Received: 27 August 2021 Revised: 6 January 2022 Accepted: 16 February 2022

DOI: 10.1002/gj.4434

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Crustal architecture of North Singhbhum Mobile Belt,

Eastern Indian Shield: Constraints from two-dimensional
and three-dimensional modelling of Bouguer gravity
and aeromagnetic data

Rama Chandrudu Arasada1 | Gangumalla Srinivasa Rao1 | Rajagopal Anand2

1
Department of Applied Geophysics, Indian
Institute of Technology (Indian School of
Mines), Dhanbad, India
2
Department of Applied Geology, Indian
Institute of Technology (Indian School of
Mines), Dhanbad, India
Correspondence
Srinivasa Rao Gangumalla, Department of
Applied Geophysics, Indian Institute of
Technology (Indian School of Mines),
Dhanbad, Jharkhand-826004, India.
Email: gsrao@iitism.ac.in
Funding information
Department of Science and Technology,
Ministry of Science and Technology, India;
Science and Engineering Research Board
The North Singhbhum Mobile Belt (NSMB) that lies in the Eastern Indian Shield
between the Chotanagpur Granite-Gneiss Complex (CGGC) and the Singhbhum Cra-
ton (SC) provides a unique opportunity to understand the Proterozoic crustal evolu-
tion of the Indian shield. In the present study, an integrated interpretation of
petrophysical, Bouguer gravity, and aeromagnetic data was carried out to examine
the crustal architecture and structural framework of the region. Three-dimensional
(3-D) inversion of the aeromagnetic anomalies reveals that the magnetic basement
depths range from 0.2 to 9.0 km in the region. The crustal models obtained from
two-dimensional (2-D) and 3-D forward modelling of potential field data reveal the
Moho at 37–38 km depth beneath the NSMB and at a relatively deeper depth of
39–40 km and 40–44 km beneath SC and CGGC, respectively. Further, the distinct
gravity high and the coinciding bipolar magnetic anomalies associated with the Dalma

Handling Editor: N.V. Chalapathi Rao
Formation can be attributed to the mafic/ultramafic intrusions. Gravity models across
the Singhbhum Shear Zone (SSZ) and South Purulia Shear Zone (SPSZ) exhibit the
crustal density inhomogeneity and Moho offset, typical of ancient suture zones of
Precambrian terrains. In comparison, the absence of such crustal-scale signatures
across the North Purulia Shear Zone represents its intracratonic nature. Further, the
Bouguer gravity and aeromagnetic signatures across the SPSZ, together with the
crustal architecture and metamorphic ages, suggest that SPSZ marks the eastward
continuity of the Gavilgarh-Tan Shear Zone along which the amalgamation of north-
ern and southern Indian cratonic blocks possibly took place at ca. 1.0–0.9 Ga.

KEYWORDS
Eastern Indian Shield, North Singhbhum Mobile Belt, potential field modelling, Proterozoic
crustal evolution

1 | I N T RO DU CT I O N
Globally, the Proterozoic period is well-known for extensive orogenic
activity along the ancient cratonic margins through the assembly and
dispersion of supercontinents known as Columbia and Rodinia (Li
et al., 2008; Pisarevsky et al., 2013; Zhao, Cawood, Wilde, &
Sun, 2002; Zhao, Sun, Wilde, & Li, 2004). These orogenic belts record
the polyphase magmatic–metamorphic and sedimentation history and
form key elements to understand supercontinent reconstruction
(Bhowmik, 2019; Rogers & Santosh, 2002). The Central Indian Tec-
tonic Zone (CITZ) separating peninsular India is one such ancient
suture zone along which lithospheric blocks of Southern India

Geological Journal. 2022;1–18. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/gj © 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 1
2 ARASADA ET AL.

(comprising of Dharwar, Bastar, and Singhbhum Cratons [SC]) and
Northern India (consisting of the Aravalli and Bundelkhand cratons)
are accreted (Bhowmik, 2019; Roy & Prasad, 2003) (Figure 1). Zhao
et al. (2002) proposed that the western segment of the CITZ is an
extension of Trans North China Orogen in Columbia supercontinent
reconstruction (Figure 1). In contrast to this, Mohanty (2012) corre-
lated the CITZ with the Capricorn Orogen of Western Australia. In the
central part of peninsular India, the eastern extreme of the CITZ is
branched into three major shear zones (Figure 1) (Rekha et al., 2011).
The northernmost shear zone is located within the Chotanagpur
Granite-Gneiss Complex (CGGC) (Figure 1). The intermediate zone is
known as the South Purulia Shear Zone (SPSZ) or Tamar-Porapahar-
Shear Zone which demarcates CGGC from North Singhbhum Mobile
Belt (NSMB). The southernmost shear zone is identified as the
Singhbum Shear Zone (SSZ), delimiting the SC from NSMB (Figure 2).
Several geodynamic models were proposed to explain the crustal
evolution of NSMB, such as intraplate subduction (Sarkar &
Saha, 1977), back-arc marginal setting (Bose, Chakrabarti, &
Saunders, 1989; Bose & Chakraborti, 1981), micro-continental
subduction (Sarkar, 1982), and ensialic orogeny model (Gupta, Basu, &
Ghosh, 1980; Sarkar, Gupta, & Basu, 1992). However, all the above
proposed models are entirely based on geochronological and other
geological studies (stratigraphic correlation, sedimentological informa-
tion, magmatism, deformation, and metamorphism) and do not include
the geophysical components. Existing geophysical studies have
attempted to map the gross lithospheric structure of the Eastern
Indian Shield (EIS) and do not specifically describe the crustal evolu-
tion of the NSMB (Bhattacharya & Shalivahan, 2002; Das et al., 2019;
Kayal, Srivastava, Kumar, Chatterjee, & Khan, 2011; Mandal, 2017,
2019; Mandal et al., 2021; Mandal & Biswas, 2016; Singh, Kumar,
Rao, & Tiwari, 2021; Singh, Kumar, & Zeyen, 2015; Vasanthi
et al., 2021). A detailed summary of results obtained from previous
studies of the EIS is provided in Section 1.1.
The interpretation of potential field data constrained with the
petrophysical and geological observations is proved to be effective in
deciphering the crustal architecture of Precambrian terrains (Aitken &
Betts, 2009; Guy et al., 2014; Kumar, Roy, & Das, 2016; Lindsay
et al., 2016; Metelka, Baratoux, Naba, & Jessell, 2011; Mishra, Singh,

F I G U R E 1 Regional geological map of India showing the major tectonic provinces and shear zones (GSI, 1998; Ramakrishnan &
Vaidyanadhan, 2010). The black square box represents the study area. The dashed black lines represent suture/fault/shear zones. The insert
image at the lower-right corner indicates the Columbia supercontinent assembly (Zhao et al., 2002). BSZ, Bhavani Shear Zone; CB, Cuddapah
Basin; CBF, Chitradurga Boundary Fault; ChB, Chhattisgarh Basin; CISZ, Central Indian Shear Zone; CITZ, Central Indian Tectonic Zone; EDC,
Eastern Dharwar Craton; GTSZ, Gavilgarh-Tan Shear Zone; MSZ, Moyar Shear Zone; PCSZ, Palghat-Cauvery Shear Zone; SGT, Southern
Granulite Terrain; SMGC, Shillong-Meghalaya Gneissic Complex; SNNF, Son-Narmada North Fault; SNSF, Son-Narmada South Fault; SPSZ, South
Purulia Shear Zone; SSZ, Singhbhum Shear Zone; VB, Vindhyan Basin; WDC, Western Dharwar Craton
ARASADA ET AL. 3

