STONE

LECTURE 02
ARCH 261:
BUILDING AND FINISH MATERIALS

NABILA FERDOUSI
Lecturer
Department of Architecture
University of Asia Pacific
 COMPARISON BETWEEN BRICK AND STONE:

Topic STONE BRICK

Strength & Higher than brick. Used in rigorous Lower than stone. Brick may not last
durability. conditions. long in rigorous conditions.
Plastering Generally not plastered. Generally plastered to conceal the
defects of brick.
Effect of Not easily affected. May disintegrate. Thus affect the life &
dampness appearance of brick.
Fire resistance Lower resistance. Very good fire resistance.

Water Lower Higher

absorption
Availability & Usually used in available areas. Can be carried far. Labour relatively
ease of Needs skilled specialized labour. available. Lifted by hand.
construction Needs machinery to lift.
Dressing Requires dressing & preparation. Ready use.
 Topic STONE BRICK

Flexibility Cannot be moulded. Can be moulded into any size & shape.

Construction No specific bonding needed. Bonding is essential. Requires less

Requires more mortar. Used for
large scale construction. Evokes a
feeling of massiveness.
Other uses Railway ballast, good concrete
aggregate.
mortar. Creates a humane scale.
As aggregate, but not stronger than
stone.
Stone is one of the most ancient permanent material for construction…
Pyramid of Giza , 2630-2611BC
Stonehenge , 2500BC
Karnak temple , 2055BC
Acropolis of Athens , 5thCentury BC
Ellora, India , 600 CE (AD)
What is the difference between a rock & a stone?
 Rock is the term used to name a solid portion of the earth’s crust .
It has no definite shape and chemical composition.

Stone is always obtained from rock.

The rock quarried from quarries is called stone. Quarried stone can be of
many forms, i.e. stone blocks, slabs, lintels, etc.
Stone needs to be dressed before it can be used (usually).
MINE All excavations done underground at large depths.
vs.
QUARRY All process/operations are mostly done at ground level under
exposed conditions.
Considerations at Selection of Quarry Site:
• Distance of quarry from road, railways etc.
• Sufficient stone reserve.
• Availability of equipment, labor etc.
• Quality of stone
• Drainage from site.
• Facilities of transportation of stone
• Geological formation of site
• Distance of site from built-up areas.

Methods of Quarrying:
– DIGGING/EXCAVATION
– HEATING
– WEDGING
– CHANNELING MACHINE
– BLASTING
DIGGING/EXCAVATION
DIGGING:
– Suitable when detached blocks lay buried in earth.
HEATING
HEATING:
– Applicable where rock formation is in horizontal layers
– Fire wood piled and burnt on the stone surface (to be excavated) for some time
– Heat expands the upper layers of stone, causing it to detach (un equal expansion of
layers).
– Splitting of layers is indicated by a dull bursting sound
– Detached stones are carried out of quarry.
– This method provides small blocks of stone, nearly equal size.
WEDGING
WEDGING:
– Uses natural cracks/fissures otherwise artificially cracks are created.
– Holes sizing 12mm dia and 20-25cm deep placed 10-15cm apart are created using
pneumatic drills.
– Each holes are provided with two pieces of feathers and a conical shaped wedge.
– Wedges or plugs are simultanously driven inside with the help of hammer, which
detaches the layers.
– In case of softer stones wooden pegs are placed and water sprayed to expand the
wood, which detaches the stones from layers.
CHANNELING MACHINE
CHANNELLING MACHINE:
– For softer stones like marble, Limestones etc and when stones of definite size and
shape is required.
– Channeling machine is used, this machine can create both vertical and oblique groves
or 2-4m deep and 5-8cm wide in stone.
– The block is detached in the same method as wedging.
BLASTING
BLASTING:
– For stones of very hard quality and there is no fissures/cracks.
– For stones over a large area.
– No definite size of the block can be found.
– Bores are made with pneumatic drills, explosives are loaded and fired.
– The blast caused the stone to shatter, creates wastage, not used for building/expensive
stones.
DRESSING OF STONES:

Stone blocks obtained from quarry are in irregular sizes and shapes and cannot be used as
such in masonry work without dressing. Dressing of stones is a process, carried out with the
help of hand tools, to give proper shape and surface to the stone, before its use in masonry
or in any other work. It is done for the following purposes:

•To get the good appearance in stone masonry

•To meet the requirements in stone masonry
•To make transportations easy and economical.
•‘Quarry Sap’ makes dressing easy.
•Helps to take advantages of trained local skill and labor.
ROCK QUARRY DRESSING USE
Natural the process of for proper shape, masonry
source excavating stones size & surface etc.
How were these rocks formed?
Process 01: The process of cooling of earth is still continuing and
thus process of solidification of molten matter is still continuing.

Process 02: Sedimentation of earth.

