ISSN 1075-7015, Geology of Ore Deposits, 2009, Vol. 51, No. 4, pp. 317329. Pleiades Publishing, Ltd., 2009.

Original Russian Text S.I. Turchenko, A.B. Vrevsky, V.B. Dagelaisky, 2009, published in Geologiya Rudnykh Mestorozhdenii, 2009, Vol. 51, No. 4, pp. 355368.

The Precambrian Metallogeny of India

S. I. Turchenko, A. B. Vrevsky, and V. B. Dagelaisky
Institute of Precambrian Geology and Geochronology, Russian Academy of Sciences,
nab. Makarova 2, St. Petersburg, 199034 Russia
Received April 18, 2008

AbstractThe data on the Precambrian metallogeny of India are integrated in order to provide insights into
its basic principles and to create a digital cartographic representation of the results obtained. The description of
an electronic map of the Precambrian of India on a scale of 1 : 5000000 is an example of the creation of a GISoriented database on the geology and tectonics, isotopic age, and minerageny of the Precambrian rocks of continents. Precambrian geological and tectonic bodies are individualized as the main ore-bearing structural elements assigned for typification, systematics, ranking, classification, correlation, and demarcation of territories
differing in geological features. The metallogenic information on Precambrian provinces of India is considered
at three formalized levels: metallogenic provinces, zones, and mineral deposits located in typical structural elements. Each object is accompanied by a spatiotemporal model of tectonic and metallogenic evolution characterized by isotopic dating with various degrees of accuracy.
DOI: 10.1134/S1075701509040059

INTRODUCTION
The Precambrian metallogeny of India is considered
on the basis of an electronic map on a scale of
1 : 5000000 compiled at the Institute of Precambrian
Geology and Geochronology, Russian Academy of Sciences, with the participation of K. Jahn from the Geological Survey of India using the ARCINFO GIS program at the Northwestern Center of Geoinformatics
and Monitoring, St. Petersburg, and the Laboratory of
Geoinformation Technologies of the Vernadsky State
Geological Museum, Moscow. The electronic map is a
part of the UNESCO international project of the Commission for the Geological Map of the World entitled
Atlas of Metallogenic Zoning of the Precambrian of
the Continents; Academician D.V. Rundqvist is the
general coordinator of this project.
The Lambert conformal conic projection was used
as an initial geographic base. The legend of the map
comprises Precambrian tectonic units, the lithology of
rock associations, metallogenic provinces and zones, a
database on mineral deposits, and their isotope geochronology. The accompanying metallogenic chart displays the succession of geological, tectonic, and oreforming processes.
The metallogenic appearance of India is characterized by relations of all important economic mineral
deposits to the Early Precambrian provinces, overlapped in the western and northern Hindustan Peninsula by a Phanerozoic sedimentary cover, including an
extensive field of plateau basalts. The Late Precambrian
provinces of India are incorporated into Phanerozoic
foldbelts and only a few stratiform base-metal deposits
Corresponding author: A.B. Vrevsky. E-mail: vrev@peterlink.ru

are known therein. The territory of India, characterized

by widespread ancient rock complexes and well-known
mineral deposits, is distinguished by an in-depth
knowledge of the stratigraphy, tectonics, petrology,
geochemistry, metallogeny, and isotope geochronology
of Precambrian complexes. The most important publications used for compilation of the map and the metallogenic database include Pichamuthu (1972),
Radhakrishna (1976, 1984), Naqvi et al. (1978, 2002),
Subrachmanyam (1978), Narayana et al. (1979), Chadwick et al. (1981), Deb (1982), Divakara Rao and Rama
Rao (1982), Iyengar (1982), Naqvi (1982), Ray (1982),
Sarkar (1982, 1988), Pichamuthu and Srinivasan
(1984), Mukherjee and Sen (1985), Radhakrishna and
Naqvi (1986), Bhoskar (1998), Sarkar et al. (1964),
Early Precambrian... (1981), Geological... (1981),
Precambrian... (1983), and Drury et al. (1984).
The long and complex Precambrian history of the
Hindustan Shield is characterized by the formation of
several ore-bearing tectonic units, including Early and
Late Archean granulitegneiss and granitegreenstone
domains, Early Proterozoic orogenic foldbelts and anorogenic rift and volcanicplutonic belts, and epicratonic basins and troughs (aulacogens) largely developed at the end of the Early Proterozoic and in the Late
Proterozoic. The undoubtedly Precambrian Godavari
and Mahadani rifts and some other rifts (Sarkar, 1982)
mark the boundaries of older tectonic elements subsequently filled with younger sedimentary rocks. For
example, the Mahadani Rift controls the northeastern
boundary of the ArcheanProterozoic Eastern Ghats
Mobile Belt.
The WE-trending Late Precambrian (750 Ma) Narmada-SonDamodar Lineament separates the southern

317

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TURCHENKO et al.