F I G U R E 2 Detailed geology map of North Singhbhum Mobile Belt (NSMB) prepared based on the quadrangle maps from Geological Survey
of India and published literature (after, Chatterjee, Banerjee, Bhattacharya, & Maji, 2010; Goswami & Bhattacharyya, 2014; GSI, 1998; Olierook
et al., 2019; Saha, 1994). Magenta coloured symbol, red stars, and blue dots indicate Minimum (detrital) age (Ma), crystallization age (Ma), and
Metamorphism age (Ma), respectively adopted from the previous studies (Dey et al., 2019; Mukherjee, Dey, Sanyal, & Sengupta, 2019; Olierook
et al., 2019; Rekha et al., 2011). The solid black lines indicate the locations of profiles (AA0 to EE0 ) along which the variation of gravity and
magnetic anomalies is depicted in Figure 8. Red triangles annotated with numbers indicate Moho depths at seismological stations (Das, Agrawal,
Gupta, & Gautam, 2019; Mandal, Kumar, Sreenivas, Babu, & Rao, 2021). BAL, Balukuria; BOKR, Bokaro; CGGC, Chotanagpur granite gneisses
complex; CHI, Chaibasa; DHN, Dhanbad; DV, Dalma volcanics; NPSZ, North Purulia Shear Zone; NRS, Nirsa; NSMB, North Singhbhum Mobile
Belt; RAN, Ranchi; SC, Singhbhum Craton; SPSZ, South Purulia Shear Zone; SRK, Saraikela; SSZ, Singhbhum Shear Zone

Tiwari, Gupta, & Rao, 2000; Radhakrishna, Kurian, Nambiar, &
Murty, 2003; Singh et al., 2015; Stewart & Betts, 2010; Williams,
Betts, & Ailleres, 2009). Numerous studies also illustrated that the
masking effect of regional overprinting on ancient deep-seated
sutures zones could be deduced by applying different derivative and
gradient filters on the potential field data (Lindsay et al., 2016;
Williams & Betts, 2007). Thus, in the present study, constrained two
dimensional (2-D) and three dimensional (3-D) modelling of Bouguer
gravity and aeromagnetic data were carried out to decipher the crustal
structure and structural framework of NSMB and CGGC that helps to
elucidate the geodynamic evolution of the region. Further, the
obtained results of crustal modelling have been integrated with the
existing chronological dates of metamorphism and magmatism to
understand the tectonic connection between NSMB and the CITZ.
1.1 | Previous crustal studies in the EIS
In the past, several geophysical investigations were carried out to
study the crustal structure of the EIS (Bhattacharya
Shalivahan, 2002; Das et al., 2019; Haldar, Kumar, Kumar, Ray, &
Srinagesh, 2018; Kaila et al., 1992; Kayal et al., 2011; Kumar
et al., 2016; Mandal, 2017, 2019; Mandal et al., 2021; Mandal &
Biswas, 2016; Singh et al., 2015; Singh et al., 2021; Vasanthi
et al., 2021). Mandal (2017) reported a mean Moho depth of 42
± 4 km in the SC and 42 ± 1 km in the CGGC based on receiver func-
tion analysis. Magnetotelluric (MT) studies revealed that the Moho
boundary beneath the SC lies at a depth of 46 ± 2.6 km
(Bhattacharya & Shalivahan, 2002). Density structure obtained from
integrated modelling of topography, satellite gravity, and geoid data
revealed that Moho discontinuity beneath SC is about 35–36 km, and
it deepens gradually to a depth of 40 km below the CGGC (Singh
et al., 2015). Based on the power spectrum analysis of the satellite
gravity data, Kumar et al. (2016) estimated that the Moho boundary
varies from 30 to 38 km beneath the EIS.
Analysis of broadband seismological stations data suggests wide
variations in seismic wave velocities (both Vp and Vs) and Moho depth
values across the EIS (Das et al., 2019; Haldar et al., 2018; Kayal
et al., 2011; Mandal, 2017, 2019; Mandal et al., 2021; Mandal &
Biswas, 2016). Based on the P-wave receiver function analysis, Haldar
et al. (2018) suggested a bulk crustal thickness of 43 km and an aver-
& age Vp/Vs ratio of
1.86 below the SC. Kayal et al. (2011) proposed a
Moho depth of 41 km with an average Poisson ratio of
0.28 below
the Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad station located in the CGGC.
4 ARASADA ET AL.
Das et al. (2019) reported a crustal thickness of 43–44 km with higher
Poisson ratio values of 0.29–0.30 beneath the CGGC using the joint
modelling of Rayleigh wave dispersion curves and receiver function
data (Ps and Sp). Based on the P receiver function studies,
Mandal (2017) reported a high velocity lower crust (Vp ≥7.0 km/s and
Vs ≥4.0 km/s) beneath the SC. Joint modelling of P-receiver functions
and surface wave dispersion data reveals that Moho discontinuity var-
ies from 33 to 42 km beneath SC and 41 km below the CGGC
(Mandal et al., 2021).
1.2 | Geological framework of NSMB and adjoining
terrains
The NSMB is a
220 km long curvilinear belt located in the EIS
between the SC and CGGC (Figure 2). In the eastern part, the belt
shows NW-SE orientation and then progressively varies to E-W orien-
tation in the central portion and becomes NE–SW in the western por-
tion (Figure 2). NSMB has distinct boundaries in the form of two
major shear zones separating the SC with SSZ and CGGC with SPSZ
(Figure 2). Further, the belt comprises several volcano-sedimentary
sequences deposited in the Paleoproterozoic period, including
Chaibasa Formation in the southern part, Dhalbhum, and Dalma for-
mations in the central part, and Chandil Formation occupy in the
northernmost part of the belt (Figure 2) (Mazumder & Sarkar, 2004).
Sedimentological and stratigraphy studies (De et al., 2015;
Mazumder, 2005; Mazumder et al., 2015; Olierook et al., 2019) sug-
gest that Chaibasa Formation represents the oldest of the volcano-
sedimentary succession of NSMB, and it is overlain by the deposition
of Dhalbhum, Dalma, and Chandil formations. Recently, Olierook
et al. (2019) suggested that the volcano-sediment deposition in the
NSMB occurred from ca. 1.66 to 1.6 Ga on the northern NSMB and
ca. >1.8 Ga in the southern NSMB.
Lithologically, the Dalma Formation encompasses mafic to ultra-
mafic rocks (Figure 2) (De et al., 2016; Gupta et al., 1980; Olierook
et al., 2019), while the Chaibasa and Dhalbhum formations are charac-
terized by quartzite, phyllite, and schist associated with granite-
granodiorite plutons and mafic volcanic rocks. In comparison, the
Chandil Formation contains phyllite, schist interbedded with quartz-
schist, quartzite, chert, and carbon-phyllite (Rekha et al., 2011; Sarkar,
Ghosh, & Lambert, 1985). It is also evident from the metamorphic his-
tory of the rocks in the NSMB and SC that the region has experienced
distinct orogenic episodes during the Archean and Proterozoic eons
(Ghosh & Bose, 2020). The earlier episodes (ca. 3.3–3.1 Ga) are
related to the building of the SC nucleus through successive pulses of
granitic magmatism, evidences for which are found in the Older Meta-
morphic Group (ca. 3.3 Ga) and iron ore group (IOG) (ca. 3.1 Ga)
(Ghosh & Bose, 2020). The imprints of the Neoarchean (ca. 2.8 Ga)
and Neoproterozoic (
0.5 Ga) events are related to tectonic activity
along the southern margin (Rengali Province) of SC (Ghosh
et al., 2016; Ghosh & Bose, 2020). In comparison, the northern margin
(NSMB) of the SC has recorded the distinct phases of Proterozoic
orogeny (ca. 1.83, ca. 1.66, and ca. 1.0–0.90 Ga) (Ghosh &
Bose, 2020; Mahato, Goon, Bhattacharya, Mishra, & Bernhardt, 2008;
Pal, Chaudhuri, McFarlane, Mukherjee, & Sarangi, 2011; Pal &
Rhede, 2013; Rekha et al., 2011).
2 | GE O P HYSI C A L D A T A A ND
METHODOLOGY
In the present study, petrophysical, Bouguer gravity, and aeromag-
netic data were analysed using an integrated modelling approach and
image enhancement filters to decipher the crustal structure and struc-
tural framework of the NSMB region. A brief description of these
datasets and methodology is discussed below.
2.1 | Density of rock samples
In the present study, 43 rock samples are collected from different
litho-units of NSMB and the adjacent SC and CGGC. The density of
these rock samples is measured using the electronic balance of the
Afcoset density meter. In addition to this, we have added earlier esti-
mated density measurements of 273 samples from Verma,
Mukhopadhyay, Roy, & Sinha (1978) to produce a petrophysical data-
base for NSMB and to aid the geological interpretation. Statistical
analysis of these rock samples was performed to obtain the represen-
tative density for each rock sample. The statistical distribution of den-
sity measurements of these rock samples is shown in Figure 3a as the
box and whisker plot. These compiled petrophysical data are also used
to constrain the density values during the 3-D Forward gravity model-
ling and 2-D joint gravity and magnetic modelling.
2.2 | Topography data
The topography map (Figure 3b) is based on the digital elevation data-
base retrieved from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM)
(Tozer et al., 2019). This model provides topography undulation at an
interval of 15-arc sec. In the present study, we re-gridded this data to
an interval of
1 km to prepare the topography map of the region. In
the SC, the elevation varies from 200 to 754 m whereas in the NSMB
and CGGC, elevation ranges from 150 to 754 m.
2.3 | Bouguer gravity and aeromagnetic data
Bouguer gravity anomaly map of NSMB is prepared (Figure 4) based
on 1,900 gravity observations compiled from GSI-NGRI (2006) and
Verma et al. (1978). These data were collected at 2–3 km spacing
along the major roads and are suitable for regional geodynamic inves-
tigations (GSI-NGRI, 2006; Verma et al., 1978).
Aeromagnetic data of the NSMB was obtained from the Remote
Sensing and Aerial Surveys division of the Geological Survey of India
(GSI, 1995). These datasets were acquired by National Remote
ARASADA ET AL. 5

