Stones

Introduction

• Stone refers to natural rocks after their removal

from the earth crust
• Geologically, all rocks can be classified into one of 3
groups:
– Igneous
– Metamorphic
– Sedimentary
• Classification depends on the process by which they
were produced within or on the earth’s surface
 (A) Igneous rocks
• Igneous rocks are the oldest, having been formed by
the solidification of the molten core of the earth or
magma
• They form about 95% of the earth crust which is up to
16km thick
• Solidification slowly within the earth crust produces
plutonic rocks while solidification rapidly at the surface
produces volcanic rocks
• Slow cooling of plutonic rocks allowed large crystals to
grow which are characteristic of granites
• Volcanic rocks such as pumice (grey volcanic rocks) basalt (dark
volcanic rocks) are fine-grained and individual crystals
cannot be distinguished by the eye
 Granites
• Most granites are hard and dense and thus form
highly durable building materials, virtually
impermeable to water, resistant to impact damage
and stable within industrial environments
• Colours of granite include grey, pink, black, blue,
green, red, yellow and brown (Refer to Figure 9.1
(Lyons))
• Granite is available for flooring and for hard
landscaping including pavings and kerbs
• Polished granite is also used as a kitchen
countertop material due to its strength, durability
and high- quality finish
Figure 9.1 Selection of granites

San Nicholas Royal blue

Figure 9.1 Selection of granites

Grau Cornish De Lank

Figure 9.1 Selection of granites

Peterhead
 Basalt
• Basalt is a fine-grained stone nearly as hard as
granite
• It can be melted at 2,400oC and cast into tile units
which are deep steel grey in colour
• Annealing in a furnace produces a hard virtually
maintenance-free shiny textured surface
 (B) Sedimentary rocks
• Sedimentary rocks are produced by the weathering and
erosion of older rocks
• In the earliest geological time, these would have been
the original igneous rocks but subsequently other
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks too will have
been reworked
• Weathering action by water, ice and wind breaks the
rocks down into small fragments which are then
carried by rivers and sorted into size and nature by
further water action
• Most deposits are laid down in the oceans as
sedimentary beds of mud or sand, which build up in
layers, becomes compressed and eventually are
cemented together by minerals
 Sandstones
• Deposits of sand cemented together by calcium
carbonate, silica, iron oxide and dolomite produce
calcareous, siliceous, ferruginous and dolomitic
sandstones
• Depending upon the nature of the original sand
deposit, the sandstones may be fine or coarse in
texture
• Sandstones are generally frost-resistant
 Limestones
• Limestones consist mainly of calcium carbonate,
either crystallised from solution as calcite or formed
from accumulations of fossilised shells deposited by
various sea organisms
• In the UK, limestones include :
– Oolitic limestone (Refer to Figures 9.4, 9.5 & 9.6 (Lyons))
– Organic limestone
– Crystallised limestone
– Dolomitic limestone
Figure 9.4 Roach limestone and oolitic limestone

Roach limestone Oolitic limestone

Figure 9.5 Ketton Limestone – The Queen’s Building Emmanuel College Cambridge
Figure 9.6 Bath Stone – Foundress Court Pembroke College Cambridge
 (C) Metamorphic rocks
• Metamorphic rocks are formed by the
recrystallisation of older rocks when subjected to
intense heat or pressure or both, within the earth’s
crust
• Clay is metamorphosed to slate, limestone to
marble and sandstone to quartzite
 Slate
• Slate is derived from fine-grained sand-free clay
sediments
• Slate is strong, acid- and frost-resistant, lasting up
to 400 years as a roofing material
• Refer to Figure 9.7 (Lyons)
Figure 9.7 Slate roofs

Natural Welsh slate roof

Figure 9.7 Slate roofs

Swithland slate – graded size

 Marble
• Marble is metamorphosed limestone in which the
calcium carbonate has been recrystallised into a
mosaic of approximately equal-sized calcite crystals
• Some limestones which can be polished are sold as
marble but true marble will not contain any
fossilised remains
• Marble is attacked by acids
• Refer to Figure 9.8 (Lyons)
Figure 9.8 Selection of Italian marbles