IV
IV
22
1

14

Ic

II

Ic

11

12

7
5
6

Ib

13

III

8
9

IND

Ia

Ib

Ic

II

III

IV

Ia

IAN

EA

OC

18

15 10

16
17
20

19

23
500 km

21
7
8

Fig. 1. Precambrian metallogenic provinces and zones of India. (16) Provinces: (1) Dharwar, (2) Bastar, (3) Singhbhum,
(4) AravalliDelhiVindhyan, (5) Eastern Ghats, (6) Lower Himalayas; (7, 8) metallogenic zones: (7) areal and (8) linear. Metallogenic zones (numerals in figure). Areal zones: 1, Khetri; 3, Zawar; 4, Erinpura; 5, Balaghat; 6, Warora; 7, Malanjkhand; 8, Sukma;
9, Srikakulam; 12, Noamundi; 15, Kuddapah; 16, Panaji; 17, Shimoga; 18, Chitradurga; 20. Badagara; 21. Attur; linear zones:
2, Ajmer, 10, Nellore; 11, Surda; 13, Sukinda; 14, Rangpo; 19, Kolar; 22, Purgar Valley; 23, KalicheduSangam.

peninsular part of the Precambrian domain and controls

the southern boundary of the Late Proterozoic
Vindhyan sedimentary basin and related regional mineralization (base metals, fluorite, and pyrochlore in carbonatites). Granulite metamorphism is characteristic of
both South India and the Eastern Ghats Belt. Taking the
geological and geophysical attributes of the granulites
(Narayana et al., 1979) into account, only granulites of
the Western Ghats (Kerala State) should be referred to
the granulitegneiss domain as a tectonic unit. The
eastern (coastal) granulites of South India are regarded
as an extension of the Eastern Ghats Belt of tectonothermal reworking. According to the prevalent point of
view, the earliest Precambrian regions of the Indian

Shield are subdivided into three Archean domains

called the Dharwar, Bastar, and Singhbhum cratons
(Fig. 1), which were accreted to separate cores more
than 3.5 Ga in age (Sarkar, 1982, 1988). The Early Precambrian cratonic blocks differ in their metallogenic
specialization. Thus, the early greenstone belts of the
Dharwar Craton are known for their gold mineralization (Kolar), whereas the AravalliDelhi Foldbelt is
characterized by base-metal deposits. Banded iron formation (BIF), e.g., the Bailadila deposit, occurs in the
Bastar Craton. Copper and uranium deposits related to
the Singhbhum Shear Zone were discovered in the
Singhbhum Craton. In general, the Precambrian of
India is characterized by diverse mineral deposits,
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THE PRECAMBRIAN METALLOGENY OF INDIA

including such large and unique deposits as Rampura

Agucha (PbZn), Mangamreta (Ba), Danbar Raipur
(PbZnCuAg), Zawar (PbZn), Sukinda (CrNiCoPt),
Kolar (AuW), Sendpur (MnFe), Bailadila (Fe), Jaduguda and Narwapahar (UCu), Malanjand (CuMo),
MadhanKudan (Cu), Mosabhoni and Surda (CuU),
Vajrakarur (diamond), and others, including iron, manganese, and magnesite deposits (Table 1, Fig. 2). The
spatiotemporal relationships between tectonic processes and ore formation are shown in the metallogenic
chart (Fig. 3).
METALLOGENIC PROVINCES, TECTONIC
UNITS AND RELATED MINERALIZATION,
AND METALLOGENIC ZONES
The following Precambrian metallogenic provinces
are recognized in India: (I) ancient cratons, including
(Ia) Dharwar, (Ib) Bastar, and (Ic) Singhbhum; (II) the
AravalliDelhiVindhyan province; (III) the Eastern
Ghats province; and (IV) the Lower Himalayas province. The ancient cratons are similar in structure and
evolution but differ in the manifestation of particular
stages of geological history and related metallogenic
features. The ancient cratons, having undergone longterm polycyclic evolution in the Archean and Proterozoic, are composed of an Archean crust and products of
its reworking. A newly formed Proterozoic crust is supposed as well. The stabilization of the ancient cratons
was completed by the end of the Early Proterozoic.
Platform epicratonic basins were originated at that
time, followed by small troughs, basic dikes, and sporadic kimberlite pipes.
The oldest domain, a granulitegneiss domain in the
southern Dharwar Craton, is composed of relics of the
Lower Archean supracrustal sequences metamorphosed under granulite-facies conditions and incorporated into granite gneisses 3.1 Ga in age and younger
remobilized granitic rocks. The Dharwar metallogenic
province comprises the Badagara metallogenic zone (20)
with the Churuppa Fe deposit (31) and a number of
occurrences and the Attur zone (21) with the Attur (10),
Chittari (30), and Kanjamalai (56) Fe deposits. The
Hulk Hill NiCoCr deposit with magnesite (23), the
Mamandur ZnPbCu deposit (72), and the Vairamangalam deposit (123) of muscovite pegmatites (Table 1)
are located beyond the above metallogenic zones.
Early and Late Archean granitegreenstone
domains are involved in the structure of the Dharwar,
Bastar, and Singhbhum cratons. Granite- and tonalitegneiss areas in all these cratons enclose narrow linear
greenstone belts (sporadic in the Bastar Craton) that
experienced folding and greenschist-facies metamorphism. Komatiites dated at 3.23.0 Ga occur in the
lower part of greenstone belts (Dharwar Craton). A
long-standing discussion continues about the probable
existence of the oldest, Sargur-type greenstone belts
(up to 3.5 Ga in age) along with Dharwar-type volcanicsedimentary complexes, which are, in turn, subdiGEOLOGY OF ORE DEPOSITS