F I G U R E 3 (a) Box and whisker plot show the density properties of rock samples from different litho-units of the study area. In the present
study, 43 samples were measured, and 273 samples are compiled from the previous publications (Verma et al., 1978; Verma, Sarma, &
Mukhopadhyay, 1984). The number of samples (n) for each litho-unit is shown at the top of each box in the plot. (b) Topography map from SRTM
(Tozer et al., 2019). Black dots indicate gravity station locations. White triangles annotated with numbers represent the Moho depths at
seismological stations (Das et al., 2019; Mandal et al., 2021). CHI: Chaibasa; SRK: Saraikela; BAL: Balukuria; RAN: Ranchi; BOKR: Bokaro; DHN:
Dhanbad; NRS: Nirsa. The dash-dotted black lines shown on the map represent the shear zones. IOG, Iron Ore Group

from the total magnetic field using appropriate International Geomag-

netic Reference Field model. This data is further subjected to an
upward continuation filter of 4 km height to bring the anomalies to a
common datum plane (Figure 5a). We have also applied a reduction to
the pole (RTP) filter (Figure 5b) to the total field magnetic intensity
data (Figure 5a) to remove the effect of latitude on the magnetic
anomalies (Blakely, 1996).

2.4 | Qualitative analysis of gravity and

magnetic data

F I G U R E 4 Complete Bouguer gravity anomaly map (GSI-
NGRI, 2006; Verma et al., 1978). The solid black lines represent the
location of profiles (AA0 to EE0 ) along which the variation of gravity
and magnetic anomalies is shown in Figure 8. The dash-dotted black
lines shown on the map represent the shear zones. IOG, Iron Ore
Group
sensing Agency during the period 1983–1994. The original survey
was conducted at two different altitudes (5,000 and 7,000 ft) along
N-S oriented lines with an interval of 4 km between traverses and a
sampling interval of 2 s. In order to retain the crustal magnetic signa-
tures, we removed the contribution of Earth's main magnetic field
The Bouguer gravity (Figure 4) and RTP (Figure 5b) maps show the
strong regional component superposed by several short-wavelength
anomalies. In order to enhance the specific wavelength features asso-
ciated with different structural elements and litho-tectonic domains,
these grids were subjected to several image enhancement filters. In
the case of Bouguer gravity anomaly data, we prepared an upward
continuation map of 10 km height (Figure 6a), first vertical derivative
(FVD) (Figure 6b), and total horizontal gradient (Figure 6c) maps
whereas total horizontal gradient (Figure 7a) and Analytical Signal
(AS) (Figure 7b) filters were applied on the RTP grid (Figure 6b).
The upward continued map of Bouguer gravity anomalies
(Figure 6a) is helpful to understand the characteristics of long-
wavelength features (Blakely, 1996). The FVD filter (Figure 6b)
enhances the short-wavelength associated with the shallower sources
(Blakely, 1996) while the peaks of total horizontal gradient and AS
maps are helpful to delineate boundaries of different lithological
domains associated with the abrupt changes in density or magnetiza-
tion (Blakely, 1996; Roest, Verhoef, & Pilkington, 1992). The total
6 ARASADA ET AL.

