TIMBER

Introduction
• The hundreds of available timber species vary
widely in their properties and appearance
• Within one species, there is often a wide
variation between trees growing in different
climatic conditions and on different soils and
between parts of a tree
• This variability presents problems in economic
conversion and utilisation
• In recent years, improved techniques have
been developed for laminating, jointing and
framing, seasoning and for protection against
fungi, insects and fire
 Hardwoods
• Hardwoods are from broad-leaved trees most
of which are deciduous
• Hardwoods include the densest, strongest and
most durable timbers
• Some hardwoods contain resins and/or oils
which interfere with the hardening of paints
• Some such as teak and makore include
materials, e.g. silica which make working
difficult
• Generally, hardwoods are more costly than
softwoods
 Softwoods
• Softwoods are derived from coniferous trees
• Softwoods comprise about 75% of the timber
used in the UK
• Table 2.4 (Everett) shows the average densities
of some common timbers at 15% moisture
content
 HARDWOODS kg/m3 SOFTWOODS
Lignum vitae 1249

African ebony 1000

Opepe 750
Yew: American pitch pine
Light red seraya/ meranti 500
Yellow pine: sequoia
Western red cedar
250

Figure 2.4 Average densities of common timbers at 15%

moisture content (Everett)
 Anatomy of timber (1)
• Refer to Figure 2.1 (Everett)
• A tree is a complex plant which uses salts from
the soil and carbon dioxide from the air to
manufacture food materials by action of sunlight
on chlorophyll in leaves
• The trunk and branches grow outwards around
a leading shoot by adding new rings of timber
• Usually one ring is added each year but this is
not always the case, thus they are known as
‘growth rings’ rather than ‘annual rings’
• The more rapid the growth, the wider are the
growth rings
 Figure 2.1 The tree

Night Day

Fork Sunlight + CO2

CO2

O2

Bole
or
Trunk
 Figure 2.1 The tree

Growth ring

Rays Early Late

wood wood

Bark
Pitch

Bast
Heartwood Cambium
(growth
layer)
Sapwood
Figure 2.1 The tree
Figure 2.1 The tree

Food moves
downwards in bast
and transversely in
rays

Salts rise in
sapwood
 Figure 2.1 The tree

Cone formation of growth

rings in bole and branches
 Anatomy of timber (2)
• For a particular species, the wider the growth
ring, the less dense and strong is the timber
• These rings consist of minute tubular or fibrous
cells tightly cemented together and each ring
has two parts – the early wood (springwood)
and the late wood (summerwood)
• Summerwood grows more slowly and is often
denser, darker and narrower than springwood
• As most trees mature, for each new ring which
is added forming a band of sapwood, reserve
materials such as starch are extracted from an
inner ring and a heartwood core is formed
 Anatomy of timber (3)
• The band of sapwood varies widely in width
from 25 to 150 mm or more in some tropical
hardwoods
• Mechanically, there is no significant difference
between sapwood and heartwood but in most
species, sapwood is lighter in colour and
because it contains sugars, starch and water, it
is more attractive to fungi and certain insects
• The outer surface of a tree is protected by bark
and in some trees is renewed periodically
• The term grain refers to the general direction of
the fibres in timber
 Natural defects of timber
• Natural defects may be described as features which
develop in the living tree, thus affecting its usefulness
as building materials
• The defects include:

1. Brittleheart 6. Upsets
2. Sapwood 7. Fissures √
3. Wide growth rings 8. Knots √
4. Spiral grain 9. Fungal decay √
5. Reaction wood 10. Insect damage √
 Fissures
• Refer to Figure 2.2 (Everett)
• These defects include splits and shakes
Split

Repair to split
 Fissures
• Resin pocket

Resin pocket in the wood

 Knots
• Refer to Figure 2.3 (Evmerett)
• A knot is the part of a branch which became enclosed in a growing
tree
 Fissures and knots

Avoid the following blemishes:

1 Large or dead knots
2 Growth-ring shakes
3 End splits
4 Surface checking
5 Honeycomb checks
 Fungal decay
• Timber which is seriously affected must be
rejected
• Dote, an early stage of decay which shows as
whitish streaks (long line) or patches (pocket rot)
may be acceptable for timber which is to be
painted or out of sight provided there is no
softening of the fibres
 Fungal decay

Wet rot fungal decay affects the joists to the

canter levered jetty on the southern elevation
 Fungal decay

Significant wet rot fungal decay affecting the

large corner posts and cill beams
Fungal decay

White Pocket Rot
 Insect damage
• Occasional exit holes of pinhole borers are not generally
regarded as defects in structural timber
• They are acceptable in joinery which is to be painted or which is
out of sight

