All about Stones

By:- Bhavya Mewada,18

 Introduction

 Stones are naturally occurring compact, solid and massive material

that make the crust of the earth.
 Technically, stones are called rocks.
 India possesses a wide spectrum of dimensional stones that include
granite, marble, sandstone, limestone, slate and quartzite.
 Forms of Stones

Basis of size
1) Basalt:-
 It is an extrusive igneous rock formed from rapid cooling of magnesium-
rich and iron-rich lava.
Features:
 It is an alphanatic( fine-grained) igneous-rock.
 It consists of 45-53percent silica and less than 10% feldspar by volume.
 It usually grey or black in colour, but rapidly weathers to brown due to
oxidation.
2) Granite:-
 It is a common type of felsic intrusive igneous rock that is granular and phanetic in texture.

Features:
 It can be predominantly white, pink or grey in colour depending on their mineralogy.
 It consists of quartz ranging from 20% to 60% by volume and 35% of feldspar.
 It has very high compressive strength of above 200MPa.
Uses:
• It was used in Ancient Egypt to build columns, door lintels, sills and walls.
• During Chola dynasty Brihadeeswar Temple was world’s first temple entirely built of
Granite.
• Aberdeen in Scotland is known as “ Granite City”.
3) Sandstone:-
It is a clastic sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized minerals or rock fragments.
Features:
• They are porous enough to store large quantities .
• Most are composed of quartz or feldspar because they are most resistant minerals to
weathering.
• Their size is from around 0.0625 to 2mm.
Uses:
 It has been used for domestic construction and housewares since prehistoric times .
 Widely used in constructing temples , homes and create artistic ornaments.
4) Slate:-
It is a fine grained , foliated , homogeneous metamorphic rock-derived from
an original shale-type sedimentary rock composed of clay or volcanic ash.
Features:
• It is frequently grey in colour especially, seen covering roofs.
• It is a good electrical insulator and fireproof.
• Most slates in Europe comes from Spain, and some fossils are found in it.
Uses:
 Slate can be made into roofing slates , a type of roof shingles.
 Natural Slate is used in building professionals as a result of its beauty and durability.
 They are also often used for interior and exterior floorings, stairs and walkways.
5) Marble:-
It is a metamorphic rock composed of recrystallised carbonate minerals , most
commonly calcite or dolomite.
Features:
• Pure white marble is a result of metamorphism of a very pure limestone and dolomite
protolith.
• It was a favourite medium used by Greek and roman sculptors and a also as a tradition.
Uses:
 Due to its low index of refraction , calcite allows light to penetrate several mm’s into the
stone.
 Widely used in Mughal period for building structures like Taj Mahal.
Basis of Formation
1) Igneous Rock:-
They are formed from cooling and solidification of molten materials.
• They are strong and durable like granite or basalt.
• They are of two types:-
1) Intrusive Igneous rocks:
• These are majorly formed from magma that cool and solidifies within crust of the
earth.
• They are Coarsed –grained.
• Their formations are – batholiths , stocks, lacoliths , sills and dikes.
 2) Extrusive Igneous rock:-
• They are also known as Volcanic rocks.
• They are formed at the crust surface as a result of partial melting
of rocks within mantle and crust.