F I G U R E 5 (a) Aeromagnetic anomaly map from the Remote Sensing and Aerial Surveys (RSAS) division of Geological Survey of India
(GSI, 1995). (b) Reduction to the pole (RTP) map of aeromagnetic anomaly data shown in Figure 5a. Dash-dotted lines shown in black on both
maps represent shear zones. IOG, Iron Ore Group

F I G U R E 6 (a) Upward continued map of Bouguer gravity anomalies to 10 km height. (b) First vertical derivative (FVD) and (c) Total horizontal
derivative (THD) map of Bouguer gravity anomaly data. The dash-dotted lines shown in black on all maps represent the shear zones. IOG, Iron
Ore Group

horizontal gradient (Blakely, 1996) and AS (Roest et al., 1992) of the obtained using the fast Fourier Transform (FT) in the frequency
potential field data (F) can be expressed as follows: domain (Blakely, 1996).
In order to understand the Bouguer gravity and aeromagnetic
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 2  2 anomaly variations in relation to surface geology, we have also con-
∂F ∂F
THG ¼ þ , ð1Þ
∂x ∂y structed five profiles (AA0 -EE0 ) across the NSMB. The profiles AA0 and
BB0 have NE–SW strike covering the major lithological domains in the
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 2  2  2 western part of NSMB (Figure 2) whereas the profiles CC0 , DD0 and
∂F ∂F ∂F
AS ¼ þ þ , ð2Þ EE0 were chosen a across the central and eastern part of NSMB with
∂x ∂y ∂z
an internal profile separation of
30 km (Figure 2). The elevation,
∂F ∂F ∂F
where ∂x , ∂y , and ∂z represent the derivatives of the potential field Bouguer gravity, and magnetic anomalies over geological sections
data in x, y, and z directions, respectively. These derivatives can be along these profiles are depicted in Figure 8.
ARASADA ET AL. 7

F I G U R E 7 (a) Total horizontal derivative (THD), and (b) Analytic signal (AS) maps of the reduction to the pole (RTP) data. The dash-dotted
lines shown in black on both maps represent the shear zones. IOG, Iron Ore Group

2.5 | 3-D magnetic inversion To obtain the magnetic basement topography, the above Equation (4) is
solved iteratively by assuming the mean interface depth (z0 Þ and mag-
In this study, depth to the magnetic basement is determined from the netization contrast (M). As the starting model, we obtain the basement
aeromagnetic grid using the iterative spectral-domain inversion tech- topography by assigning h = 0 in the above Equation (4) and then tak-
nique developed by Parker (1972). This method is based on the repre- ing its inverse FT. The obtained values are then used to update base-
sentation of magnetic anomalies and depth of uneven and non- ment topography in the subsequent iterations. This process is
uniform magnetized layer (h) in the Fourier domain, as described repeated until we achieve the predetermined root mean square (RMS)

mez-Ortiz, & Do, 2020):
below (Blakely, 1996; Pham, Oksum, Go error value or the completion of a specified number of iterations. In
order to obtain a stable and smooth solution, a low-pass filter is
X ∞ ðjkjÞn n applied in the inversion process (Oldenburg, 1974; Pham et al., 2020).
ðjkjz0 Þ
F½ΔT  ¼ 2πMCm Θm Θf e F½h , ð3Þ
n¼1 n! This filter passes all frequencies lower than the WH and cut-off the
where F ½ΔT  represents the FT of the magnetic anomaly (ΔTÞ, frequencies greater than the SH (Oldenburg, 1974; Pham et al., 2020).
M denotes the magnetization contrast, Cm denotes the magnetic per-
8
meability (4π  107 H=m), z0 is the mean interface
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi depth, and k is the >
> 1
<1   jk=2π j < WH
k  2πWH
two-dimensional wavenumber (jkj ¼ k2x þ k2y ), and Θm , Θf are the BðkÞ ¼ 1 þ cos for WH ≤ jk=2π j ≤ SH : ð5Þ
>
> 2 2ðSH  WHÞ
complex functions that can be express as : jk=2π j > SH
0

cx kx þ m
m cy ky For the purpose of magnetic inversion, the mean interface depth of
cz þ i
Θm ¼ m ,
jkj 3.0 km and a magnetization contrast of 1.8 A/m are considered in this
study. Other input parameters are for the inversion are the inclination
fbx kx þ fby ky of 32.49 and declination of 0.69 . A low-pass filter with cut-off fre-
Θf ¼ fbz þ i ,
jkj quencies WH = 0.065 and SH = 0.034 is used to obtain a stable and
smooth solution. Figure 9a shows the inverted basement depth map of
cx , m
where m cz and fbx , fby , fbz are the direction of magnetization and
cy , m NSMB. The RMS error in each iteration is also shown in Figure 9b.
the ambient magnetic fields, respectively.
After rearranging the above Equation (3), the following iterative
formula was obtained for estimating the undulating basement 2.6 | 2-D and 3-D forward modelling of potential
topography field data

F½ΔT  X ∞ ðjkjÞn n Forward modelling of Bouguer anomaly data was performed using the
F ½h ¼  F ½h : ð4Þ
2πMCm Θm Θf jkjeðjkjz0 Þ n¼2 n! GMSYS-3D modelling software to obtain the 3-D crustal model of the
8 ARASADA ET AL.

F I G U R E 8 (a–e) Nature of the Bouguer gravity and aeromagnetic anomalies along five profiles AA0 to EE0 (see Figure 4 for locations). (f)
Nature of the gravity anomaly across the Eastern Dharwar-Nallamalai Fold Belt-Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt compiled from Pandey, Chandrakala,
Vasanthi, & Kumar (2018)

NSMB. This modelling software utilizes a combination of Fast-FT and
space-domain algorithms to compute the gravity response of the 3-D
model (Geosoft, 2018). Here, the 3-D crustal model was built covering
an aerial extent of 220 km  220 km with a vertical depth extent of
50 km. We have further extended the model laterally into several
thousand kilometres to include the effect of regional geological bodies
into the anomaly calculation. In order to construct the initial 3-D
crustal geometry, the model was partitioned into 11 north–south pro-
files with an interval of 20 km in the east–west direction. The density
values of each modelled body and depth of the different crustal layers
were also defined prior to the modelling based on petrophysical and
seismic velocity information in this region. After setting the geometry
and densities of all the geological bodies of an initial 3-D model, we
then iteratively changed the geometry of the initial crustal structure
to improve the fit between the measured and the calculated response
of the 3-D crustal model.
In the initial 3-D crustal model, the Moho boundary is kept at a
depth of 33–44 km based on these available seismological stations in
ARASADA ET AL.
F I G U R E 9 (a) Magnetic basement depths obtained from 3-D inversion of aeromagnetic anomalies. (b) Root mean square (RMS) error plot of
the magnetic anomalies. (c) Litho-stratigraphy of boreholes BH-1 to BH-3 in the Dalma region (Gupta et al., 1980) and BH-4 to BH-5 in the Jharia
coalfield (Verma, Bhuin, & Mukhopadhyay, 1979)
the NSMB (Das et al., 2019; Mandal, 2017; Mandal et al., 2021)
whereas upper and middle crustal layers were kept at an average
depth of 5 and 24 km, respectively (Jafri et al., 2021; Mandal, 2017;
Mandal et al., 2021). We further divided the upper crust into different
geological bodies based on the surface lithology. In accordance with
the density measurement of rock samples data (Figure 3a), the
Singhbhum granite was assigned a density of 2,670 kg/m3, and CGGC
3
was assigned a density of 2,700 kg/m . Chaibasa, Dhalbhum, and
Chandil formations were assigned density values of 2,760–2,780 kg/
m3. In contrast, Dalma, Dhanjori, Ongarbira, and Jagannathpur volca-
nic suites were assigned relatively higher density values of 2,900–
3,010 kg/m3. The lower crust is also subdivided into different regions
based on the shear wave velocity data from Mandal (2017) and
assigned density values of 2,930–2,940 kg/m3. Whereas the upper
mantle layer was assumed to be laterally homogeneous with a density
of 3,300 kg/m3. After constructing the initial geometry and prior to
the forward modelling, we have performed the structural inversion
using GMSYS-3D modelling software to verify the seismic Moho
depths and to obtain the Moho depth values in the regions with no
seismic coverage. For this purpose, the constrained grid was prepared
assuming an uncertainty limit of ±1.5 km in the regions of seismic data
and ±5 km in the other regions. Similarly, lateral density inversion of
different layers was also performed with an uncertainty limit of
±200 kg/m3 for the upper crust where the petro-physical constraints
9
are available and ±1,000 kg/m3 for the middle and lower crust.
Figure 10 shows the resultant crustal model of NMSB obtained from
the 3-D gravity modelling and histogram of error between the
observed and calculated gravity responses.
In addition to 3-D Forward gravity modelling, we have performed
the 2-D joint gravity and magnetic modelling along the profiles AA0
and CC0 extending from the SC and across the different formations of
NSMB to CGGC. The observed gravity and magnetic anomaly data
along this profile are extracted from the Bouguer gravity (Figure 4)
and magnetic anomaly grids (Figure 5a), respectively. Similar to 3-D
forward gravity modelling, a three-layer crustal model is constructed
along these profiles. The density and thickness of the layers are con-
strained based on the crustal information obtained from the 3-D for-
ward gravity modelling. Two bipolar magnetic anomalies of amplitude
250 to 200 nT are observed within the CGGC and NSMB
(Figure 5a). These anomalies are modelled as the basic/ultramafic bod-
ies intruded in the upper crustal rocks having magnetic susceptibilities
of 0.01–0.05 SI units (Telford, Geldart, & Sheriff, 1990). The magnetic
susceptibilities range from 0.0050 to 0.01 SI units are assigned to
upper crustal units of NSMB following the general assumption of
magnetic susceptibilities for upper crustal rocks (Telford et al., 1990).
Further, modelled bodies are extended up to ±30,000 km from each
extremity of the profile to minimize the edge effects on the calculated
gravity and magnetic responses. To compute the given crustal model's
10 ARASADA ET AL.