Wood eating
termite

Wood boring
insect

 insect damage
 Insect damage

Pinhole
borer, beetle

Oak Pinhole Borer

 Properties of timbers (1)
Density
• The weight of wood tissue is about 1,506 kg/m3
• Most seasoned timbers fall within the range of
385-835 kg/m3 (compared with stones, 2,082-
3204 kg/m3, common metals, 2,640-11,373
kg/m3 and plastics, 900-1,400 kg/m3)
• Within the range of moisture contents 5 to 25%,
the weight of timbers varies approximately
0.5% for every 1% variation in moisture content
 Properties of timbers (2)
Thermal insulation
• Timber is a good insulator
• Conductivity, k, is 0.144 W/mK (compare with
cast concrete, dense, 1.40 and lightweight,
0.38)
• Transmittance, U, for 102 mm thickness is
about 1.19 W/m2K for timber weighing 481
kg/m3 with 20% moisture
 Properties of timbers (3)
Thermal movement
• The thermal coefficient is 30 – 60 x10-6K-1
across the fibres and about one tenth as much
parallel to the fibres
• Expansion joints are not normally required even
in large structures
 Properties of timbers (4)
Behaviour in fire
• Moisture in timber absorbs some heat but it is
easily ignited at about 220 to 300o C
• Treatment with flame-retardant chemicals by
impregnation or by surface coatings reduce the
rate of spread of flame but the timber still
carbonises as if untreated
• Being organic, timber burning produces highly
toxic carbon monoxide and large quantity of
smoke
 Properties of timbers (5)
Chemical resistance
• A high cellulose and lignin (organic substance forming part
of the woody fibres) content and a low hemi-cellulose
(hemicelluloses is a branched polymer while cellulose is unbranched)
content, low permeability, straight grain and
small moisture movement contribute to good
chemical resistance
• Compared to metals, wood has good resistance to
alkalis and weak acids
• Sources of alkalis include casein and phenol
formaldehyde glues while sources of acids include
surplus hardeners in synthetic resin glues
 Properties of timbers (6)
Strength
• Timber has a high strength : weight ratio both in
tension and compression and is elastic
• It is able to sustain greater loads for a short
while than it can over long periods
• Strength increases with density particularly
within a species
• Strength reduces as moisture content rises
• Most strength properties of timber containing
more than 28 – 30% moisture are only about 2/3
of those in timber at 12% moisture content
 Properties of timbers (7)
Strength (cont.)
• A 1oC temperature rise reduces strength by
about 0.3 %
• Along the grain, tensile strength may be as
much as 30 times that across the grain and 2 to
3 times the compressive strength
 Properties of timbers (8)
Movements
• As timber dries from green condition, shrinkage
starts when the cell walls begin to dry
• Variation in size in response to variations in
moisture content, which in turn, result from
changes in atmospheric humidity, or from direct
wetting are known as moisture movements
• Typically, shrinkage from fibre saturation point
(27% moisture content) to over dry (0%) is 10%
for tangentially sawn members and 5% for
radially sawn members
 Figure 2.5 Movements in drying

•Longitudinal movement usually

negligible
•Average radial movement is about
half the tangential movement

Longitudinal
movement
Figure 2.5 Movements in drying
Figure 2.5 Movements in drying
 Properties of timbers (9)
Distortions
• Refer to Figure 2.5 and Figure 2.6 (Everett)
• A small change of shape (i.e. distortion) is often
more objectionable than relatively large
movements in all directions
• Distortions include cupping, diamonding,
spring, bow & twist
• Apart from application of external forces,
distortion can occur because timber does not
shrink equally in all directions when it dries
Figure 2.6 Seasoning defects

Seasoning defects in coconut wood

Various defects in timber:

a = twist; b = cupping;
c = honeycomb checks;
d = bowing;
e = checks;
f = end split;
g = compression failure;
h = behaviour of test sample from a case-
hardended board;
i = spring.
Practical effect of shrinkage
Minimization of changes in moisture content
(1)

weight  dryweight
• Moisture content = x100%
dryweight

• Apart from obvious precautions such as the

avoidance of unnecessary wetting of timber,
changes in moisture content are minimised by:
Impregnation
Surface coatings
Seasoning
Minimization of changes in moisture content
(2)
1. Impregnation
• Impregnation of timber with a solution of resin
is at present limited to proprietary flooring and
small objects such as table knife handles
Minimization of changes in moisture content
(3)
2. Surface coatings
Effectiveness in reducing the rate of intake or
loss of water varies widely as shown in Table
2.7 (Everett)
Table 2.7 Moisture absorption of beech sapwood specimens after treatment
with surface coatings and impregnants

