STONE

An Overview

WCFA BUILDING
MYSURU STRUCTURES 01
SEM 2, BATCH 2022
What is Stone?

Stone is a construction
material derived from rocks in
the earth’s crust and mixture
of two or more minerals.

Mineral is a substance which is formed

by the natural inorganic process and
possesses a definite chemical
composition and molecular structure
 HISTORY
• Stones are evidences of
geological time.
• Massive stones served as
primary building material for
many cultures.
• High level of physical labour is
required.
• Dimensionally accurate ashlar
masonry replaced rough-hew
walls
• In the 19th C, stone was
redefined as a decorative
element as concrete and steel
frame construction rose.
• Today, stone is mainly used for
cladding and as a load bearing
material
• Stone was prefered for its
fundamental mechanical
properties such as strength
and durability.
• In early civilization, stones were used as a
marker. Ex:menhir and other monoliths,
great pyramids of giza.
• Stone was preferred material for building
something which could withstand the
test of time.
• Romans used it to build walls and stone
paved roads
How is stone used to build?
● Stone has a high compressive strength
but about 20-30 times weaker in tension
● Strength and workability of a particular
stone is determined by several factors
including its hardness, grain- type and
porosity
● Rocks are classified according to the
geological factors that formed them
● Stone masonry can either be laid dry,
without mortar, or wet using mortar
made of earth, sand and lime, or cement
Rock types
Igneous Rocks
• results from the cooling and solidification of hot lava
• Hardest, densest rock to be found
• Ex- granite( most common intrusive igneous rock), basalt (extrusive igneous rock)

Sedimentary rock
• Produced by the consolidation of sediments that have been formed by weathering and piled
up by agents of erosion.
• Most noticeable feature is their layering. Ex- sandstone, limestone, shale

Metamorphic rock
• Result of either sedimentary or igneous types being modified by pressure, heat and
chemically active solutions
• Ex: marble (metamorphosized limestone), slate (originally shale), schist (modified granite),
gneiss (modified granite)
Rock types
Physical classification Chemical Classification

Stratified rocks Siliceous rocks

• separable distinct layers
• Cleavage plane of split visible.
• Slate, sandstone, lime stone
Un-stratified rocks–
• no sign of strata, cannot be easily split
into slabs.
• Granite, basalt, trap
• containing silica SiO2(sand) and
silicates.
• Granite, basalt, trap, quartzite,
gneiss,syenite, etc
Argillaceous rocks
• containing clay or alumina Al2O3.
• Slate, laterite, etc

Foliated rocks Calcareous rocks

• having tendency to split up only in a • containing calcium carbonate or lime.
definite direction • Limestone, marble, dolomite, etc
 How do we build?
• It uses similar principles of brick
masonry.
• The units of stone masonry are
stones or rocks which are then
maybe cut.
• These units are stacked skillfully to
avoid vertical joints.
• longer stones called through-stones
which stretch across the whole
cross-section at regular intervals
locks the layers of stones and
reinforces the structure
• similarly bond_stones (slightly
smaller) are also used at regular
intervals to bong the layers together
• horizontal joints are also avided as
the horizontal layers will slide
against each other. large and smaller
stones are used skillfully to avoid
such joints
• The units do not require to be
of the same shape and size as
any gap, provided it is small
enough is either filled with
smaller pieces of stone called
flintstones or by the mortar (if
it is wet construction)
• The size of the cross section
decreases with height to
decrease load on higher levels.
levels closer to the ground are
more stable due to the effect of
gravity
• Stone masonry can also work
without mortar or any other
bondant due to the fact that
the weight exerted by the
stone onto the pieces of stones
below it are great enough to
ensure a stable structure.
Stone Masonry
Irregular stone walls:
• random rubble masonry
• cyclopean masonry

Rough hewn/ stratified walls

• roughly rectangular or block shaped units
• relatively consistent horizontal joints
• horizontal joints are broken/ staggered to ensure
structural stability

Squared Ashlar
• stones that have been precisely cut into orthogonally
shaped blocks
• simplifies construction process and improves overall
stability

Filled
• walls clad on exterior surface with valuable stone and
filled on the interior with rubble/earth

• Traditionally, openings in walls were achieved by using

arches or stone lintels
• Corbelling was used for roofs– Conical or domed form
Where do we get stone from?
• Granite and Hard Stones:
- Quarrying Process: Involves drilling deep holes, using strong explosives, and cutting
with diamond-tipped tools due to hardness.
- Common Sources: Found in mountainous regions and continental crust. Examples
include the Rocky Mountains (North America), the Alps (Europe), and various regions
worldwide with igneous activity.