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319

vided into older Kolar-type and younger (Baba Budan,

Shimoga, Sandur) greenstone belts (Janardhan, 1986).
True greenstone belts (Holenarsipur, Nuggihalli,
Kolar, Sargur) and similar geosynclinal trough complexes, e.g., Shimoga and Chitradurga, were pointed
out by Naqvi et al. (1978, 2002). An overview of the
structure of the Dharwar-type greenstone belts is given
below.
The Early Precambrian complexes of South India
comprise schist or greenstone belts, gneisses, granitoids, and granulites. The volcanic and sedimentary
rocks of greenstone belts dated at 3.12.6 Ga are traditionally combined into the Dharwar Supergroup, or
System (Pichamuthu and Srivinasan, 1983;
Radhakrishna, 1983). The vast fields of gneisses and
migmatites and, in the southern part of the shield, charnockites that separate the Dharwar greenstone belts are
called the Peninsular Gneiss, which is commonly considered to be the basement of the supracrustal complexes of greenstone belts (Radhakrishna, 1983).
Recent investigations showed, however, that the Peninsular Gneiss is actually a heterogeneous complex that
includes rocks different in age (Beckinsale et al., 1982;
Bhaskar Rao, et al., 1991; Srinivasan, 1988; Naqvi
et al., 2002; Dhosh, 2004). It was established that only
a small portion of inclusions composed of migmatized
amphibolites and granodiorite and diorite gneisses is
related to the oldest phase of deformation, metamorphism and migmatization, which is not documented in
the Dharwar Supergroup (Jaffri et al., 1983; Srinivasan
et al., 1992). The fragments of high-grade metavolcanic
and metasedimentary rocks (ultramafic and mafic
rocks, quartzites, carbonate rocks, jaspilites) selected
from the Peninsular Gneiss are termed the Sargur
Supergroup. The Dharwar Supergroup in various
greenstone belts is similar in lithology but varies in
thickness from 2 to 10 km. This variation is caused by
three stages of folding.
The metasedimentary Baba Budan Subgroup, up to
1800 m thick, commonly occurs at the bottom of greenstone belts (Srinivasan et al., 1992). In the Nuggihalli
and Holenarasipur structures, these metasedimentary
rocks overlap a layered Cr-, Fe, and Ti-bearing peridotitegabbroanorthosite complex and the relics of
komatiites (Hussain and Naqvi, 1983), which are attributed by some authors to the Sargur Supergroup (Gruau
et al., 1992). As was shown by Naha and Srivinasan
(1991), Srivinasan (1988), and Srinivasan et al. (1993),
the mafic and ultramafic rocks underwent the same
structural transformation and metamorphism as overlying rocks. On these grounds, these rocks were classified
as a special subgroup (Nuggihalli Subgroup). The Baba
Budan Subgroup consists 2550% of quartz conglomerate, mature quartzite, and thin interlayers of graphite
metapelites, while the rest of the section is occupied by
a bimodal association of subaerial tholeiite and rhyodacite. From 3 to 12 quartzite members intercalate with
1420 flows of amygdaloid basalt and rare komatiite
flows. Quartzite is characterized by cross-bedding,

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TURCHENKO et al.

Table 1. Precambrian mineral deposits of India

No.
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45

Deposit
Agaragon
Aladahalli
Alampura
Angadibail
Ambadongar
AmbamataDheri
Amjhor
Arumanallur
Askot
Attur
Bailadila
Baragonda
Balaghat
Balapur Hamesha
Balaria (Zawar)
Balya Pahar
Bandalamottu
Baroi
Basantgarh
Belgumba
Bhadrasai
Bhagoni
Hulk Hill
Chandidongri
Chandraginda
Chindapatar
Chikla
Chikkanayakanahalli
Chintakonda
Chittari
Churuppa
Kodgui
Dalli Rajhara
DaribaRaipur
Dedvas
Degana
Demalthal
Dhukonda
Gadag
Gandhamadhan
Garbham
Godapalli
Ganikalawa
Gorubathan
Goa

W, Sn
Cu, Zn
Fe
FeTiV
Fluorite
ZnPbCu
Pyrite
CuMoNi
CuPbZn
Fe
Fe
Cu
Mn
Mn
PbZn(Ag)
Fe
PbCu
PbZn(Ag)
ZnPbCu
FeTiV
FeMn
Cu
NiCoCr
PbZn
Fe
W
Mn
Fe
Graphite
Fe
Fe
MnFe
Fe
PbZnCu(Ag)
PbZn
W(Mo)
Magnesite
CuPb
AuW
Fe
Mn
PbZn
Cu
PbZn(Ag)
FeMn

No.
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91

Deposit
Halkundi
Honkeri
Hatti-Maski
Ingaladahali
Joda
Jodjohattu
Kallur
Kammaheruvu
Kanda Masanil
Kanivenalli
Kanjamalai
Kalyadi
Kalichedu
Kemmanagundi
Ho-Dariba
Kalkoppa
Kodachadri Peak
Kodalagadde
Kodarma
Kalaspura
Kolar
Kolihan (Khetri)
KoniduMaralaped
Kudremuh
Kumhardubi
Kundalgaon
LaugharKamhatola
Maderahalli
Mailaram
Malanjkhand
MadhanKudan
Mangampeta
Masanikera
Medikeripura
Narayanpura
Nothara Ki Pal
NaushahiBula
Nawadin
Noamundi
Notaburu
Ozorim
Padararaya
Padar Ki Pal
Panna
Paroli

GEOLOGY OF ORE DEPOSITS

Fe
FeTiV
AuW
Cu
FeMn
Cr
Cu
Fe
Magnesite
Mn
Fe
Cu
Muscovite
Fe
Cu
Mn
Fe
Mn
Muscovite
Cu
Au(W)
Cu
Fe
Fe
FeTiV
Mn
Mn
Fe
Cu
CoMo
Cu
Brt
CuFeTiV
Fe
Fe
Fe
CrNiCo;TiFe(V)
Fe
Fe
Fe
Magnesite
Muscovite
CuNi
Diamond
Muscovite
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THE PRECAMBRIAN METALLOGENY OF INDIA