Treatment Moisture content after 12 days in saturated

atmosphere (95-100% RH) %

Untreated 28.4

2-coat surface applications:

Long oil phenolic/ tung oil
varnish 21.0
Epoxy resin varnish 12.0

Normal 3-coat oil paintwork 8.0 approximately

Wax or other impregnants 18.2 – 24.9

 Minimization of changes in moisture content (4)
3. Seasoning
• Seasoning is the controlled reduction of
moisture content to a level appropriate to the
end use
• Drying timber from the green to the normal
seasoned condition reduces its density by 50%
or more with consequent shrinkage
• Seasoning results in increases in strength
properties, thermal insulation, resistance to
decay and suitability for impregnation, painting
and gluing
 Methods of seasoning (1)
• Sawn softwood is imported either ‘green’ or
‘shipping dry’, i.e. surface dry only
• In seasoning, if drying is too rapid, the outer
parts, in particular unprotected ends, shrink
before the interior, surface splitting results
• In extreme cases, the surface case hardens
and the interior honeycombs or the timber
collapses becomes useless
 Methods of seasoning (2)
Air seasoning
• Refer to Figure 2.7 (Everett) (not on slide)
• Timber is protected from rain and from the
ground and stacked so that air can circulate
freely around all surfaces
• A moisture content of 17 to 23% is attainable
with little risk of the process being too rapid
• In favourable summer conditions, thin
softwoods can be air-seasoned in weeks while
hardwood may require a year or more
Air seasoning - possible arrangement for drying stacks
(note concrete or stone footing under stack)
Air seasoning
 Methods of seasoning (3)
Kiln seasoning
• Refer to Figure 2.7 (Everett) (not on slide)
• Figure 2.7 shows that artificial means of
seasoning must be used to achieve the
moisture contents needed for joinery and
furniture in modern buildings
• Timber can be kiln-seasoned from the ‘green’
condition but kiln seasoning may follow air
seasoning
• 25 mm hardwoods can be seasoned in days to
months according to species
Kiln seasoning

Solar dryer - glasshouse

type

  1 - heat absorption area

  2 - transpeaent walls
  3 - frame
  4 - fan
  5 - ventilation opening
(out)
  6 - ventilation opening (in)
  7 - timber stack
  8 - foundation
  9 - separation wall
10 - shade wall, usually well
insulated
Kiln seasoning

Convection dryer

1 - ventilation opening
2 - heater
3 - water spray jet
Kiln seasoning

Condensation dryer
 Comparing air and kiln seasoning
Air seasoning

Advantages
Process relatively inexpensive
Disadvantages
Require large land area
Seasoning is slow
Quality control somewhat
lacking

Advantages
Compact machinery requires
less land area
Seasoning is fast
Quality could be controlled
Disadvantages
High installation first cost
High operating and
maintenance cost
 Methods of seasoning (4)
‘Water seasoning’
• It is a misnomer for the process by which logs
are kept under water to preserve them from
attack by insects & fungi
• Hardwoods are sometimes immersed in
running water to wash out the sap which is
attractive to beetles
 Preservation of timber (1)
• Preservation deals with the treatment of timber
with toxic chemicals to protect it from attack by
both fungi and insects
• Preservatives may be required to be non-toxic
to plants and animals, odourless, free from
detrimental effects on adhesives, paints and
polishes and generally they must not ‘bleed’ or
be washed out by rain
Wood preservatives and timber protection products
 Timber treatment plant

Timber is made highly durable in a treatment plant like this.

As well as preservative protection some timber also comes ready treated with a water repellent
that helps further protect the wood from weathering.

Brush-applied wood preservatives or dip treatments are not suitable for the long-term protection
of timber used for decking and other outdoor landscaping applications and should not be used.
     
Timber preservation services
 Preservation of timber (2)
Preservatives types
• TO (Tar-oil types)
TO 1 – coal tar creosote for pressure impregnation
TO 2 – coal tar creosote for brush application
• OS (Organic solvent types)
OS 1 – chlorinated naphthalenes and other
chlorinated hydrocarbons
OS2 – copper naphthenate and zinc naphthenate
• WB (Water-borne types)
WB 1 – copper-chrome
WB 2 – copper-chrome-arsenic, etc