Ruivina Carrera Aurora brown

Figure 9.8 Selection of Italian marbles

Verde Turino Breccia Aurora rose pink

Figure 9.8 Selection of Italian marbles

Ocean blue Aurora

 Quartzite
• Quartzite is metamorphosed sandstone
• The grains of quartz are recrystallised into a matrix
of quartz, producing a durable and very hard
wearing stone used mainly as a flooring material
 Deterioration of stone
• The main agencies causing the deterioration of
stone are:
i. Soluble salt action
ii. Atmospheric pollution
iii. Frost
iv. The corrosion of metal components
v. Poor design or workmanship
 Solution-salt action
• If moisture containing soluble salts evaporates from
the surface of stonework, then the salts will be left
either on the surface as white efflorescence or as
crystals within the porous surface layer
• If the wetting and drying cycles continue, the
crystalline material builds up within the pores to
the point at which the pressure produced exceed
the tensile strength of the stone, causing it to
crumble
• The more porous stones such as limestone and
sandstone, are susceptible to soluble-salt action
 Atmospheric pollution
• Stones based on calcium carbonate are particularly
vulnerable to attack by acid atmospheric pollutants
• Sulfur dioxide in the presence of water and oxygen
from the air produces sulfuric acid which attacks
calcium carbonate to produce calcium sulfate
• Limestone and calcareous sandstones are
vulnerable to attack
 Frost action
• Frost damage occurs in the parts of a building which
become frozen when wet
• Frost causes the separation of pieces of stone but it
does not produce powder as in crystallisation attack
• Generally, limestone is more vulnerable to frost
damage than sandstones
• Marble, slate and granite used in a building are
normally unaffected by frost due to their low
porosities
 Corrosion of metals
• Rainwater run-off from copper and its alloys can
cause green colour staining on limestones
• Iron & steel produce rust staining which is difficult
to remove from porous stones
• Considerable damage is caused by the expansion of
iron and steel in stonework caused by corrosion
• All new and replacement fixings should normally be
manufactured from stainless steel or non-ferrous or
non-ferrous metals
 Fire
• Fire rarely causes the complete destruction of
stonework
• In the case of granite, marble and most sandstones,
the surfaces may be blackened
• Limestones are generally unaffected by fire,
although the paler colours may turn permanently
pink due to the oxidation of iron oxides within the
stone
 Plants
• Generally, large plants should be removed from old
stonework
• However, creeper and similar species are not
considered harmful
 Maintenance of stonework (1)
Cleaning
• External granite, marble and slate claddings require
regular washing with a mild detergent solution; in
particular, highly polished external marble should
be washed at least twice per year to prevent dulling
of the surface
• Limestone, which is not self-cleaned by rainwater,
should be cleaned with a fine water spray and
brushing, removing deposit from the surface
• Sandstone is usually cleaned mechanically by
abrasive blasting or chemical cleaning
 Maintenance of stonework (2)
Stone preservation
• Generally, coatings such as silicone water repellents
should only be applied to stonework following
expert advice and testing
• Silicone treatment may in certain cases cause a
build-up of salt deposits behind the treated layer,
eventually causing failure
• Silicone treatment should not be applied to already
decayed stone surfaces
Stones Pictorials
Igneous Rocks

Granite & sand are

examples of igneous
rocks

The Earth has melted rock deep inside it. This is called magma. If the magma
stays underground, cools slowly and makes big crystals, it is called intrusive
igneous rock.
Extrusive igneous rock is made when magma comes to the Earth’s surface in
the form of lava and then cools and hardens. Since lava cools quicker, the
crystals of surface igneous rock are smaller.
Formation of sedimentary rock

Sedimentary rock

For thousands of years, little

pieces of our earth have been
eroded, broken down and
worn away by wind and water.
These little bits of our earth
are washed downstream where
they settle to the bottom of the
rivers, lakes, and oceans.
Layer after layer of eroded
earth is deposited on top of
the other. These layers are
pressed down more and more
through time, until the bottom
layers slowly turn into rock.
Sandstone, limestone, shale … are examples of sedimentary rocks
... Metamorphism / IgneousRocks / Metamorphic Rocks / Sedimentary…
 Deformation & metamorphism
Deformation and Metamorphism
The Earth’s crust is slowly moving.
The huge forces that move continents stretch and squash parts of the
Earth’s crust., generating earthquakes and building mountains.
They cause rocks near the surface to be fractured and faulted. At
greater depth, the heat and pressure involved can cause folding and/or
metamorphism.
Deformation
Deformation describes the processes by which rocks are folded &
faulted
Metamorphism
Metamorphism is the process where rocks are altered due to pressure
and/or heat, changing their appearance entirely.
A Very Simple Key to Metamorphic Rocks
Drilling – preparation for rock blasting
Crusher - machine for production of aggregates
Aggregate processing …
Aggregate stockpiling
Pea-sized river gravel flooded with water
Granite – compressed stone 
granite is an igneous rock, which means that it has been formed from liquid magma deep under
the earth's crust, which has slowly cooled over millions of years. granite is a very compressed
stone with a polish finish, low porosity material.
Thank you