 The Igneous rocks are geologically important because their

minerals and global chemistry gives information about composition
of mantle.
2) Metamorphic Rocks
It is formed from when pre-existence rocks are exposed to elevated heat and pressure.
• They make up large part of the earths crust and forms 12% of Earth’s land surface.
• Ex- gneiss, slate, marble, schist and quartzite.
• The layering within metamorphic rocks is called Foliation.
• The five basic textures of this rock are-
Slaty, schistore, gneissose, granoblastic and hornfelsic.
• The change in particle size of the rock during process of metamorphism is called
Recrystallisation.
3) Sedimentary rocks
• Sedimentary rocks are types of rock that are formed by the accumulation or deposition of
small particles and subsequent cementation of mineral or organic particles on the floor of
oceans or other bodies of water at the Earth's surface.
• They are deposited in layers as strata, forming a structure called bedding.
• They are generally rounded or angular.
• Many fossil fuels are found in this type of rock.
• The colour of a sedimentary rock is often mostly determined by iron, an element with two
major oxides: iron(II) oxide and iron(III) oxide. Iron(II) oxide gives the rock a grey or greenish
colour. Iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) gives the rock a reddish to brownish colour.
 History of Stones
• Stones was the construction material used by man. Stone houses and walled cities existed
before the Bronze Age; and stonemasons were among the earliest artisans.
• The earliest constructions that we know of consisted of undressed stone, boulders, and
rubble-- materials which did not require quarrying.
• The cyclopean stone fortress wall at Mycenae is an excellent example of the use of such
undressed stone.
• The building and decorative crafts took on new significance with the discovery of methods
for quarrying and polishing rock.
• Another early quarrying method utilized a combination of the principles of heat and strain.
Fires would be lighted along a previously marked line in the rock. After the rock had been
sufficiently heated the fires would be simultaneously quenched.
• The contraction caused by the sudden cooling would cause rifts to occur in the rock. These
rifts would be further widened by means of wedges and levers until blocks of stone would
become detached. This ancient method of fire-setting is still practiced.
• The contraction caused by the sudden cooling would cause rifts to occur in the rock. These
rifts would be further widened by means of wedges and levers until blocks of stone would
become detached. This ancient method of fire-setting is still practiced.
• . Although the Romans knew and used marbles from at least forty-two sites, this ancient
civilization was not, by any means, the first to develop the craft of stoneworking.
• The sculptors of Pads (Cyclades) are known to have actively quancient civilization was not, by
any means, the first to develop the craft of stoneworking
• . The sculptors of Pads (Cyclades) are known to have actively quarried and worked marble
five thousand years ago. The Parthenon of Greece; the pyramids of the Mayans, the Aztecs,
and the Egyptians; the great stone faces on Easter Island; the solar clock at Stonehenge; the
ruins of Angkor, Roman roads and aqueducts; Etruscan tombs; Byzantine temples; German
castles
 STONE

• Building material:-
• Building and decorative stone – stone used for its resistance to weather or its aesthetic appeal –
walls and decorative purposes. Buildings, walls, paving slabs.
• Aggregates – stone used for its strong physical properties – crushed and sorted into various sizes
for use in concrete, coated with bitumen to make asphalt or used 'dry' as bulk fill in construction.
Mostly used in roads, concrete and building products.
• Industrial purposes – limestone can be used for its chemical (mainly alkaline) properties as calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) in farming and manufacturing industry.
• Lime burning (calcining) – limestone when heated to a high temperature breaks down into lime
(calcium oxide) and carbon dioxide gas. It can then be used as a more powerful alkali than
limestone (see above) or used as a cement with sand, to make mortar, or as a soil improver in
agriculture.
• Cement – if limestone (or its variety chalk) is mixed with clay or sandstone before firing, it can
produce Portland cement which when mixed with aggregate makes concrete.
• Stone materials are often used for construction because they are strong, durable and very resistant
to weather conditions. Stone is extracted from natural deposits called quarrying. The stone blocks
are processed by cutting, shaping and polishing them. Some aggregates are used during the process
for cleaning, crushing and sorting the stone blocks.
 Qualities of good Stones

• The stone should be easily and economically obtainable in bulk.

• Ease of quarrying
• Durability and hardness: The stone should be hard, strong and durable.
• It should weather well.
• It should have fine compact texture.
• Colour and aesthetic value
• It should be capable to withstand the effects of smoke and acidic
• atmosphere.
• The stone should be free from soft patches, flaws, cavities and cracks.
• Impurities and other undesirables
• It should be well seasoned and easily workable.
• These come from all geological environments.
 Tests for Stones