321

Table 1. (Contd.)
No.
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112

Deposit
Payalihand
Pular-Parsori
Pungar Valley
Rangpo
Ramagiri
Rampura Agucha
Rebhanpalli
Redi
Rowara
Rowghat
Sadanandrapur
Sakkarebail
Saladipura
Sangam
Saripalli
Saruabil
Zawar
Shahpura
Shivrajpur
Sokra
Sargipalli

No.
Diamond
Cu(Au)
Magnesite
CuPbZn
Au
PbZn
Fe
Fe
PbZnCu
Fe
Mn
FeTiV
Pyrite
Muscovite
PbZn
Cr(NiCo)
PbZn
Muscovite
Mn
Gr
Mn

113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132

including counter-stream bedding, and ripple marks

(Srinivasan, 1988). The enrichment of basalt in LREE
and Zr testifies to their contamination by a crustal sialic
material. The thickness of basal quartz conglomerate
varies from 3 m in the Shigeguda and Heralekatte belts
to 12 m in the Chitradurga Belt. The underlying bed of
quartzmuscovite schist about 1 m thick likely is a
metamorphosed weathering mantle (Srinivasan and
Ojakangas, 1986). The section is crowned by a BIF up
to 350 m thick. The reconstruction of stream dynamics
from sedimentary textures of rocks from the Baba
Duban Subgroup shows that these sediments were
deposited on the planate surface of the continental margin or on a shallow-water continental shelf (Srinivasan
and Ojakangas, 1986).
The middle part of the section (Dudguni Subgroup)
is composed of quartz conglomerate, cross-bedded
pure quartz arenites, dolomite, and stromatolite limestone in association with BIF, an Mn-bearing formation, and subvolcanic mafic and felsic bodies. The character of cross-bedding in quartzite and the occurrence
of stromatolite testify to the shallow-water near-shore
marine sedimentation (Srinivasan, 1990). A banded
manganese formation (BMnF) traceable for many hundreds of kilometers is a key unit of the middle part of
the section in practically all greenstone belts of the
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Deposit
Sukinda
Sulaipet
Sulkorna
Surda
Surajgarh
Tamapahar
Tammavaram
Taregaon
Tosham
Turamdih
Vairamangalam
Vajrakarur
Jaduguda
Narwapahar
Valkunji
Sandur
Udaipur
Jansi
Sevatur
Mosabhoni

CrNi(CoPt)
Fe
Mn
Cu(U)
Fe
Cu
Fe
Cu
SnW
Cu(U)
Muscovite
Diamond
U(Cu)
U(Cu)
U
Mn,Fe
Apatite
Pyrite
Apatite
Cu(U)

Dharwar Craton, indicating that a vast shelf sedimentary basin existed under stable tectonic conditions.
The section of the Dharwar is completed by the Chitradurga Subgroup, mainly consisting of polymictic
conglomerate (up to 1500 m) with olistostromes at the
bottom and graded bedding upsection. The conglomerate is associated with graywackes increasing in amount
upsection. The polymictic conglomerate of the Chitradurga Subgroup rests upon the rocks of the Baba Budan
Subgroup and the adjacent gneiss. The lithology and
structure of conglomerates and graywackes indicate
that these rocks were deposited from turbidite flows
and that older rocks of the Dharwar Supergroup and
basement gneisses were involved in scouring (Srinivasan and Naqvi, 1990).
The sequence of polymictic conglomerates is overlain
by an orthoquartzitecarbonatepelite association 2025
m thick with BIF and BMnF interlayers. This association
gives way upsection to a rhythmically banded claystone
graywacke association and a basaltandesitedacite series
with agglomerate tuff and chert interbeds and structural
signs of submarine deepwater eruption. Basalt amounts to
up to 90% of volcanic rocks and is close to MORB in
geochemistry (Srinivasan, 1988).
Thus, the lithology of the Dharwar Supergroup testifies to a stable tectonic regime at the onset of its formation under conditions of a planate continental shelf

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TURCHENKO et al.
80 E

100

90

450 km
30

70
30
77
97

6
4
7

34
15

76

125
132

113
20

20
N

IND

90

11

IAN

17
78

124 8

1 66

EA

OC

128
5

10

10

10

11

12

6
70

80

13
77

14

Fig. 2. Tectonic units and the most important Precambrian mineral deposits of India. (1) Phanerozoic tectonic units: (a) plate cover
and (b) foldbelts; (2) plateau basalt provinces of the Phanerozoic plate cover; (3) Precambrian inliers in the Phanerozoic foldbelts;
(4) epicratonic basins; (5) anorogenic volcanicplutonic belts; (6) granitoid plutonic belts; (7) rift belts; (8) foldbelts; (9) granite
greenstone domains; (10) granulitegneiss domains; (11) Eastern Ghats Belt of tectonothermal reworking; (12) Central Belt of tectonothermal reworking; (13) master fault zones; (14) the most important economic deposits and their numbers corresponding to
Table 1. Regions (numerals in circles): 1, Karnataka; 2, Bastar; 3, Singhbhum; 4, Bundelkhand; 5, Eastern Ghats; 6, AravalliDelhi;
7, Vindhyan; 8, Cuddapah; 9, Chattisgarh.

and with deposition of highly evolved and mature

quartz conglomerate (including uranium-bearing varieties) and orthoquartzite. The occurrence of subaerial
volcanic rocks marks the formation of continental rifts
and epicratonic marginal basins. The quartzitedolomiteBIFBMnF association of the Dudguni Subroup
in the middle part of the section corresponds to the
same stable tectonic conditions.
The association of polymictic conglomerate, turbidite, BIF, and tholeiite that completes the section of the

