Rocks and Stones

Classification of Rocks
Rocks are classified on the basis of their:
• Geological formation
• Physical Characteristics
• Chemical composition

Based on Geological Formation:

 Is based upon the mode of formation. Classified into 3:
1. Igneous
2. Sedimentary
3. Metamorphic
 i. Igneous Rocks
• Also known as primary, un-stratified or eruptive rocks.
• Are of volcanic origin, formed from solidification of molten mass
(magma) lying below (deep-seated plutonic rocks) or above (effusive
rocks) the earth’s surface.
• If solidified at a shallow depth forms a crystalline structure known as
hypabyssal. Eg dolerite.
• The texture of the rock is influenced by the rate of cooling of magma.
 ii. Sedimentary rocks
• Are also known as aqueous or stratified rocks.
• Formation: broken pieces of earth’s surface by the weathering agencies is
carried down by the river, and as the velocity of the river decreases ,the
sediments settle down. With time this takes place in layers and the
sediments get consolidated due to the pressure from the overlying
sediments.
• Properties of the rock depends upon the nature of sediment and type of
bond between them. These rocks are soft and can be easily split up.
• sedimentary rocks resulting from precipitation of salts - gypsum , anhydrite ,
magnesite ,dolomite, lime tufas
• Sedimentary rocks resulting from plant or animal remains (organogenous
rocks) – limestone, shale, chalk, diatomite and tripoli.
• Resulting from detoriation of massive sedimentary rocks (fragmental rocks):
sandstone, sand, gravel, carbonate conglomerate and breccia.
 iii. Metamorphic rocks
• Formed from igneous or sedimentary rocks as a result of earth
movements, temperature changes, liquid pressures etc
• Have foliated structure or non foliated structure.

Based on Physical characteristics.

I. Stratified rocks
 Show distinct layers along which the rocks can be split. Eg sandstone,
limestone, shale, slate, marble
II. Unstratified rocks
 Do not show any stratification and cannot be easily splitted into thin
layers.
 Eg. Granite , basalt, trap, etc
II. Foliated rocks
 Have tendency to split up only in definite direction.
 Based on Chemical Composition
I. Argillaceous
 The principal constituent is clay (Al2O3).
 They are hard and brittle. Eg slate, laterite

II. Silicious
 The principal constituent is silica (SiO2) that is sand.
 The rocks are very hard and durable. Eg granite, basalt, trap, quartzite.

III. Calcarious
 Principal constituent is lime. Eg limestone, marble, dolomite
Characteristics and use of various
stones available in Bhutan.
The most common stones:
•Limestone.
•Marble.
•Slate.
•Dolomite.
•Gypsum.
•Sandstone.
•Quartz.
•Granite.
 1.Limestone

• Common type of sedimentary rock with the high

calcium carbonate composition.
• It is a soft rock due to calcium content.
• It is dense, hard and varies in purity.

Uses
• As building materials.
• Used in medicines and cosmetics.
• As raw materials for quick lime and slacked lime.
 2.Marble
• It is a metamorphic rock produced from limestone by pressure
and heat in the earth due to geological process.
• It is available in various colors due to the variety of minerals
present in it.
• Firm crystalline structure.
• Can be polished to improve its shine.

Uses:
• Widely used as the building materials, in monuments,
sculptures and in numerous other applications.
Example: floor covering, decoration, stairs and pavement.
 3. Slate
• It is a naturally occurring metamorphic rock.
• It is valued for its ability to break into thin plates.
• It is derived from mudstone that has experienced
intense heat and pressure.