gravity and magnetic responses, we utilized the GM-SYS extension of Worzel, and Landisman (1959) for the gravity anomalies and Talwani
Oasis Montaj Geosoft software (Geosoft, 2018). It is developed based and Heirtzler (1964) for the magnetic anomalies. The results of the
on the analytical formula of 2-D polygonal prism provided by Talwani, crustal model along profiles AA0 and CC0 are shown in Figure 11.

F I G U R E 1 0 (a) 3-D crustal model of NSMB from forward modelling of Bouguer gravity data constrained with petrophysical and seismological
data. (b) Histogram of the difference between observed and calculated gravity anomalies

F I G U R E 1 1 Crustal models along (a) profile AA0 and (b) profile CC0 obtained from on the joint gravity and magnetic modelling constrained
with petrophysical and seismological data (see Figure 4 for profile location). The upper and middle panels show the fit between the observed and
calculated gravity and magnetic responses. The lower panel shows the crustal model. SPSZ, South Purulia Shear Zone; SSZ, Singhbhum
Shear Zone
ARASADA ET AL.
3 | RESULTS
3.1 | Bouguer gravity map and salient features
Based on surface geology, P–T metamorphic grade, and geochemical
observations, three major litho-tectonic domains were identified in
this region: NSMB, SC, and CGGC. Bouguer gravity map (Figure 4)
shows contrasting responses across these domains. SC and CGGC are
characterized generally with gravity lows compared to NSMB popu-
lated with various suites of volcanics, indicating crustal density or
thickness variations across these regions. In addition, several promi-
nent gravity anomalies are seen within the SC. In particular, a broad
gravity low of 51 to 36 mGal is noticed over the Singhbhum gra-
nitic complex. Besides, two isolated high gravity anomalies trending in
the N-S trend direction are observed over the IOG (18 to 3 mGal)
and Dhanjori Volcanics (30 to 15 mGal) characterized with mafic/
ultramafic rocks. In the western part of SC, the Ongarbira volcanic
suite consists of tholeiitic basalts, ultramafic flows, and gabbro pyrox-
enite intrusive (Blackburn & Srivastava, 1994) is characterized by a
high gravity gradient in the Bouguer gravity map. Kalhan and
Jagannathapur formations located at the contact of SC and IOG are
reflected as high gravity gradients in the Bouguer gravity map
(Figure 4). On the other hand, the Dalma volcanic belt extending over
200 km with a width of 4 km in the central part of NSMB shows a lin-
ear gravity high of
0–2 mGal (Figure 4). In the western part of the
CGGC, an E-W trending low gravity anomalies of 50 to 30 mGal
amplitude are observed, particularly over the Damodar valley
(Figure 4). In comparison to this, high gravity anomalies (15 to
12 mGal) are noticed over the eastern side of the CGGC, which can
be ascribed to the eastward continuity of Satpura Mobile Belt
(Rajasekhar & Mishra, 2008).
3.1.1 | Upward continuation, FVD and total
horizontal gradient maps of Bouguer gravity anomalies
The upward continuation map of the Bouguer gravity anomalies
(Figure 6a) reveals only broad wavelength features in the study area.
The broad high gravity anomalies are noticed over NSMB compared
to the adjacent SC and CGGC. It indicates the significant density vari-
ations of the basement rocks across these geological domains. In the
upward continuation map, Dhanjori Volcanics is reflected as moderate
gravity high, suggesting that the causative sources lie at deeper depth,
which may be due to high-density ultramafic intrusion within the
basement. On the contrary, high gravity signatures associated with
IOG and Dalma are not well resolved on the upward continued map
(Figure 6a), which probably suggests the causative sources lie at shal-
low depth.
The FVD (Figure 6b) and total horizontal gradient maps (Figure
6c) reveal several high-frequency anomalies coinciding with the IOG,
Dalma, and Dhanjori Volcanics. Three major shear zones (SSZ, SPSZ,
and NPSZ) coinciding with terrane boundaries are characterized by
the narrow and low amplitude anomaly zones in the FVD map.
11
Further, the total horizontal gradient map (Figure 6c) shows significant
variations across the major litho-tectonic domains of the study region.
The SC and NSMB are dominant with gravity gradient maxima com-
pared to the CGGC (Figure 6c). The general trend of the gradient max-
ima in SC varies from N-S to NE-SW. In the NSMB, the gradient
maxima vary from ENE-WSW to E-W, coinciding with the structural
trend of Dalma. Similar to the FVD (Figure 6b), the total horizontal
gradient (Figure 6c) map also exhibits high-frequency gravity highs/
lows over three major shear zones (SSZ, SPSZ, and NPSZ).
3.2 | Aeromagnetic anomaly map and salient
features
The magnetic anomaly signatures also clearly reveal the known litho-
tectonic domains and structural trends in the study area (Figure 5). SC
is characterized by several NE-SW trending magnetic anomalies of
varying amplitudes. In particular, the Singhbhum granite complex
exhibits only a smooth magnetic variation of 100 to 100 nT
(Figure 5a). In comparison, two prominent high amplitude magnetic
anomalies trending in the NE-SW direction are observed over the
western (1,140 to 900 nT) and eastern (250 to 300 nT) belts of
the IOG (Figure 5a). Nevertheless, Jagannathpur and Ongarbira volca-
nics do not show appreciable magnetic anomalies, probably due to
their limited width and large traverse interval in the aeromagnetic sur-
vey. Another most striking feature in the NSMB is the linear high
amplitude bipolar magnetic anomalies (400 to 400 nT) observed
over the Dalma volcanics (Figure 5a). In the CGGC, magnetic anoma-
lies show a general E-W trend in conformity with the known struc-
tural and lithological units. In the southern region of CGGC, a linear
ENE-WSW trending magnetic high (0–200 nT) running parallel to the
NPSZ is due to the association of the mafic-ultramafic rocks the por-
phyritic granitoid batholith emplaced in the CGGC ca. 1.0 Ga
(Goswami & Bhattacharyya, 2014) whereas moderate magnetic anom-
alies of 0–150 nT amplitude are observed in the northern CGGC
(Figure 5a). Further, three major shear zones (SSZ, SPSZ, and NPSZ)
coinciding with terrane boundaries are reflected as linear magnetic
low zones in the magnetic anomaly map (Figure 5a).
3.2.1 | Total horizontal gradient and AS maps of the
magnetic anomalies
Similar to the FVD (Figure 6b) and total horizontal gradient (Figure 6c)
maps of the Bouguer gravity anomaly, the total horizontal gradient
(Figure 7a) and AS (Figure 7b) of RTP anomaly represent the different
lithological units between major shear zones (SSZ, SPSZ, and NPSZ). It
is also noticed that the peak amplitudes of horizontal gradient and
