TIMBER AND WOOD

By : Bijay Tuladhar
Lecturer
Thapathali Campus
1. Timber

 Wood is a porous and . Trees are the oldest of

fibrous structural all living beings.
tissue found in the
stems and roots of  
trees and other 
woody plants.

It has been used for

thousands of years for
both fuel and as a
construction material.
It is an organic
There is difference between terms timber and wood.
Wood includes all types of wood which may be
burning wood, structural wood, furniture wood etc.
But wood suitable for use as a structural material is
called timber.
So we can say: Wood is usually used to refer to the
material in its natural state...timber refers to it after it
has been modified by man.
Timber is obtained from trees.
Timber denotes structural wood.
A standing living tree is known
as standing timber.
Rough timber.
When tree has been cut and
its stem and branches are
roughly converted into pieces
of suitable lengths.
Converted timber
When roughly converted
timber is further sawn and
converted into commercial
size the planks, logs, battens,
posts, beams, etc
 Timber has been in very common use for-
engineering purposes since ancient times.
 Even today there are certain works, where timber is
considered as the most ideal material.
 Today although materials like steel, cement, stone
bricks etc. have occupied lot of field, where timber
was almost used, still timber continues to be an
important structural material.
 It can be said that there is no Engineering field, where
timber is not used one way or the other.
Uses of timber are numerous. Some of its
important uses are given as follows:
 It is very much used for railway track sleepers.
 It can be used inform of piles, vertical posts,
beams, doors and windows.
 It can also be used as members of roofing
trusses.
 It is an important material for furniture-making
 It is used for floors, ceiling, and partition
walls. It is used as form-work for cement
concrete structures.
 It is very much used in making sports. goods,
musical instruments, well curbs, agricultural
implements etc.
 Packing cases are mostly made from soft
timber.
It is very much used for timbering the deep.
Trenches.
 Railway coaches and wagons are also made
from high class timber.
Scaffoldings and Structural members;
formworks such as column, beam,
floor joist, truss

Timber partitions
 Doors & windows Wood fuel (or fuel wood) is a
fuel such as firewood, charcoal,
sawdust. 

Furniture and utensils

Weapons and Instruments
Wood flooring is any product manufactured from  
timber that is designed for use as flooring, either
structural or aesthetic
Wood is a common choice as a flooring material due to
its environmental profile, durability, and restorability. 

Laminated flooring
Classification of Trees
Classification of Wood
Hardwoods
– broad leaf
– generally higher densities
– often dark in colour

Softwoods

– needle‐like leaves
– generally lower densities
– often light in colour
Hardwood Softwood
`
 Wood from trees of The trees classified as
softwoods have needle like
angiosperms class,
or scale like leaves that, with
usually with broad
a few exceptions, remain on
leaves. the tree all through the year.
 Trees grown in tropical • Hence softwood trees are
climates are generally sometimes called
hardwood. evergreens.
 Hardwood grows • Generally grown in cold
climates, softwood grows
faster than softwood
slower than hardwood but
but have shorter fibers
have longer fibers compared
compared to softwood.
to hardwood.
Growth of Tree
Tree Growth
 1. Dead Bark – Protective Layer
2. Living Bark – Composed of
hollow
longitudinal cells that conduct
nutrients down the truck from the
leaves to the roots
 3. Cambium – Thin layer which
creates new bark cells toward the
outside of the trucks and new wood
cells toward the inside.
4. Sap Wood – the thick layer of living wood cells inside the
cambium – nutrients are stored and sap is pumped upward from
roots to leaves.
5. Heartwood – sap wood dies progressively and becomes
heartwood
 Qualities of Good Timber
Following are the qualities of good timber.
A good timber should be hard and durable.
It should be capable of resisting the actions of fungi
chemicals and physical agencies.
The fibers of the timber should be straight and
compact.
The timber should be free from knot , twists, upsets,
burls Shakes, flaw etc.
Its color should be dark. It should be obtained
preferably from heart wood. Color should be
uniform.
It should be properly seasoned.
Its freshly cut surface should smell sweet.
 Qualities of Good Timber
Its weight should be heavy.
It should be easily workable. It should not clog the
teeth of saw and should be capable of being easily
planned.
Timber should be tough i.e., it should be capable of
resisting shocks.
It should be able to withstand the weathering affects.
It should be strong enough to withstand bending,
direct and shear effects efficiently.
A clear ringing sound should be emitted by the timber
when struck. Heavy dull sound indicates decayed
timber.
It should offer adequate fire resistance.
It should be elastic
Advantages of Timber
 Being light in weight, it is preferred for building
works in earth quake prone regions.
 It is an excellent material for decorative and
general use furniture. Lot of other internal
decorations can be carried out with it.
 It can with stand, shocks better than iron and
concrete.
 It is good insulator of electricity and heat.
 It is good sound absorbing material.
 Timber can be easily strengthened by attaching
steel or other material with it.
Advantages of Timber