• Marble and Limestone:

- Quarrying Process: Requires less intense explosives, cutting into thin slabs, and polishing
for smooth surfaces.
- Common Sources: Limestone often forms in oceans, lakes, and caves. Marble originates
from metamorphosed limestone. Found in sedimentary rock formations globally.

• Slate and Schist:

- Quarrying Process: Split along natural layers (cleaving) for thin sheets.
- Common Sources: Slate is often found in regions with shale that has undergone
metamorphism. Schist is associated with tectonically active areas and high-grade
metamorphism.

• Volcanic Rocks (Basalt, Andesite, etc.):

- Quarrying Process: Varies based on hardness and texture.
- Common Sources: Forms from volcanic activity. Found near volcanic centers or along
tectonic plate boundaries.
How do we get stone?
Stone is quarried through several steps that involve extracting natural rock from
the earth's crust. Here's a concise breakdown of the process:
1.Site Selection: Identify a suitable location with valuable stone deposits,
considering factors like stone type, quality, accessibility, and environmental
impact.
2.Clearing and Preparation: Clear away vegetation, topsoil, and any obstacles
to create space for quarrying operations.
3.Drilling: Use specialized equipment to drill holes into the rock formations.
These holes are strategically placed for controlled breaking of the rock.
4. Blasting: Load the drilled holes with explosives, which are then detonated to
break the rock into manageable pieces.
5. Extraction: Utilize heavy machinery like loaders and excavators to move the
fractured rock pieces to a processing area.
6. Processing: Cut, trim, and shape the extracted stone using saws and other
tools to achieve desired dimensions and appearances.
Physical properties
Density
Denser stones tend to be stronger and
more capable of supporting heavy loads.
In construction, stones with higher
densities are often preferred for
load-bearing elements such as
foundations, columns, and walls, as they
can withstand the forces exerted on
them. (2.5 to 2.75 g/cm3
Expansion and Contraction
When stone is heated and then cooled,
permanent expansion occurs, losing
some original volume.
Durability
Stone-built structures have lasting
permanence due to stone's strong
durability.
Compressive Strength
Stone's compressive strength varies based on factors
like mineral composition, crystalline thickness, and
load area.
Porosity
Rocks contain pores and cavities, influencing crack
formation and secondary chipping.
Resistance
Higher rock strength leads to greater stability and
difficulty in forming secondary chips.
Tensile Strength
Increasing rock strength reduces its cutting ability.
Hardness
Hardness resists abrasion and scratching, with static
and dynamic stiffness distinctions
Where do we use stone?
1. Foundations and Footings:
• Commonly used as a base material for
building foundations and footings.
• Its strength and load-bearing capacity
help distribute the weight of the
structure evenly.

2. Flooring:
• Stone tiles or slabs are used for
flooring in various areas of a building,
such as entrances, hallways, kitchens,
and bathrooms.
• Natural stone offers durability, easy
maintenance, and a luxurious look.

3. Roofing:
• Slate and other types of stone can be
used for roofing material, providing
fire resistance and longevity.
• Stone roofing materials are well-suited
for historical or traditional
architectural styles.
Where do we use stone?
4. Walls and Cladding:
• Natural stone is often used for exterior and interior walls, providing a timeless and elegant
appearance.
• Stone cladding adds texture and visual interest to facades.

5. Paving and Walkways:

• Stone pavers are often used for outdoor pathways, patios, and driveways.
• Their durability and aesthetic appeal enhance the outdoor environment.

6. Retaining Walls:
• Stone is employed in constructing retaining walls to manage soil erosion and prevent
landslides.
• Its weight and stability contribute to the wall's effectiveness.

7. Decorative Elements/ Facework

• Stone is utilized for various decorative features like arches, columns, balusters, and moldings.
• Its versatility allows for intricate designs and ornate detailing.
Examples

Pont du Gard, Nîmes, France,

The great pyramid of Giza Temple of garni
60 CE

Boulder house Nevsehir Bus Terminal, Muzeum Susch, Susch,

Nevsehir, Turkey, 2010, Switzerland, 2018
Thank you.
Curated and presented by:
Adeena
Aparna
Ananya
Chiranthana
Likhitha
Nuthan
Rishabh
Sai Nithi
Tarun