
the Trivandrum block in the KKB (Santosh, 1986; Chacko et al., 1996;
Nandakumar and Harley, 2000; Pattison et al., 2003; Ishii et al., 2006;
Shimizu et al., 2009; Harley and Nandakumar, 2014, 2016; Johnson
et al., 2015; Blereau et al., 2016).
8. Monazite chemical dating
Two textural modes of monazites have been observed in the studied
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Geoscience Frontiers 11 (2020) 597–611
garnet-cordierite gneisses. A few round- to oval-shaped monazite grains
are included within porphyroblastic garnet or cordierite, while the rest
are dispersed through a plagioclase–perthite–quartz matrix or locally
associated with Pl–Qtz–Kfs–Bt intergrowths.
X-ray element composition maps of U, Th and Y for selected matrix
monazite grains along with their BSE images (e.g. Fig. 9A–D) shows
complex zoning patterns with three domains of contrasting BSE charac-
ters. X-ray element composition maps reveal the presence of truncated
high-U and low-Th zones (Fig. 9B and C). The oldest age data (from 934
to 965 Ma) plot within the U-rich patchy zones in the central portion,
which may indicate relicts of an older monazite core. This zone is
sequentially enveloped by thick domain of low-Th and high-Y contents
followed by a domain of the highest Th and lowest Y contents (Fig. 9D).
An outermost thin zone is characterized by moderate-Th.
Spot dates of monazite grains from both the matrix and the inclusions
vary within the range of ca. 410 Ma to 965 Ma (Fig. 10A). Few matrix
monazite populations show older ages, ranging from 798 Ma to 965 Ma.
The older age ranging from 927 Ma to 965 Ma yields a weighted mean of
941  18 Ma (95% conf., MSWD ¼ 0.23; 10 spots, Fig. 10B). Another
group of data yield spot dates ranging from 409 Ma to 618 Ma (matrix
grains: 88 spots; inclusions: 52 spots). It is worth noting that the MSWD
of the weighted mean (540  3.7 Ma) for this data is greater than the
maximum permissible value (Wendt and Carl, 1991). Therefore, the
N. Sorcar et al. Geoscience Frontiers 11 (2020) 597–611

Table 2 cannot be differentiated from morphological and chemical criteria. As a

Results of thermobarometric calculations of garnet-cordierite gneiss using
different models of geothermobarometers. Please see legend for explanation of
acronyms.
Sample Method
KKB 3A Grt-Opx thermometer by Lee
and Ganguly (1988)
Inclusion thermometry by
Nichols et al. (1992)
GASP by Ganguly et al. (1996)
GB-GASP by Ganguly et al.
(1996)
KKB 3B Grt-Opx thermometer by Lee
and Ganguly (1988)
Inclusion thermometry by
Nichols et al. (1992)
GASP by Ganguly et al. (1996)
result, the age is henceforth described as ca. 540 Ma, which may repre-
sent the probable age of the event/events related to the growth of garnet
in the granulite as evident from the occurrence of the Y-depleted outer
Peak condition Retrograde rim of the monazite (Williams et al., 2007).
condition Compositionally, all monazites show depletion of huttonite compo-
P T (
C) P T (
C) nent (Fig. 11A); younger monazites have a wide variation in Si as well as
(kbar) (kbar) Th þ U, while those with older ages have restricted variations. Monazites
[8] 1000 with younger ages, on the other hand, show two groups of enrichment
and depletion in the cheralite component, as compared to the ones with
[8] 960 older ages (Fig. 11B). A wide variation in Th, U, Y makes it difficult to
relate variation in monazite ages with their respective chemistry thereby
8 [850] 5 [500]
4.6 480 suggesting that the growth of different zones might have occurred under
variable physicochemical conditions. This observation is in sharp
contrast to monazites studied from the Central Indian Tectonic Zone
[8] 870 (CITZ), wherein a clear distinction was made between monazites
growing under varying P–T conditions (Bhomik et al., 2014).
[8] 890
8.4 [850] 4.5 [500] 9. U–Pb zircon geochronology