• Building stones are required to be tested for their different properties

before they may be recommended for any specific case.
• Acid test.
• Water absorption test.
• Impact test.
• Crushing test.
• Hardness test.
 Stone Dressing
• Dressing of Stone is the working of quarried stone into the shape and size
required for use. This can be necessary as stones obtained from quarrying
generally do not have the exact required dimensions or finish.
• Stone dressing requires considerable technical skill, as well as a good
understanding of materials, design drawings and specifications.
• Stones may be dressed at the quarry site itself, as this reduces the weight that
needs to be transported and so reduces costs.
• Stone dressing can be carried out using a variety of tools depending upon the
finish required. Rough finishes may be achieved using quarry hammers and
chisels, whereas rubbed or polished finishes may be achieved by rubbing or
grinding a cut stone surface, either by hand (using sand and water, pumice
stone, and so on), or by machine.
• Types of Stone Dressing
1) Hammer Dressed or Quarry-faced Surface:
• This is the roughest form of surface finish. Stone as removed from the quarry has
large projections which are knocked off with the quarry hammer and it is finally
broken up into blocks of suitable size and shape such as khandki, quoin, or
rectangular blocks, The faces of the blocks arc roughly planned and the stone is
rendered suitable to be used in masonry. When used in a wall, the roughly finished
surfaces arc further modified by forming a 2 cm. to 5 cm. wide margin about the
edges of the exposed face.
2) Rough tooled surface:
• In this type of surface finish, the projection of the stone block are
removed by means of chisels and the surface is nearly dressed true.
The corners and the edges are made accurate, chisel draughter
margins sunk and the side and bed joints roughly treated to ensure
proper bonding.
3) Tooled Surface:
• In this type of surface finish continuous parallel chisel marks are produced
throughout the width of the stone. The parallel corrugations or chisel
marks are made at closer intervals rendering the surface truly planned.
Different types of tooled finishes are obtained by use of different chisel
and marking patterns.
4) Cut stone Surface:
• In this type of surface finish the surface is dressed by using a, sharp chisel
so that the chisel marks are practically imperceptible. It is considered
superior to tooled surface.
5) Rubbed Surface:
• This type of surface finish is obtained by grinding or rubbing a cut
stone surface by hand or machine until it gets perfectly smooth.
6) Polished Surface:
• The rubbed surfaces of granite, marble of lime stones are polished to
enhance their texture. Polishing may be done by manual labour using sand
and water, pumice stone etc. or by rubbing machine.
Purpose of Dressing
• To provide an aesthetic look.
• To make the transport from quarry easy and
economical.
• To gel the desired appearance from stone work.
• To suit to the requirements of stone masonry.
 Famous buildings of Stone