Dharwar greenstone belts marks the transition to

mobile regimes of evolution similar to deepwater and
tectonically active backarc basins (Srinivasan and
Naqvi, 1990).
The available isotopic evidence for the Dharwar
Complex makes it possible to estimate approximately
the duration of its evolution (Vrevsky et al., 1996). The
oldest SmNd isochron age, 3190 40 Ma, was
obtained for the layered maficultramafic complex of
the Nuggihalli Subgroup (Jaffri et al., 1983). A wholeGEOLOGY OF ORE DEPOSITS

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323

Age, Ga

Metallogenic provinces
I

II

Ancient cratonic domains

Ia
Ib
Ic
Dharwar

Bastar

AravalliDelhiSinghbhum Vindhyan

III

IV

Eastern
Ghats

Lower
Himalayas

0.54

PH

PbZn(Cu)

SnW

3
1.0
ba
PbCu

1.6

PbZnAg

mu

di
ms

CuPb(Zn)

FeTiV

ma

Pb

2.5

9
FeMn

10
11
12

MnFe
2 CuZn(Au)
FeAu

Mn

8
gr

CrNiCo

Cu
Au

FeMn

13

Fe
Au

14

3.2

Cu

mu

PbZn
ZnPb(Ag)

UCu
Fe

ms
Cu
ZnPbCu
ph

CuU
Mn
CuMo

3
4

Cu
Mn

CuPbZn

gr
Cu
Fe
Sn

PbZn
Cu

15
Cr

16

a
b
c

3.6

ma(CrNiCo)
CuMo
Fe PbZnCu

d
e

17

Fig. 3. Precambrian spatiotemporal tectonic and metallogenic evolution of India (summary chart). (18) Tectonic units: (1) granulitegneiss domains, (2) greenstone belts, (3) granite and tonalite gneiss domains, (4) accretionary foldbelts, (5) collision foldbelts,
(6) anorogenic volcanicplutonic belts, (7) early and (8) late epicratonic basins; (914) intrusive rocks: (9) Archean granitoids,
(10) Proterozoic granitoids, (11) rapakivi granite, (12) mafic and ultramafic rocks, (13) gabbrodolerite, (14) alkaline ultramafic
rocks; (15, 16) tectonothermal reworking of (15) Precambrian basement and (16) Precambrian inliers in Phanerozoic foldbelts;
(17) mineral deposits: (a) volcanicsedimentary stratiform, (b) magmatic stratiform, (c) hydrothermal vein, (d) massive and stocklike, (e) stockwork, and (f) unspecified. Arrows indicate the age of deposits, zigzags mark the age of folding phases, and wavy lines
mark breaks in sedimentation; A, Archean; P, Proterozoic, and PH, Phanerozoic.

rock SmNd isochron of 3020 230 Ma was published

for the basic metavolcanic rocks of the Baba Budan
Subgroup (Bhaskar Rao et al., 1991). A RbSr isochron
at 3080 110 Ma and a Pb/Pb model age of 3157 45 Ma
were obtained for the Chikmagalur synkinematic granGEOLOGY OF ORE DEPOSITS

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ite (Taylor et al., 1988). The felsic metavolcanic rocks

of the Chitradurga Subgroup (Shimoga Belt) have a
RbSr isochron age of 2521 5 Ma and a Pb/Pb model
age of 2565 28 Ma; andesitic and dacitic metavolcanics from the same subgroup in the Chitradurga Belt are

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TURCHENKO et al.

dated at 2726 27 Ma (SmNd isochron) (Jaffri et al.,

1983). The granite that cuts through the rocks of the
Chitradurga Group is characterized by a RbSr isochron age of 2650 25 Ma and a Pb/Pb model age of
2605 18 Ma (Taylor et al., 1988).
Thus, the Dharwar volcanicsedimentary complex
and its structural transformation and metamorphism
lasted for no less than 400 Ma.
In general, the geodynamic settings of the formation
of greenstone belts in the South Indian Shield were
determined by their development on a relatively mature
and thick continental crust with shallow-water, slowly
sinking marine and freshwater sedimentary basins
underlain by a planate sialic basement poorly permeable for mantle melts. The thermodynamic parameters
of metamorphic belts and their morphology were controlled by the same features. The stable conditions of
greenstone belt formation determined their long evolution and metallogenic appearance.
The Late Archean greenstone belts as the main orebearing structural units are subdivided into three metallogenic groups. The first group, consisting of the oldest
schist belts of the SargurHolenarsipurNuggihalli
type in the Dharwar metallogenic province, consists of
volcanicsedimentary sequences that fill small conformable troughs among granite and tonalite gneisses. Mafic
ultramafic duniteharzburgitegabbroanorthosite intrusions contain podiform chromite bodies, e.g., the
Aladahalli deposit (2, CuCr) in the Chitradurga metallogenic zone (18). CuZn sulfide occurrences with
insignificant Au mineralization are hosted in mafic
schists of the Nuggihalli Belt. The second group, the
ancient KolarRamagiriHatti-Maski metavolcanic
schist belts, is composed of komatiitic and tholeiitic
metavolcanic rocks (amphibolites), BIF, and graphite
schists. The Kolar (66, AuW), Ramagiri (96, Au), and
Hatti-Maski (48, AuW) deposits are the main targets of
gold mining in India. Finally, the third group, of
younger Dharwar-type greenstone belts, is characterized by predominant sedimentary rocks intercalated
with volcanic rocks. These belts commonly contain
BIF with manganese mineralization. In the Dharwar
metallogenic province, these are the Panaji metallogenic zone (16), with the substantially manganese Kodgui (32, MnFe), Kodalagadde (63, Mn), and Kundalgaon (71, Mn) deposits; the Shimoga metallogenic zone
(17), with the Kodachadri Peak (62, Fe), Kudremuh
(69, Fe), Sandur (128, MnFe), and Sakkarebail (103,
FeTiV in a gabbroanorthosite complex) deposits; and
the Chitradurga metallogenic zone (18), with the Belgumba (20, FeTiV), Ingaladahali (49, Cu), Kalyadi (57,
Cu), Kemmanagundi (59, Fe), Gadag (39, AuW), and
Maderahalli (74, Fe) deposits. In the Bastar metallogenic province, the Sukma zone (8) is characterized by
similar mineralization: the Bailadila (11, Fe), Dalli
Rajhara (33, Fe), and Rowghat (101, Fe) deposits. In
the Singhbhum province, the same mineralization is
known in the Noamundi zone (12), with the Goa (45,