Stronger than other construction materials

in proportion of weight
Workable: Can be easily worked to any size and
shape
Lightweight
Economical: wastage is minimum
Durable
Non‐conductor of heat and electricity.
 1. Strength 2. Toughness 3. Elasticity 4. Resistance
to shear 5. Hardness 6. Fire resistance
7. Retention of shape 8. Durability
9. Workability
Defects in Timber
The defects that usually occur in the timber may be classified
into two categories as follows:
 Defects that develop  Defects that develop
during growth of the after felling the tree.
tree.  Bow
 Shakes  Cup
 Twisted timber  Twist
 Upsets or rupture  Radial shakes
 Knots  Wane
 Wind cracks  Diagonal grains
 Burls
 Defects that develop during growth of tree have been briefly
discussed as follows:
1.1 Shakes.
This is most serious type of defect in timber. These are sort of
cracks which partly or completely separate the fibers of
wood. A shake is nothing, but separation of the timber along
the grains. Shakes may be of several types.
1.1.1 Star shakes
These are radial cracks or splits that extend from bark towards
the sap wood. They usually remain confined up to the plane
of sap wood only. The cracks are widest at the circumference
and go on narrowing as they proceed towards the Centre of
the tree.
 Star shakes

Reasons of star shake

Star shakes usually develop due to fierce heat and frost
When logs having this defect are sawn they usually
separate out into a number of pieces and hence become
useless.
1.1.2 Heart shakes.
These splits or cracks occur in the
central part of the trees.
There are widest at the centre and
go on narrowing as they proceed
towards outside.
This defect usually occurs in
over-matured trees.
This defect is usually caused due
to shrinkage of the heart wood.
Heart shakes divide the tree cross-
section into several parts. Straight
running heart shake is not as
serious as twisted heart shake.
1.1.3 Cup shakes.
This defect develops curved slit
between successive annual rings.
The split does not run for the full
circumference of the annual rings.
This defect usually develops due to
1. unequal growth.
2. Another possible reason for their
development may be contraction of
timber under atmospheric changes
together with the twisting action of
strong winds.
1.1.4 Ring shakes.
When cup shake defect runs for
full circumference of the annual
ring, it is called ring shake. It is
more serious than cup shake.
1.1.5 Radial shakes.
They are similar to stars shakes. They
are numerous, fine and irregular.
They usually occur when felled tree
is exposed to sun for seasoning.
The cracks run for a short distance
from bark to-wards the centre and
then follows the course of an
annual ring and ultimately goes
towards the pith.
1.2 Twisted fibers 1.3 Upsets or ruptures.
They are caused by twisting
This defect is caused due to
of young trees constantly
in one direction under the injury suffered by wood
action of strong prevalent fibers by crushing or
winds. compression.
Timber with twisted fibers is Upsets are mainly due to
unsuitable for sawing. improper felling of tree and
The timber having this defect exposure of tree in its young
is mostly used for posts age to fast blowing wind.
and poles in an unsown This defect indicates change in
condition
direction of wooden fibers.
1.4 Knots.
Knots are generally developed at the bases of branches cut
off from the tree.
This phenomenon ultimately results in the formation of
dark, hard rings, known as knots. As knots break the
continuity of the wooden fibers, they form a source of
weakness.
The amount of weakness caused by the knot depends upon
the position, size, and degree of grain distortion around it.
Knot is the most commonly encountered defect of wood.
 1.5 Wind cracks.
 The outer layers of a standing tree suffer from
the effect of shrinkage due to atmospheric
agencies.
 This causes cracks on the outer surface only.
These cracks are known as wind cracks
 2. Defects that develop after felling the tree.
Conversion of timber is done almost immediately after
felling The tree.
The defects that may develop after felling the tree and
also during conversion and seasoning are the following:
2.1 Bow: when planks of converted of timber shrink and
bend in curved form , in the direction of length.
2.2 Cup:
This defect is indicated
when wooden planks
bend in curved from in
transverse direction.
2.3 Twist
A plank which has
distorted spirally along
its length
Method of Stacking

Before seasoning, the timber should be stacked in

yards so as to protect the timber from direct Sun.