1) Taj Mahal
• The Taj Mahal is located in India. This stunning building is a mausoleum
that was created by a former emperor of the country in memory of his
third wife and it was completed in 1648.
• The Taj Mahal is considered a great example of Mughal architecture.
Mughal architecture is a combination of Persian, Ottoman Turkish, Islamic
and Indian architecture styles.
• This exterior of the Taj Mahal is made of white marble. Many of the
elements inside of the building and in the gardens surrounding the
building are also made from white marble.
2) The Colosseum
• The Colosseum is located in Rome, Italy. This building was building was
completed in 80 AD.
• The amphitheatre was used for public spectacles, executions, battles and
dramas. At the time, the Colosseum could hold 50,000-80,000 people.
• The majority of this monument was built with travertine stone slabs, a
very common building material in Italy.
3) Great Pyramid
• The Great Pyramid is located in Giza, Egypt. It is the oldest and the largest
of the three pyramids located in Giza.
• It is believed that this incredible structure was finished in 2560 BC. The
Great Pyramid is built from over 2.3 million blocks. The pyramid is made
from a few different types of stone.
• Most of the structure is made from limestone and part of it is made from
granite. This incredible structure is also one of the Seven Wonders of the
World.
4) Washington Monument
• The Washington Monument, located in Washington D.C., is the world's
tallest stone structure. It stands 555 feet and 5 1/8 inches tall.
• The building was started before the civil war in 1848, but had to stop for
the war and because of lack of funding. The monument was officially
opened in 1888.
• The building is constructed with over 36,000 stones of marble. The
different colours on the structure are because after the construction
process started again, the marble they used was from a different quarry
than where the initial stone was from.
5) Qutub Minar
• The Qutb Minar, also spelled as Qutb Minar or Qutub Minar, is
a minaret that forms part of the Qutb complex, a UNESCO World Heritage
Site in the Mehrauli area of Delhi, India. Qutb Minar is a 73-metre (239.5
feet) tall tapering tower of five storeys.
• It is made up of red and white sandstone.
6) Hawa Mahal:-
• Hawa Mahal ("The Palace of Winds" or "The Palace of Breeze") is a palace
in Jaipur, India. Made with the red and pink sandstone, the palace sits on
the edge of the City Palace, Jaipur, and extends to the Zenana, or women's
chambers.
• The structure was built in 1799 by Maharaja Sawai Pratap Singh, the
grandson of Sawai Jai Singh, who was the founder of Jaipur.
7) Humayun Tomb:-
• Inspired by Persian architecture; the tomb reaches a height of 47 metres
(154 ft) and the plinth is 91 metres (299 ft) wide, andit
• It was the first Indian building to use the Persian double dome on a high
neck drum, and measures 42.5 metres (139 ft), and is topped by 6 metres
(20 ft) high brass finial ending in a crescent, common in Timurid tombs.
• The double or 'double-layered' dome, has its outer layer which supports
the white marble exterior,
8) Megalithic Temples of Malta
• A megalith is a large stone that has been used to construct a structure or
monument, either alone or together with other stones.
• The word megalithic describes structures made of such large stones
without the use of mortar or concrete, representing periods
of prehistory characterised by such constructions.
9) Newgrange
• The Newgrange monument primarily consists of a large mound, built of
alternating layers of earth and stones, with grass growing on top and a
reconstructed facade of flattish white quartz stones studded at intervals
with large rounded cobbles covering part of the circumference.
10) Pyramid of Djoser
• The Pyramid of Djoser or Step Pyramid is an archaeological remain in
the Saqqara necropolis, Egypt, northwest of the city of Memphis.
• The pyramid originally stood 62.5 metres (205 ft) tall, with a base of
109 m × 121 m (358 ft × 397 ft) and was clad in polished white
limestone. The step pyramid (or proto-pyramid) is considered to be the
earliest large-scale cutstone construction.
 Modern architects using Stones

1) House in Melgaco
• Located in Melgaço, in Northern Portugal, the rehabilitation of this natural
stone house has been designed by Brandão Costa Arquitectos. For
refurbishing this small stone construction, the architects created an
extension also made in stone that accommodates the lounge and three
bedrooms.
2) The White House
• Completed in June 2010, The White House has been remodelled by WT
Architecture in Scotland. In this case, the natural stone house has been
consolidated and partly occupied. A massive dry stone wall extends into
the natural landscape, extending the ancient patterns of enclosure.
3) The house of Ruins( contemporary)
• The House of Ruins, designed by NRJA architects, is an award-winning
contemporary home built inside the ruins of a 19th century Latvian stone
barn. This modern eco-friendly house uses stone walls to serve as privacy
screens and protective barriers against the Baltic Sea winds. The
perfection of glass is combined with the rough surface of the stone house.
4) Relaxing Retreat ,Australia
• Designed by Centrum Architects, this house situated in the Victorian
Goldfields, rural Victoria (Australia), has been transformed into a new
house to facilitate a modern lifestyle. The new extension allows the full
height of the stone ruin wall to be appreciated. Natural stone houses with
modern minimalist interiors show the simply beauty of this material.
5) Guest House for stone ruin
• Narcis Tudor thinks architecture has the power to «evoke the
unmeasurable trigger of emotion». This is the aim of this project, a
guesthouse for a stone ruin outside Durango, Colorado (USA). Two stone
stacks give the illusion of crumbling ruins. Tudor oriented the structure
five degrees east of south and staggered its twin stone stacks to create a
thermal mass. The sandstone captures the sun’s heat during the day and
radiates it back when the air grows cool at night.
 Bibliography
http://en.m.wikipedia.org>wiki
http://www.archdaily.com>ad_classics
Urbanmater.com
http://stonearchitecture.com>the history
Theconstructionseek.com
carvedstonecreations.com
Owlcation.com
Thank you