KKB 4A Inclusion thermometry by [8] 920 The analytical methods for the U–Pb zircon dating are given in the
Nichols et al. (1992) section on analytical techniques and the results for the samples are listed
GASP by Ganguly et al. (1996) 8.2 [850] 3.5 [500]
GB-GASP by Ganguly et al. 3.3 467
in the supplementary material. Fig. 4 shows CL images of zircons and
(1996) Fig. 12A and B presents geochronological results.
The studied zircons from the garnet-cordierite gneiss range from
KKB 4B Inclusion thermometry [8] 885 subhedral to anhedral grains of approximately 100–450 μm in size, with
Nichols et al. (1992) xenocrystic cores. The grains are colorless ranging from transparent to
GASP by Ganguly et al. (1996) 7.5 [850] 4 [500]
cloudy in appearance, and most of them have a visible (in CL) core-rim
GB-GASP by Ganguly et al. 3.5 450
(1996) zoning structure. Cores in some of the grains show brighter CL
response as compared to the rims, while in some the rims are brighter
GB-GASP: simultaneous calc. of Grt-Bt thermometer (Ferry and Spear, 1978) and
(Fig. 4). Zircons from this study show oscillatory, sector and patchy
Grt-Pl-Als-barometer (Koziol and Newton, 1989) modified with garnet activity
zoning with or without inherited cores. In some cases, the oscillatory
model after Ganguly et al. (1996); GASP: Grt-Als-Pl-barometer (Koziol and
Newton, 1989) modified with garnet activity model after Ganguly et al. (1996); zoning is cut-off by re-homogenised or irregular concentric zoning which
Nichols et al. (1992) and Grt-Spl barometer in FASZn system by Nichols et al. are characteristic of metamorphic zircons (Corfu et al., 2003).
(1992); [ ]: estimated P or T for calculation. A total of 79 zircon spots were analysed from the garnet-cordierite
gneiss. Nine spots were deleted owing to their high common Pb con-
tent (f206 > 1), while the rest plot on the concordia line between 400 Ma
and 1000 Ma (Fig. 12A). Sixty-eight spots with less than 20% discordance
were additionally plotted in the probability distribution diagram and
histogram shown in Fig. 11B. The ca. 840 Ma age cluster suggests the
main provenance (n ¼ 16). The youngest zircon population (n ¼ 6) has a
206
Pb/238U weighted average age of 532  16 Ma, which is the same as
the monazite age, within uncertainity. The histogram indicates that the
zircons from the studied sample have ages ranging from ca. 350–1000 Ma
with a dominance at 700–1000 Ma. A single grain with 207Pb/206U age of
ca. 2530 Ma is reported.
The studied zircon grains have a wide variation in their Th/U ratios
(0.01–1.48; Appendix L) which have no correlation with their respective
spot age. Rubatto (2002) suggested that the Th/U ratio could be an
important criterion to distinguish between zircon produced by magmatic
(Th/U > 0.1) and metamorphic (Th/U < 0.1) processes. However, Harley
et al. (2007) and Das et al. (2011) pointed out that a simple correlation
between Th/U ratio and the zircon forming processes, whether magmatic
or metamorphic, can be problematic as the enrichment and depletion of
U and Th is dependent on multiple factors. Yakymchuk et al. (2018) used
U and Th partition coefficients to model their behaviour; they suggested
that the breakdown and growth of monazite in equillibrium with zircon,
Fig. 9. Representative backscatter electron (BSE) images and X-ray element along with the timing of their growth during cooling and melt crystalli-
distribution (U, Th, and Y) maps of monazites in the studied samples; (A) BSE zation, controls the Th/U ratios in suprasolidus metamorphic zircon.
image showing complex zoning patterns with spot positions and calculated spot
ages; X-ray maps for (B) U, (C) Th and (D) Y. Color scale (right) indicates 10. Discussion
relative number of X-ray counts per pixel.

10.1. Characterization of the partial melting event

weighted mean plot is not shown, as it is just the statistical distribution of
spot ages. This age domain is wide, in range of ~120–130 Ma, which may It is essential to a develop quantitative mineral equilibria modelling
represent a single event or more than one event in a short time span that of a partially molten rock system to constrain the P–T evolution which

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Fig. 10. Calculated population ages from monazite grains analysed in this study; (A) probability density plot of weighted ages showing two peaks at ca. 540 Ma and
941 Ma respectively and (B) population with weighted mean age of 941  18 Ma.

Fig. 11. Binary plots showing the composition of monazite spots of different age populations; (A) Si vs. Th þ U and (B) Ca vs. Th þ U.

Fig. 12. (A) U–Pb concordia plot with all the analysed spots showing Archean inheritance and (B) histogram showing probability density of the analysed zircon grains.