analytic signal (Figure 7a,b) vary significantly across the shear zone,
indicating the crustal heterogeneity of the region. In the SC, total hori-
zontal gradient (Figure 7a) and analytic signal map (Figure 7b) show
N-S to NE-SW trend nearly orthogonal to the structural trend of adja-
cent CITZ. In comparison to this, an E-W gradient in horizontal
12
gradient and analytic signal maps of NSMB and CGGC show a concor-
dant relationship with the structural trend of the CITZ, indicating the
tectonic connection between them (Figure 7a,b).
3.3 | Profiles of Bouguer gravity and aeromagnetic
anomalies
The Bouguer gravity and magnetic anomalies along the profiles AA0 -
EE0 show close correspondence with the surface lithology inferred
from geology (Figure 8). The Bouguer gravity anomalies along profiles
BB0 , CC0 , DD0 and EE0 rise sharply from low values of 48 to
20 mGal over the SC to 0–2 mGal over Dalma and then decrease
towards CGGC with a moderate gradient. This low-high/high-low
transition in the Bouguer gravity anomalies coincides with the SSZ
and SPSZ representing major terrain boundaries. In the westernmost
profile AA0 , this transition across SSZ is in the opposite phase because
the area is predominantly occupied with the IOG. On the other hand,
magnetic anomalies along these profiles only display moderate varia-
tions across the SSZ and SPSZ due to the strong interference from
Dalma and IOG, which show exceptionally high amplitude bipolar sig-
natures (Figure 8) whereas remarkable magnetic variations with mod-
erate to steep gradients are noticed across NPSZ.
3.4 | Basement depth from aeromagnetic data
The basement depth in the NSMB varies from 0.2 to 9.0 km
(Figure 9a). The basins containing the Singhbhum Group and IOG of
rocks have attained a maximum basement depth of 7–9 km and 6–
7 km, respectively. The Dalma volcanic and Dhanjori basins are char-
acterized by the basement depth values of 3–5 km (Figure 9a), and
these values are comparable with drilling results (Figure 9c) (Gupta
et al., 1980; Gupta, Basu, & Singh, 1985; Verma et al., 1979) and 2-D
gravity modelling studies (Verma et al., 1978). In the CGGC, a thin
cover of sediments up to 2 km (
0.5–2 km) are observed in the east-
ern portion of Damodar valley, where the Raniganj and Jharia coal-
fields are located (Figure 9a). These values gradually increase towards
the NW portion of Damodar valley and attain a maximum value of 5–
6 km in the Karanpura coal basin. Based on the gravity modelling and
borehole data, earlier workers (Verma et al., 1979; Verma, Majumdar,
Ghosh, Ghosh, & Gupta, 1976) also reported similar values in the
Jharia coal basin (Figure 9c).
3.5 | Moho depth and crustal density variations
The present-day crustal structure of the EIS is the time-integrated
product of several complex tectonic-magmatic processes that
occurred from the Archean to the Proterozoic period. Therefore, 3-D
and 2-D crustal models obtained from potential field modelling show
wide variations in crustal density and Moho depth across SC, NSMB,
and CGGC. In the SC, the estimated Moho depth values vary from
ARASADA ET AL.
39 to 40 km, with a mean depth of 39.5 ± 0.5 km (Figures 10 and 11).
In the NSMB, Moho lies at a depth of 37–38 km, which gradually
deepens to 40–44 km below the CGGC with a mean Moho depth of
42 ± 2 km (Figures 10 and 11). Further, NSMB is characterized by a 9-
12 km thickness of lower crust and high-density lower crustal rocks
(2,940 kg/m3). In comparison, the lower crust of SC and CGGC show
a relatively lower density of 2,930 kg/m3 with thickness varying from
10 to 14 km in SC and 12 to 20 km in the CGGC (Figures 10 and 11).
These observations suggest a relatively more mafic lower crust below
NSMB than the SC and CGGC, which can be ascribed to the Protero-
zoic crustal accretion process (Olierook et al., 2019).
Seismic studies on the Paleo-Meso Archean Cratons show a shal-
low and flat Moho (32–41 km) with lower crustal seismic velocities
due to degeneracy of crust after its formation (Abbott, Mooney, &
VanTongeren, 2013). In the SC, crustal models also reveal a nearly flat
Moho at similar depths (39–40 km) (Figures 10 and 11). Mandal
et al. (2021) reported a relatively thin basal layer below the central
part of SC than the peripheral IOG basins. All these observations
favour reworked Archean crust in the SC. The geochemical signatures,
U–Pb and Hf isotope data from the Archean components of SC also
suggest crustal reworking due to the episodic plume activity in the
Oceanic plume setting (Dey, Mukherjee, Sanyal, Ibanez-Mejia, &
Sengupta, 2017; Sreenivas et al., 2019).
4 | DI SCU SSION
4.1 | Nature of shear zones: SSZ, SPSZ, and NPSZ
Several workers (Gibb & Thomas, 1976; Kumar, Singh, Rao, Chandra-
sekhar, & Singh, 2009; Mishra et al., 2000; Radhakrishna et al., 2003;
Thomas, 1992) inferred paired gravity-aeromagnetic signatures across
ancient collision/suture zones. In order to understand the nature of
the SSZ, SPSZ, and NPSZ, we have compared the anomaly variations
across these shear zones with the profile taken across the Eastern
Dharwar-Nallamalai Fold Belt (NFB)-Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt
(EGMB) (Figure 8) (Chandrakala, Pandey, Prasad, & Sain, 2015; Pandey
et al., 2018). In the case of the NFB, we observed two contrasting
gravity signatures across its eastern (Vellikonda Thrust) and western
(Nallamalai Thrust) margin segments (Figure 8f). Across the Nallamalai
Thrust, the transition from Eastern Dharwar Craton to the western
margin of the NFB is marked with the subdued gradient in the
Bouguer anomalies (Figure 8f). In comparison, the Vellikonda thrust
zone represents the transition from the eastern margin of the NFB to
the Nellore Schist Belt (NSB)-EGMB is characterized by bi-polar grav-
ity anomalies with strong amplitude (Figure 8f).
In the case of NSMB, similar characteristic signatures (bipolar
gravity and magnetic anomalies) are observed across SSZ and SPSZ,
with differences in the amplitude and gradient of the anomalies com-
pared to the NFB (Figure 8). Further, SSZ is characterized by a steep
gravity gradient and a lower gravitational response than the SPSZ
(Figure 8). It is relevant to note that the amplitude/gradient of the
anomalies across the shear zone strongly depends on the crustal
ARASADA ET AL.
architecture, the thickness of post tectonic cover, and composition/
metamorphic grade, which controls the density and susceptibility of
crustal blocks juxtaposed along the shear zone (Pili, Ricard, Lardeaux, &
Sheppard, 1997; Williams, Jiang, & Lin, 2006). The presence of
upwarping of mafic crustal layers, mid-crustal ridge structure, and