FeMn), Joda (50, FeMn), and Noamundi (85, Fe)

deposits. In the Sukinda metallogenic zone (13) of the
same province, the Naushahi (83, CrNiCo), Saruabil
(107, CrNiCo), and Sukinda (113, CrNiCoPt) deposits
are related to ultramafic rocks, serpentinites, and talc
serpentine schists. In general, the CrNiCoPt mineralization in the Dharwar province is insignificant in
comparison with FeMn deposits; nevertheless, the
CuNi deposits should be mentioned.
The foldbelts in the AravalliDelhiVindhyan
(PbZnCu) and Singhbhum (CuU) provinces are of significant metallogenic interest for India. The most
important strata-bound base-metal deposits are hosted
in terrigenous rocks of the Proterozoic ensialic foldbelts of the AravalliDelhi province. The clastic rocks,
dolomitic marble, mica schist, BIF, and basic metavolcanic rocks of the Bhilwara Supergroup are hosts of
ZnPbAg ore mineralization. The Aravalli Supergroup consists of metamorphosed spilite, arkose,
quartzite, dolomite, phyllite, and biogenic phosphorite.
The PbZn mineralization is localized in the carbonate
part of the section. The volcanic and sedimentary
sequences in the southern portion of the Delhi Supergroup contain ZnPbCu mineralization, whereas the
quartzitecarbonate association in the north contains
only Cu mineralization. Thus, the following metallogenic units are recognized in the AravalliDelhi
Vindhyan provinces: the Khetri metallogenic zone (1)
with the Bhagoni (22, Cu), Kolihan (67, Cu), and
MadhanKudan (77, Cu) deposits and the Ajmer metallogenic zone (2) in the southern Delhi part with the
DaribaRaipur (34, PbZnAg with superimposed Cu
mineralization), Rampura Agucha (97, PbZn), and
Zawar (108, PbZn) deposits. The Paroli (91) and Shahpura (109) muscovite pegmatite deposits occur in the
same region but beyond the linear Ajmer zone (2). The
Zawar metallogenic zone (3) includes the Balaria (15,
PbZn) and Baroi (18, PbZn) deposits, as well as one of
the oldest known deposits of biogenic phosphorite,
the Udaipur deposit (129). The AmbamataDheri (6,
CuPbZn) and Basantgarh (19, ZnPbCu) deposits are
known from the Erinpura metallogenic zone (4) at the
southern end of the Delhi Belt. In addition to the orebearing foldbelts of the AravalliDelhi province in Rajasthan State, there is a no less important example of this
type of structure: the Early Proterozoic foldbelt (orogenic belt) in the Singhbhum metallogenic province
(Sarkar, 1982). This arcuate foldbelt surrounds a granite domain in the north and is subdivided into molasse
and metamorphosed flyschvolcanic associations. The
Singhbhum Shear Zone in the southern part of the province is well-known as a copper belt of Bihar State. This
important ore belt is characterized by economic copper
and uranium deposits located in the Surda metallogenic
zone (11): Surda (116, Cu), Tamapahar (118, Cu),
Turamdih (122, CuU), Jaduguda (125, Cu), Narwapahar (126, UCu), and Mosabhoni (132, CuU). Unlike
other deposits localized in this belt, some Cu deposits
are related to sodic granites. A great number of small
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Cu, Cr, Fe, and W deposits in the Singhbhum provinces