helps to better our understanding on crustal differentiation and the
evolution of orogens. U–Pb dating from accessory minerals has been
immensely successful in pinning down the time factor for metamorphic
and/or melting events along a P–T path. Based on evidence from
experimental and natural rock data, we argue that migmatization of
gneisses was triggered by several biotite dehydration-melting reactions
at ~7.5 kbar and above 850
C (details in geothermobarometric section),
which caused complete elimination of prograde biotite in the studied
rock. Subsequent to the formation of megacrystic orthopyroxene þ
garnet þ cordierite in the peak metamorphic stage, reactions (v) to (viii)
(as mentioned in previous section) occurred during decompression and
associated cooling. This is supported by the presence of plagioclase/
cordierite corona over garnet as well as the development of worm like
intergrowth among Qtz–Pl–Kfs  Bt (Fig. 2D, G).
Modelling of phase equilibria in partially molten rocks in the KKB,
when the amount of melt removal is uncertain, is done by constructing
pseudosections with the measured bulk composition of migmatitic gneiss
(KKB3) through the application of Gibb’s free energy minimization
technique. The pseudosections are contoured with modal abundance and
compositional isopleths of the key phases. A melt reintegration approach
is considered to determine the protolith composition of the study area.
Accordingly, the reintegrated composition (Table 1), which falls in the
shaded region of the diagram (Fig. 13A–D) might represent an acceptable
protolith composition, i.e. showing lower FeO, MgO, Al2O3, CaO, TiO2 as
well as N2O/K2O ratio compared to the measured bulk composition of the
studied granulite. The analyses of the pseudosections (Figs. 6A–C and 8)
establish that melt productivity gradually increases with melt addition;
no more than 35% granitic melt can be generated in the temperature
interval of 740–950
C. This estimation is consistent with the experi-
mental result, which shows that under favourable conditions the biotite