ophiolite bodies below NSB-EGB compared to NFB are accounted for
such steep gradient in Bouguer gravity anomalies across this transition
zone (Vellikonda Thrust) (Chandrakala et al., 2015; Pandey
et al., 2018). The juxtaposition of meta volcano-sedimentary rocks
(low-grade greenschist facies) of NSMB with high-grade (amphibolites
to granulite facies) rocks of CGGC gave rise to the subdued nature of
anomalies across the SPSZ. On the other hand, the North Purulia
Shear Zone does not exhibit any contrasting signatures in the Bouguer
gravity anomalies. However, its trend can be traced as moderate NE-
SW to E-W trending magnetic lineation, probably due to its associa-
tion with mafic-ultramafic bodies and the exposed porphyritic granit-
oid gneiss.
Crustal models of NSMB also reveal Moho offset and lateral vari-
ation in the density of crustal rocks on either side of SSZ and SPSZ,
suggesting that these two represent the ancient suture zones
(Figures 10 and 11). This interpretation is also consistent with struc-
tural relations and geochronological data of SSZ (Matin, Banerjee,
Gupta, & Banerjee, 2012; Roy & Matin, 2020) and SPSZ (Mazumder
et al., 2012). On the other hand, NPSZ is devoid of such crustal-scale
signatures suggesting that it is unlikely to represent the ancient suture
zone (Figures 10 and 11). Further, the curvature of Nallamalai and
Vellikonda thrust zones show westerly convexity developed during
the thrusting of the Nellore Schist Belt against the NFB. In compari-
son to this, NPSZ, SPSZ, and SSZ exhibit northerly convexity with a
progressively increase in curvature from NPSZ to SSZ. This can be
explained possibly as northward convergence of SC with CGGC, evi-
dences for which are also available in the form of prograde metamor-
phism at 1.0–0.9 Ga both from the North-NSMB and southern region
of CGGC (Mahato et al., 2008; Mukherjee et al., 2017; Rekha
et al., 2011; Sequeira, Bhattacharya, & Bell, 2021).
4.2 | Nature of Dalma volcano-sedimentary belt
As discussed earlier, Dalma volcanic belt is characterized by a series of
linear gravity highs of
0–2 mGal (Figure 4) corroborated with the
high amplitude bipolar magnetic anomalies of 400 to 400 nT
(Figure 5a). Petrophysical (Figure 3a) (Verma et al., 1978, 1984) and
geochemical data (Bhattacharya, Nelson, Thern, & Altermann, 2014;
Bhowmik, 2019; Olierook et al., 2019; Roy, Sarkar, Jeyakumar,
Aggrawal, & Ebihara, 2002) of NSMB reveal that this formation con-
tains basic/ultrabasic rocks having a density ranging from 2,800 to
3,010 kg/m3. Therefore, these high-density basic/ultrabasic bodies
may partly contribute to the observed high-amplitude gravity and
magnetic responses (Figures 4 and 5a).
Several contradicting opinions exist about the evolution of the
Dalma belt. Dunn and Dey (1942) and De (1964) hypothesized a con-
tinental origin for the Dalma volcanic rocks. Naha and Ghosh (1960)
13
proposed an island arc setting for the belt. Based on the structural
pattern and geochemical signatures of the belt, several other studies
have linked the origin of Dalma Formation to mantle plume activity
(Bhattacharya et al., 2014; Gupta, Basu, & Ghosh, 1982;
Mazumder, 2003; Roy et al., 2002). Olierook et al. (2019) also pointed
out that based on geochemical and geochronological data alone, the
nature of the source and the tectonic setting for the Dalma rocks can-
not be understood. Upward continuation map of Bouguer anomalies
to a height of 10 km (Figure 6a) suggests that the causative sources of
Dalma lie in the shallow crustal depth. Crustal models (Figure 11) fur-
ther reveal that Dalma rocks are confined to a depth of 4 km within
the upper crust and show high density (3,050 kg/m3) and high mag-
netic susceptibility values compared to the surrounding terrestrial
deposits of Chandil and Chaibasa formations. Therefore, the presence
of ultramafic rocks and upwarping Moho geometry beneath the
Dalma suggests that these rocks might have formed due to
magmatism, probably in a back-arc (Bose, 1994; Chakraborti, 1985) or
an intracontinental rift setting (Bhattacharya et al., 2014).
4.3 | Tectonic implications
The curvature of supracrustal rocks of the CITZ (Betul and Mahkoshal)
and Dalma volcanics of NSMB show a convex-concave relationship
suggesting different thrust directions at these places. On the other
hand, the structural grain and E-W gradient in the Bouguer gravity
(Figure 4) and aeromagnetic anomalies (Figure 5) of NSMB and
CGGC show a concordant relationship with the structural trend of the
CITZ, indicating the tectonic connection between them. Based on the
magmatic and metamorphic events related to the late
Paleoproterozoic-Mesoproterozoic period, several earlier workers also
offer a coherent tectonic evolution history between CITZ and its adja-
cent NSMB and CGGC (Acharyya, 2003; Bhowmik, 2019; Bhowmik,
Wilde, Bhandari, Pal, & Pant, 2012; Chakraborty, Upadhyay, Ranjan,
Pruseth, & Nanda, 2019; Mukhopadhyay, Crowley, Ghosh, Ghosh, &
Heron, 2020). Considering the possible spatial relation between the
CITZ and this region, the results obtained from this study are inte-
grated with the earlier knowledge on magmatism and metamorphism
for suggesting a comprehensive tectonic model for NSMB.
The characteristic upwarping Moho geometry with mafic lower
crust beneath NSMB (Figures 10 and 11) suggested that the initiation of
orogeny occurred in an extensional tectonic setting either due to back-
arc rifting (Chakrabarti, 1985; Bose et al., 1989) or intracontinental
rifting due to mantle plume (Bhattacharya et al., 2014). There is a pro-
gressive younging in the volcano-sedimentary sequences from the south
(>1.8 Ga) to the north (ca. 1.66–1.6 Ga) in the NSMB, as evidenced from
geochronological data (Olierook et al., 2019). In the adjacent CITZ and
CGGC, chronological data indicate ca. 1.8–1.7 Ga prograde metamor-
phism in the rocks of Mahakoshal belt (Bhowmik, 2019; Bhowmik
et al., 2012; Bhowmik & Chakraborty, 2017) and ca. 1.71–1.63 Ga arc-
related felsic magmatism in the northern part of CGGC (Dey
et al., 2017; Mukherjee et al., 2019). These observations suggest a tem-
poral correspondence between the Mahakoshal belt and NSMB during
14
the early phase of basin formation (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2020;
Olierook et al., 2019). Recent studies in the CITZ (Bhowmik, 2019;
Bhowmik et al., 2012; Bhowmik & Chakraborty, 2017) interpreted the
ca. 1.8-1.7 Ga event in the Mahakoshal belt is due to the subduction of
oceanic crust attached to the North Indian Block (NIB) underneath the
South Indian Block (SIB).
The characteristic arcuate shape of the Dalma Volcanic Belt, with
the convexity towards the north, also could have developed on the