occur beyond the above-mentioned metallogenic zone.
Intracratonic (continental) rift belts are composed
of undistorted and unmetamorphosed Lower Proterozoic sequences formed under transitional, orogenic-tostable conditions of the continental lithosphere (the
Gwalior, Biyawar, Hairagarh, and Nandgaon groups in
various metallogenic provinces). With rare exceptions,
these tectonic units are devoid of economic mineral
deposits. Only the Malanjkhand metallogenic zone (7)
in the Bastar province, with the Chandidongri (24, fluorite) and Taregaon (120, Cu) deposits, is noteworthy.
The large Malanjkhand (76, CuMo) deposit is located
at an extension of the Singhbhum Shear Zone. It cannot
be ruled out that rifts were more abundant in the Late
Archean at the initial stage of the evolution of greenstone belts and in the Proterozoic, e.g., the Early Proterozoic Aravalli Rift and the Late Proterozoic Delhi
Aulacogen System (Rifted..., 1990).
Precambrian volcanicplutonic belts are not abundant in India. The Late Precambrian granitoids of the
MalaniEripura Complex and the Degana (36, W) and
Tosham (121, SnW) deposits, located beyond metallogenic zones of the AravalliDelhiVindhyan province,
are examples. Similar granitic plutons are known in the
Bastar province, but related mineralization is unknown
therein.
Begining from the end of the Early Proterozoic, the
Indian Shield was characterized by a long period of stabilization marked by the formation of epicratonic
basins filled with orthoquartzite, carbonate rocks, and
schists. No ore mineralization is known in the Pahal,
Chattisgarh, Bhima, Kalaji, and Vindhyan basins; the
Kuddapah Basin is the only exception. Sporadic diamond-bearing kimberlite pipes, e.g., the Panna deposit
(90), are known. The joined Proterozoic Kuddapah
(older) and Kurnool (younger) basins in the Dharwar
province are filled with sandstone, limestone, schist,
basal conglomerate, and a small amount of graywackes.
Slightly deformed continental basalts occur at the western margin of the Kuddapah Basin. PbZn deposits are
hosted in sedimentary rocks; Cu mineralization is noted
in basic volcanics. This is the Kuddapah metallogenic
zone (15) with the Bandalamottu (17, PbZn),
Dhukonda (38, PbCu), Godapalli (42, PbZn), and Ganikalawa (43, Cu) deposits; the Mangampeta stratiform
and vein barite deposit (78) in the southern Kuddapah
Basin is one of the largest.
The Central Belt of tectonothermal reworking of
Precambrian rocks in the Phanerozoic is almost free of
ore occurrences. The Precambrian complexes of the
shield are overlapped by a Phanerozoic cover in the
north and are exposed again in the Lower Himalayas as
foldthrust belts of Phanerozoic reworking of the Precambrian basement. Small Pb, Zn, Cu, and magnesite
occurrences are hosted in the Proterozoic quartzitecarbonate sequence to the north of the Main Boundary
Thrust Fault in the Western Himalayas (the Pohiri,
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325

Sishhani, Bair, and Agar districts), in the Eastern Himalayas (the Rangpo and Gorubathan districts), and near
the Sheragaon district in the Northeastern Himalayas.
In the metallogenic provinces of the Lower Himalayas,
these are the Rangpo metallogenic zone (14) with the
Gorubathan (44, PbZnAg) and Rangpo (95, CuPbZn)
deposits and the Pungar Valley zone (22) with the Askot
(9, CuPbZn), Demalthal (37), Kanda Masanil (54), and
Pungar Valley (94) magnesite deposits. The Central
Belt of Paleoproterozoic tectonothermal reworking
developed in the Bastar and Singhbhum cratons. In the
east, this belt borders on the younger mobile belt of the
Eastern Ghats, and it is separated in the south from the
Dharwar Craton by the Closepet zone of potassium
granites. The Central Belt of tectonothermal reworking
is composed of granite and granodiorite gneisses with
relics of older gneisses and metabasic rocks with abundant sodic migmatites and younger potassium granitoids. The ore formation related to the reworking is
unknown. The diamond-bearing kimberlites at the
Vajrakarur deposit (124) pertain to the younger stage of
stabilization. The belt of tectonothermal reworking of
the Eastern Ghats is an important ore-bearing tectonic
unit that bears indications of polycyclic collision.
Recurrent tectonic, magmatic, and polyfacies metamorphic and ore-forming events are noted, e.g., inherent BIF, manganese, and graphite and superimposed
muscovite pegmatites. The belt of Proterozoic tectonothermal reworking of the Eastern Ghats is superimposed on the Archean granulitegneiss basement or
probably on the Early Proterozoic collision foldbelt.
The metallogenic province of the Eastern Ghats comprises the Srikakulam manganese metallogenic zone
(9) with the Garbham (41, Mn) and Sadanandrapur
(102, Mn) deposits and sporadic graphite deposits and
occurrences, e.g., the Chintakonda deposit (29); the
Nellore metallogenic zone (10) with the Konidu
Maralaped (68) and Tammavaram (119) iron deposits;
and the KalicheduSangam metallogenic zone (23)
with the Padararaya (88), Kalichedu (58), and Sangam
(105) deposits of muscovite pegmatites.
METALLOGENIC EPOCHS
The following metallogenic epochs established on
the basis of tectonic, isotopic geochronological, and
metallogenic data (Radhakrishna, 1984) are shown in
Fig. 3.
The Archean epoch (3.82.5 Ga) is characterized by
Fe, Mn, FeTiV, Cr, Cr (NiCoPt), Cu, AuW, magnesite, and muscovite deposits and occurrences related
to the Early Archean granulitegneiss domain and to
the Late Archean Dharwar-type greenstone belts in
granitegreenstone domains. Iron and manganese
deposits and inherited graphite deposits were formed at
that time in the Eastern Ghats Belt of tectonothermal
reworking.
The Early Proterozoic epoch (2.501.65 Ga) exhibits abundant base-metal (CuPbZnAg) deposits of

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TURCHENKO et al.

various types, as well as CuMo and CuU deposits.