607
N. Sorcar et al.
Fig. 13. Binary plots showing reintegrated compositions suggesting protolith composition of garnet-cordierite gneiss.
breakdown reaction can produce a large amount (up to 45%–50%) of
water-undersaturated melt (Vielzuef and Holloway, 1988). Following its
generation, melt extraction can result in the preservation of
granulite-facies mineral assemblages (e.g. Fyfe, 1973; White and Powell,
2002; Johnson et al., 2012; Palin et al., 2016a, b; Stuck and Diener, 2018)
in the study area. Cordierite gneisses from the KKB attained peak P–T
conditions of ~900
C at 7.5–8 kbar, and this stage is followed by its
decompression to 3.5–5 kbar, with cooling to 450–480
C. Such P–T
paths are consistent with the clockwise P–T path described in cordierite
gneisses from the Achankovil Zone (Santosh, 1987) which reported a
moderate to rapid isothermal decompression at a maximum temperature
of ca. 750
C followed by near-isobaric cooling at ca. 5 kbar. Further
south of the KKB, Satish-Kumar and Harley (1998) proposed an isobaric
cooling path at a temperature range of 840–750
C for calc-silicate
samples. These findings are supported by Nandakumar and Harley
(2000), who concluded that the initial post-peak P–T path was dominated
by near-isobaric cooling until temperatures of 775–800
C and pressures
of 5.5–6 kbar were reached. However, Cenki et al. (2002) suggested
higher pressure (6–7 kbar) and temperature 900–950
C, while Mor-
imoto et al. (2004) and Tadokoro et al. (2008) suggested UHT conditions
of >950
C, at pressures up to 12 kbar. The most recent estimates based
on calculated pseudosections have demonstrated peak metamorphic
conditions in the range of 830–925
C and 6–9 kbar followed by
decompression (Blereau et al., 2016). Thus, our present results are in line
with the argument of clockwise P–T evolution for the garnet-cordierite
gneiss peak high temperature – moderate pressure stage (~900
C at
7.5–8 kbar) followed by decompression and cooling to 450–480
C at
3.5–5 kbar. These results suggest that metasedimentary units of the KKB
reflect the burial, heating and eventual exhumation of
moderately-thickened crust.
10.2. Neoproterozoic/Cambrian tectonothermal events
The Fortunian (~ca. 540 Ma) and Tonian (~941 Ma) monazite ages
from the garnet-cordierite gneiss from the KKB clearly bring out two
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Geoscience Frontiers 11 (2020) 597–611
metamorphic events, similar to the ones previously reported (Braun
et al., 2007; Catlos et al., 2008; Collins et al., 2014; Taylor et al., 2014;
Harley and Nandakumar, 2016; Kumar et al., 2017; Tang et al., 2018 and
references therein) from the SGT, India. The younger ages, which are the
dominant and most common population are all from monazite occur-
rences, while the older ages come from texturally-controlled monazite
cores. The older ages can be attributed to relict domains related to earlier
monazite growth, resetting or recrystallisation during metamorphism or
magmatism (Braun and Brocker, 2004). Monazites with older age do-
mains have ca. 540 Ma low-Y rims, which are associated with the growth
of garnet during the high-temperature metamorphism in the Pan-African
orogeny. Similar ages from monazites have also been reported from other
localities in India (Braun et al., 1998; Braun and Broker, 2004; Clark
et al., 2015), Central Africa (Moller et al., 2000; Muhongo et al., 2001;
Hauzenberger et al., 2007; Tchato et al., 2009; Owona et al., 2011;
Tenczer et al., 2013), Madagascar (Jons and Schenk, 2008; Collins et al.,
2012; Boger et al., 2015; Holder et al., 2018), Sri Lanka (Boger et al.,
2014 and references therein) and Antartica (Shiraishi et al., 2008;
Grantham et al., 2013; Hokada et al., 2013; Osanai et al., 2013; Boger
et al., 2014). 950–850 Ma ages have been reported from monazites
preserved in the cores of garnet porphyroblasts (Braun et al., 2007) from
the southern part of the Madurai Block (MB) which were interpreted as
indications of a high-temperature metamorphic event. Our study reports
for the first time the presence of Tonian ages (~941 Ma) in matrix
monazites from KKB pelitic migmatites (garnet-cordierite gneiss), which
is significant, considering the recently reported U–Pb ages from the
southern part of the MB (ca. 1.0–0.9 Ga) adjacent to the KKB (Kumar
et al., 2017) and from the KKB (ca. 1.0–0.7 Ga; this study). The ca.
1.0–0.9 Ga zircon ages have been reported from charnockite orthog-
neisses of the MB which indicate juvenile magmatism in the SGT.
Additionally, ~0.8–0.7 Ga magmatic and metamorphic ages have also
been reported from the SGT (Braun and Appel, 2006; Kooijman et al.,
2011; Sato et al., 2011; Teale et al., 2011; Plavsa et al., 2012) suggesting
the presence of a cryptic tectonothermal event in the region (Collins
et al., 2014). Based on recently available age data (Tucker et al., 2011;
N. Sorcar et al.
Kr€oner et al., 2012, 2015), the KKB and the adjoining Nagercoil Block are
broadly correlated with the Anosyen–Androyen domain of southern
Madagascar and the Highland complex of Sri Lanka. The ca. 1.0–0.9 Ga
zircon ages have been reported from east Dronning Maud Land,
Antarctica (Jacobs et al., 2015), west and south Madagascar (the Dabo-
lava Suite; Tucker et al., 2011a, 2014) suggesting a geographical connect
between the terranes (Kumar et al., 2017 and references therein). New
geological age data presented in this study, together with previously
reported juvenile magmatic ages from the southern part of the MB,
conclusively point towards an older tectonothermal event (Tonian) that
was previously not well recorded within the KKB. This period overlaps
with the amalgamation of the supercontinent Rodinia, and juvenile
magmatic ages are most widely reported from the Dabolava Suite (Tucker
et al., 2014), Madagascar. The Tonian tectonothermal event in the KKB
may be a representation of the juvenile magmatism and associated
HT/UHT metamorphism during the Rodinia amalgamation. This was
extensively overprinted by Cambrian tectonothermal episodes which
have been reported throughout the SGT (Santosh et al., 2009; Brandt
et al., 2014; Collins et al., 2014; Harley and Nandakumar, 2016; Kumar
et al., 2017 and references therein).
11. Conclusion
The present study characterizes the evolution of the KKB by con-
straining the phenomena of partial melting events through phase equi-
libria modelling as well as geochronological analyses of monazite and
zircons. Various geothermobarometric estimates indicate that the area
experienced peak temperatures of ~845–1000
C, with maximum pres-
sure of ~8 kbar registering a clockwise P–T evolution. Pseudosections
and melt-reintegration suggest that, with increasing pressure and tem-
perature, a maximum of 35% granitic melt was produced. Integration of
reaction histories constrained by textural evidence, kinetically-
constrained individual thermobarometry and pseudosection calcula-
tions suggest a clockwise P–T path reflecting burial, heating and eventual
exhumation of moderately-thickened crust. Further, the chemical ages
from monazites and in-situ U–Pb isotopes from zircons point towards a
complex tectonometamorphic evolution in the terrain with the clear
indication of a Tonian metamorphic event subsequently overprinted by
Cambrian tectonothermal episode.
Acknowledgements
NS, KBJ, JKT, VN thank the Director, NCESS and the Secretary, MoES,
Government of India for providing funds and unconditional support to
carry out this work. Authors also thank Prof. Somnath Dasgupta for in-
depth discussions that helped improve the manuscript. The manuscript
also benefitted from discussions with Profs. Sankar Bose, Kaushik Das
and N. C. Pant. NS acknowledges support from Eldose and Nishanth in
the thin section and XRF laboratories at NCESS. Prof. B. Mishra and
Saptarshi at IIT, Kharagpur provided access to the IIT Kharagpur National
EPMA Facility. Dr. Robert Holder is thanked for his helpful review. NS
acknowledges funding from the Department of Science and Technology,
Government of India (India) under the DST INSPIRE Faculty Scheme
(Grant: DST/INSPIRE/04/2014/000221).
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.gsf.2019.05.013.
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