Process 03: Metamorphism – re-alignment of minerals due to

temperature, pressure, or both, changing the texture & chemical
equilibrium of the rock.
Classification of Rocks

Geological classification

Physical classification

Chemical classification

Classification based on
hardness
• Igneous rock:
• formed by the cooling of lava or magma.
• Volcanic igneous : rapid cooling. (Basalt)
• Hypa-bassal igneous: slower cooling.
(Dolerite)
• Plutonic igneous: very slow cooling.
(Granite)
 Sandstone

• Sedimentary rock:
• formed by deposition of materials like sand,
clay, rocks etc.
• With age & help of water, wind, frost etc, Limestone
this deposited mass becomes a rock.
• Shows horizontal layering. Layers may
have same or different composition, color &
structure.
• example: Sandstone, Limestone, Slate etc.
slate
 Marble

• Metamorphic rock: Quartize

• formed when igneous & sedimentary rocks
to through metamorphism.
• the process of change due to heat &
pressure is called metamorphism.
• example: Marble, Quartzite etc.
Classification of Rocks

Geological classification

Physical classification

Chemical classification

Classification based on
hardness
• Stratified rocks:
• Contains planes of stratification.
• Can easily be split along these lines.
• All sedimentary rocks are actually stratified
rocks.
• Unstratified rocks:
• rocks with compact granular structure.
• All volcanic rocks are usually unstratified
rocks.
• Foliated or laminated rocks:
• comprise of thin laminations.
• They can be split in definite direction and
size.
• Metamorphic rocks fall in this category.
Classification of Rocks 1.
Geological classification
2.
Physical classification
Chemical classification
3.
Classification based on
hardness
Silicious rocks:
• not easily affected by weather.
• Granite, quartzite, basalt etc.
Argilaceioius or cleyey rocks:
• hard, durable, dense and brittle.
• Laterite, slate etc.
Calcareous rocks:
• not very durable.
• Limestone, marble, dolomite etc.
Classification of Rocks

Geological classification 1. Very hard rocks: Granite, trap, taconite etc.

Physical classification 2. Hard rocks: Granite, basalt, quartzite etc.

3. Medium rocks: Dolemite, limestone etc.

Chemical classification
4. Soft rocks: Talc, gypsum, sandstone etc.
Classification based on
hardness
Are there any rules in using stones?
 USING THE NATURAL BED OF STONE

The plane along which the stone can be easily split is known as the natural bed of
stone.

Effective mostly in sedimentary rocks.

Masonry should be done in such a way that the direction of applied load is
perpendicular to the natural bed of stone.
Fig. Natural bed of stone
Most commonly used stones
GRANITE:

Type:

Granite is obtained from

igneous rock. As it is
found at very large depths,
it is also called platonic
igneous rock.
GRANITE:
Source:
Apart from traditional
sources, such as Italy, USA,
and Canada, popular granite
producing areas now include
India, China, many African
nations, much of
mountainous South America,
and the northern European
countries.
Properties:
• Hard, strong, heavy and durable unstratified type of stone.
• Has fine grained structure, so can be nicely polished.
• Very difficult to dress this stone, and should not be used in
ordinary works.
• Ordinarily grey in colour, but also available in red, green,
pink and brown colours.
• Splits badly when comes in contact of fire.
• Crushing strength varies from 1000-1400kg/cm2
• Durable to weather.
• Medium or coarse grained granites are good for
construction of bridges, piers, marine works and other
exposed massive structures.
• High coarse grained granite are used as road metal,
railway ballast and aggregate of concrete.
SANDSTONE:

Type:

Obtained from stratified

sedimentary rocks.
SANDSTONE: Properties:

• Durability, hardness and strength of this stone is

Type:
Obtained from stratified
sedimentary rocks.
depends upon the quality of cementing material
• Comes in various formation such as: fine grained,
coarse grained, compact or porous.
• Fine grained, silica bound sand stones are considered
strong and durable.
• Compressive strength 650 kg/cm2
• Available in white, green, blue, black, red and yellow
colors.
• Can be finely dressed.
• Compact fine grained sandstones can be used for
carvings.
• Unless very hard, sandstone cannot withstand
abrasion, so should not be used for road or abrasive
surfaces.
• Usually used for steps, facing works, columns, walls,
ornamentations etc.
MARBLE:

Type:

It is a metamorphic
rock.
MARBLE: Properties:

• Relatively softer than Granite.

Type:
• Crushing strength is 720 kg/cm2
• Acquires other colors due to presence of certain
It is a metamorphic
minerals during its formation. Available in whit, grey,
rock. black, red, brown, yellow, blue, green colors.
• If limestone is heated red hot and no gas is allowed to
escape, the stone gets converted into marble.
• Very expensive stone. Usually used in high class
building temples, mosques or other sacred structures.
• Sustains weather well. Often used in face work of a
building and also in the form of floor tiles, stair steps,
wall lining, table tops, columns, pilasters etc.
• Wastes obtained at quarries and during dressing are
used for manufacturing of lime and also used as marble
chips.
So, what are the uses of these stones?
USES OF STONE:
• For masonry work
• For lintels and vertical columns
• For covering floors of buildings
• For paving roads and footpaths
• Construction of roads in form of boulders and aggregates.
• As an aggregate in cement and lime concrete.
• Base material for water and sewage filters in treatment plants
• As stone patties in roofing.
• Manufacturing of lime and cement
• Used at the exterior for providing massive and soothing experience
• Ballasts used in railway tracks.
• Lime stone used as flux in ballast furnaces.
• Construction of masonry dam, piers etc.
• Coarse sand obtained from quarry sites is an excellent natural substitute for natural sand.
Qualities of a good building stone should ----

1. be easily and economically available in bulk.

2. be hard, strong and durable.
3. be able to withstand weather.
4. have pleasing texture, specially if used in face work.
5. Be able to withstand fire and other physical damages.
6. Be easily workable.
7. Not absorb 5% of its weight when kept in water for 24hrs.
8. Be able to withstand various loading conditions.