Uses:
• Both decorative and utilitarian purpose.
Example. roof shingles.
 4.Dolomite
• It is a common rock forming mineral composed of
calcium magnesium carbonate.
• Dolomite crystals are colorless, white , pinkish…

Uses:
• As ornamental stone.
• Source of magnesium.
• Acid neutralization in the
chemical industry.
 5. gypsum
• It is soft mineral and is usually white, colorless and
grey in color.
• It can be transparent or translucent.
• It has low thermal conductivity which is the reason
why it is used in making drywalls and wallboards.
Uses:
• Making drywalls or plaster boards.
• Cosmetic like toothpaste, shampoo and hair product
due to its binding and thickening properties.
 6.Sandstone
• It is sedimentary rock composed of very small grains of
minerals or rocks.
• Very porous.
• Various in color(brown, red and pink sandstones are
commonly called brownstone).

Uses:
• Building foundation walls, steps..etc
 7.Quartz
• It is the most abundant minerals found at
earth’s surface.
• It is composed of silicon and oxygen atoms.

Uses:
• Glass making, gemstones.
• Sand blasting, building.
 8.Granite
• It is igneous rock formed from the slow
crystallization of magma below earth surface.
• Red, pink, gray and white in color.

Uses:
• Due to its heavy loading carrying capacity it is
being used in bridge abutment.
 STONE QUARRYING METHODS

• Quarrying of Stones: The process of extraction of suitable stones

from their natural rock beds or layers.

• Quarry: A place where different types of stones are extracted.

 Methods of Quarrying of Stones
1. Quarrying of Stones Without Blasting
• Blocks of rocks are broken loose from their
natural outcrops by men using hand tools or
special purpose channeling machines.
• No explosive material is used.
• It is systematically broken into blocks of
desired sizes by either driving wedges or
cutting channels
a. The Wedge Method of Quarrying
• Consists of digging a few holes at a carefully separated
places on the rock
• In major quarrying, these holes may be drilled by a special
machines called hammer drills
• Steel wedge is inserted in between two steel stripes
• Such firmly inserted wedges are then struck with a hammer
almost simultaneously. This process develops cracks along
the lines joining the holes
• After that long iron bars are inserted in the holes and cracks
and then the blocks of the rocks are pushed forward onto
the free face of quarry
b. The Channeling Method of Quarrying

• Involves the use of big machines called

channelizers which has reciprocating cutting
tools and are power driven
• When single large block of costly stones like
marbles and limestones are required this
method is most suitable
 c. Quarrying by Heating
• Old, crude method which may be useful locally
for obtaining small quantities of stones
• Rocks are heated for few hours by burning
heaps of firewood over the surface
• Such a process results in expansion of the
upper layers and their cracking and separating
from the lower layers
2. Quarrying of Stones by Blasting
• Consists of using explosives for breaking stones from very hard
rocks
• Quarrying of granites, basalts, traps, quartzites and sandstones by
wedging and other method is observed to be very laborious and
costly
• The basic principle of this method is to explode a small quantity of
an explosive material at a calculated depth within the rocks
• Blasting for quarrying for stones may be quite different from
blasting for road clearance
• Quarrying by blasting involves series of systematic operation such
as drilling of blast holes, charging of blast holes and firing the
shots.
 Precautions
•Skilled supervisor.
•Notice of blasting.
•Storing.
•Retreat to a distance.
•Failure of explosion.
•Needle and temper.
 Various explosives used in quarrying
• Granulated powder containing 5-15% of
nitroglycerine.
• Straight nitroglycerine dynamite .
• Low freezing dynamite.
• Ammonia dynamite.
• In the recent blasting with the gelatin ,gelatin
dynamites, ammonium nitrate powders and the so
called nitro-starch powders have been introduced.
 Characteristics to be considered in selection of Stones.
• Crushing strength
• Appearance
• Density- Sp.gr more than 2.7
• Durability
• Easiness of dressing
• Fie resistance
• Fracture
• Impact- toughness value 13-19
• Hardness- resistance against wear 14-17
• Water absorption- less than 0.6
• weathering
Topics to be discussed in flip class
• Deterioration of stones
• Preservation of stones
• Artificial Stones
• Textural classification of stones
• Physical test on stones
THANK YOU