Ancient deposits of biogenic phosphorite and sporadic
REE (pyrochlore in carbonatites) and fluorite occurrences are known. Muscovite pegmatites in the Eastern
Ghats are likely related to the Early Proterozoic tectonothermal reworking.
The Late Proterozoic epoch (1.650.65 Ga) is characterized by the formation of Cu, CuPbZn, and barite
deposits. Diamond deposits are located in sedimentary
basins of this age.
In general, Proterozoic tectonic units progressively
changed from foldbelts to volcanicplutonic belts and
then to epicratonic sedimentary and volcanic basins;
the ore mineralization varied correspondingly from
CuPbZn and CuU to WSn, Cu, CuMo, and rare
metals to, finally, CuPbZn and barite.
The distribution of mineral deposits by types of tectonic units is shown in Table 2.
CONCLUSIONS
The integration of data on the Precambrian metallogeny of India was aimed at further development of Precambrian geology and digital cartography of the Precambrian
regions. Owing to the discovery of large and unique Au,
Cu, Mn, Cr, U, Ni, and rare-metal deposits, these regions
make a great contribution to the worlds resource potential. Modern metallogenic cartography, based on GIS
technology together with data on tectonic evolution and
ore formation, is the fundamental basis of regional metallogeny, which facilitates the evaluation of mineral
resources and forecasting of ore districts.
The creation of a general geoinformation system is
a priority line of current regional geological and metallogenic research. The compilation of paper geological
maps was practically completed by the 1990s, and new
generations of maps began to be compiled using computer technologies. Increasing the informative value of
map sets required a fundamental change in the techniques used in compilation of maps, including metallogenic maps. The systematic analysis of multilevel and
heterogeneous geological and metallogenic information is the basis of development of new technologies.
Original heuristic methods of recognition, classification, and ordering of geological objects have been realized in a GIS software shell. Such technology is based
on the representation of geological space as a totality of
geological bodies and events coordinated with the scale
of geological time as large tectonic units distinctly separated in space, time, composition, and metallogenic
implications. Such geological bodies are recognized as
the main structural elements that allow typification,
systematics, ranking, classification, correlation, and
demarcation of territories different in their geology.
The digital metallogenic maps created on this basis
have great advantages over paper maps. The implemen-

tation of computer technologies makes it possible to

take into account new geological, isotopic, and geochronological data and to introduce necessary changes
and additions in an on-line regime, thus ensuring the
dynamism of the digital map. The possibility of quantitative modeling with involvement of spatial links
between objects and their metallogenic attributes and of
creating preconditions necessary for quantitative estimation of the mineral resource potential of a chosen territory appears. The processing of data on the Precambrian regions of India allowed us to create a metallogenic database for three formalized levels,
corresponding to metallogenic provinces, zones, and
particular mineral deposits.
As is shown for the Hindustan Shield, the evolution
of the Earths crust composed of Precambrian complexes is characterized by a progressive increase in
types of ore-bearing tectonic units and corresponding
types of mineral deposits beginning from the Early Proterozoic. Homologic series of ore-bearing structural
units are traceable from the Archean to the Late Proterozoic: (1) areal structural elements: Archean granulitegneiss and granitegreenstone domains
Late
Archean and Early Proterozoic epicratonic basins
Late Proterozoic plate covers; (2) linear structural elements: Archean greenstone belts
Early Proterozoic
continental rift belts
Early Proterozoic accretionary and collision orogenic belts
Late Proterozoic
anorogenic volcanicplutonic belts and aulacogens.
The structural units that built up the continental crust
are boldfaced.
In the Indian Shield, the Archean greenstone belts
and granulitegneiss domains have the most important
metallogenic and economic implications. These tectonic units, which compose the Earths crust of the
shield, contain the major iron, manganese, and gold
deposits of India that make up the main mineral
resource potential of the country. The accretionary orogenic belts that built up the crust of the Indian Shield in
the Early Proterozoic are also of metallogenic importance. Such orogenic belts are located in the Aravalli
DelhiVindhyan and the Singhbhum tectonic and metallogenic provinces. In the former province, basic volcanic rocks with ZnPbAg mineralization are known
from the Bhilwara Supergroup. The carbonate rocks of
the Aravalli Supergroup are hosts for Pb and Zn mineralization. The volcanic and sedimentary sequences in
the southern part of the Delhi Supergroup contain Zn
PbCu ore mineralization, whereas only Cu mineralization is hosted in the quartzitecarbonate association
in the north. Thus, the PbZnCu geochemical specialization is established for the AravalliDelhiVindhyan
metallogenic province irrespective of the host rock
lithology. The no less important Singhbhum metallogenic belt contains not only Cu but also CuU deposits,
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327

Table 2. Distribution of mineral deposits by types of Precambrian tectonic units of India

1

Mineralization

Fe, Fe (Mn)

2a1

2a2

2a3

2b

Mn, (MnFe)

FeTiV

Cr,CuCr,CrNiCo

7a

7c
O
O

CuMo, Mo

Cu

CuPbZn(Ag),CuZn

7b

Pb, PbZn

Cu(U), U(Cu)

Au, Au(W)

W, SnW

REE

Diamond

Barite

Graphite

Magnesite

Muscovite

+
o

Fluorite

O
o

Phosphorite

Notes: Tectonic units: (1) granulitegneiss domains; (2) granitegreenstone domains: (2a1) the oldest Sargur-type greenstone belts, (2a2) older
Kolar-type greenstone belts, (2a3) younger greenstone belts, (2b) granite and tonalite gneiss domains; (3) foldbelts; (4) intracontinental
rift belts; (5) volcanicplutonic belts and massifs; (6) epicratonic basins with basic volcanism; (7) regions of tectonothermal reworking:
(7a) Central Belt of Precambrian reworking, (7b) region of Phanerozoic reworking of Precambrian basement, (7c) Eastern Ghats Belt.
Open circles are medium and large deposits (small and large circles, respectively); crosses are ore occurrences.

showing a quite different geochemical specialization.

The Early Proterozoic intracratonic rift belts in the
Indian Shield are devoid of significant mineral deposits,
except the Malanjkhand paleorift metallogenic zone in
the Bastar Craton, with fluorite, copper, and a large Cu
Mo porphyry deposit.

Rock Isochron Ages and REE Data from the Archaean

Gneisses and Granites, Karnataka State, South India, in
INDO-US Workship on Precambrian of South India (NGRI,
Hyderabad, 1982), pp. 3536.

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