overriding lithospheric plate in an arc-back-arc setting. This could
imply that the NSMB was the overriding lithosphere to a southward
subducting oceanic lithosphere, north of SPSZ, during the >1.8 Ga–
1.6 Ga event. However, northward subduction of the leading edge of
the Singhbhum lithosphere has been interpreted by earlier workers at
ca. 1.0–0.9 Ga, coinciding with the Rodinia continental assembly
(Chattopadhyay, Chatterjee, Das, & Sarkar, 2017; Olierook et al.,
2019; Rekha et al., 2011) the evidence for which is also available in
the form of metamorphic ages both in the NSMB and rocks in the
southern extreme of CGGC (Mahato et al., 2008; Rekha et al., 2011;
Mukherjee et al., 2017; Sequiera et al., 2021). Therefore, one possibil-
ity is that the subduction direction could have changed towards the
north after the
1.6 Ga magmatic-sedimentary events (Bhattacharya,
Rekha, Sequeira, & Chatterjee, 2019). The SPSZ marks the probable
subduction-collision boundary between the two lithospheric blocks of
CGGC and SC. However, the absence of evidence for subduction
magmatism during the final northward subduction could be due to
either the non-preservation of subduction-zone rocks north of SPSZ
or the lack of any arc-volcanism.
As discussed above, Bouguer and aeromagnetic anomaly maps
(Figures 4 and 5a) show a subdued gradient associated with the SPSZ
with its orientation collinear with the Central Indian Shear zone (CISZ)
or Gavilgarh-Tan Shear Zone (GTSZ) of the CITZ. In the crustal model,
SPSZ appears as a plane separating the crustal blocks of different den-
sities on either side, being more denser crust on the southern side
than its northern side (Figure 11). It is also noticed that the Moho
layers are dipping gently across the SPSZ towards CGGC (Figures 10
and 11). This could be attributed to the northward subduction of com-
posite NSMB-SC beneath the CGGC. Recently, Azeez, Patro,
Harinarayana, and Sarma (2017) reported the northward dipping
Moho reflectors across the GTSZ in the magnetotelluric images and
suggested that it is the Proterozoic suture between North Indian and
South Indian blocks (Chattopadhyay et al., 2017; Chattopadhyay,
Bhowmik, & Roy, 2020). Monazite dates of ca. 1.0–0.9 Ga were also
recorded in the SPSZ and GTSZ (Chattopadhyay et al., 2017; Rekha
et al., 2011). On the other hand, Bhowmik (2019) interpreted the CISZ
as the boundary between the arc and back-arc. Therefore, we are of
the opinion that the SPSZ could be the eastward continuity of the
GTSZ along which the final amalgamation of the North Indian and
South Indian blocks took place at ca. 1.0–0.9 Ga. Although it can be
demonstrated that SPSZ is tectonically continuous with GTSZ, there
is no similarity in the lithologies or structures on a broad scale
between the rocks of NSMB and Sausar Mobile Belt. These two
regions are spread apart by a large distance, and heterogeneities in
the magmatic and sedimentary environment could be due to subtle
ARASADA ET AL.
differences in the tectonic setting. For instance, the extent of back-arc
opening and arc volcanism can be influenced by the angle of subduction
(Gianni, García, Lupari, Pesce, & Folguera, 2017; Gräfe, Frisch, Villa, &
Meschede, 2002), which could have been different in these distant
terrains.
5 | CONC LU SIONS
The 2-D and 3-D interpretations of potential field data (Bouguer and
aeromagnetic anomalies) constrained with petrophysical and seismo-
logical data were carried out to image the crustal architecture of the
NSMB. The study reveals the following important conclusions on the
geodynamic evolution of NSMB.
• The 3-D inversion of aeromagnetic anomalies reveals that the mag-
netic basement depth varies from 0.2 to 9.0 km, with maximum
values in the eastern part of NSMB and minimum values in the
Jharia and Raniganj coal basins. Further, these results corroborate
with borehole data available in the region.
• 2-D and 3-D crustal models constrained with petrophysical and
seismological data reveal Moho depth at 37–38 km in the NSMB.
In comparison, relatively deeper Moho at a depth of 39–40 km and
40–44 km lie beneath the SC and CGGC, respectively. Further, the
lower crustal rocks of NSMB are more mafic than the lower crustal
portion of the SC and CGGC.
• The central part of NSMB is characterized by a series of linear
gravity highs punctuated with high amplitude bipolar magnetic
anomalies. These anomalies could be attributed to magmatism in
either a back-arc or an intracontinental rift setting.
• Total horizontal gradient and AS maps reveal gentle gradients
across the SSZ and SPSZ. Interestingly, crustal models exhibit the
crustal inhomogeneity extending down to the Moho across these
shear zones. Considering the metamorphic history of rocks in
NSMB and northward dipping Moho geometry, we interpreted
SPSZ as a Proterozoic suture along which the final accretion of
NSMB and CGGC occurred at ca. 1.0–0.9 Ga coinciding with the
Rodinia continental assembly.
• The Bouguer gravity and Aeromagnetic anomaly signatures across
the SPSZ, together with the crustal architecture and metamorphic
ages, imply that SPSZ marks the eastward continuity of the GTSZ.
AC KNOW LEDG EME NT S
Arasada gratefully acknowledges the Indian Institute of Technology
(Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad for the infrastructure and DST-INSPIRE
for the research fellowship to carry out this work. G.S.R. gratefully
acknowledges the Department of Science & Technology and Science &
Engineering Research Board, Govt. of India (ECR/2016/001860 &
DST/INSPIRE/04/2015/003215) for the financial support.
PE ER RE VIEW
The peer review history for this article is available at https://publons.
com/publon/10.1002/gj.4434.
ARASADA ET AL.
DATA AVAI LAB ILITY S TATEMENT
Topography data support the findings of this study are openly avail-
able at https://topex.ucsd.edu/WWW_html/srtm15_plus.html. The
Bouguer gravity and Aeromagnetic data are not publicly available due
to the privacy policy of the Government of India.
ORCID
Rama Chandrudu Arasada https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5131-7839
Gangumalla Srinivasa Rao https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4119-5831
Rajagopal Anand https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8015-0687
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How to cite this article: Arasada, R. C., Srinivasa Rao, G., &
Anand, R. (2022). Crustal architecture of North Singhbhum
Mobile Belt, Eastern Indian Shield: Constraints from
two-dimensional and three-dimensional modelling of Bouguer
gravity and aeromagnetic data. Geological Journal, 1–18.
https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.4434