Ends of logs should be protected against splitting

by applying anti-Splitting compositions and
stacked on foundations in closed stacks in one or
more layers.
 [Link] and nine method of stacking.
This method of stacking timber is most suitable for
heavy timbers in moist climates.
2. Close crib method.
This method of stacking timber allows reduced air circulations and
thus slows down the pace of seasoning. This method is
recommended for stacking heavy structural timbers like in hot and
dry localities.
Seasoning
 The process of drying timber or removing moisture or
sap, present in a freshly felled timber, under more or less
controlled conditions is called seasoning of timber.
 Seasoning of wood is the first step in efficient utilization
of timber
 Freshly felled timber contains a large quantity of moisture
roughly from 100 % to 200 %, based on dry weight of
wood
 A well seasoned piece of wood contains 10‐12 % moisture
and will be in equilibrium with the atmospheric humidity
 The degree of moisture content is necessary for proper
retention of shape and size of component parts

Swelling and shrinking are dependent on moisture in the

air.
 Objectives of Seasoning
1) To minimize the tendency to shrink, warp and spilt. Loss of
moisture results in Shrinkage. Excess moisture results in
Swelling
2) To reduce the weight for transport purposes, handling, and
thereby reduction in cost.

3)To increase strength durability and electrical resisting

power.
4) To improve wood working qualities in timber including
gluing, painting and polishing.

5) To make it capable to a certain degree for protection from

attacks
6) To make it fit for effective preservation, treatment, otherwise
the protective coat will close the outside pores and induce
decay.
Methods of Seasoning
a. Air or natural b. Kiln or artificial
seasoning seasoning
Air Seasoning  Disadvantages:
 [Link] is a very slow process.
 Advantages:
 2. The moisture content
 1. It is a simple and cannot be reduced less than
economical method. 15 to 18 percent.
 [Link] does not requires  3. It can be easily attacked
much skill and attention by insects and fungi due to
in the process of long period of seasoning
seasoning. even under favorable
 [Link] the slow conditions.
process, the chances of  4. The space required for
seasoning staking timber is large.
 defects in the timber are  5. More capital is required
comparatively less. which is blocked till the
seasoning is complete.
Kiln / Artificial Seasoning
Advantages:

[Link] can be done thoroughly well and in

the shortest time under controlled process.
The wood can be used immediately as and
2.

when required.
[Link] renders the timber less liable to be attacked
by insects and fungi and shrinkage.
[Link] moisture content can be reduced as per
the requirement.
Disadvantages:


1. It is a costlier method though space
required is less.
 2. Skilled labor is required.
 3. Being a quick process of drying, a
continuous attention is required.
 4. Also steam more or less weakens the
strength and elasticity of timber.
 Timber Decay / Attack / Preservation
Timber
 Decay
Timber decay (rot) is caused by a biological attack within

the wood by certain species of fungi. The fungus can lie
dormant in the timber for years until the right conditions
present themselves. The conditions needed are oxygen,
moisture and nutrients, with moisture being the critical
component. If moisture is not present in timber, then the
fungi will remain dormant, even when oxygen and then
nutrients they require are abundant.
Dry
 rot
Dry
 rot is the term given to brown rot decay caused by
certain fungi that deteriorate timber in buildings and
other wooden constructions seemingly without an
apparent source of moisture.
Wet
 rot
Wet
 rot is probably the commonest. The reason was the
wrong timber was used due to shortages. Buildings of all
ages can be affected by wet rot as it is a fungus which
feeds on timber, the timber must be damp or wet for the
fungus to thrive and continue the rotting process.
Timber Decay
 Rising Damp Structural Dampness
Rising damp normally occurs in Structural dampness is the
properties which either have not presence of unwanted
been built with a damp proof moisture in the structure of a
course (DPC) or where the DPC building, either the result of
has failed. intrusion from outside or
A phenomenon in masonry walls condensation from within the
affected by rising damp is structure.
efflorescence. Water moving
through a wall or other structure. A high proportion of damp
problems in buildings are
caused by condensation, rain
penetration or rising damp.
Types of Preservatives

1)Water‐borne preservatives

Water is the most common solvent carrier in

preservative formulations due to its availability
and low cost.
2)Oil borne preservatives
These include pentachlorophenol and creosote.
They are toxic, have an unpleasant odor and
are generally not used in consumer products.
3) Organic solvent Preservatives.
4) Natural preservatives
Requirements
 of a good preservative:
Cheap
 and easily available.
Should
 allow coats of paints etc without discoloring.
Highly penetrative.


Should
 be of permanent nature.
Should
 be extremely poisonous, even in small doses,
fungi and other insects.
Shouldn’t
 reduce the strength of the timber and should
be non corrosive to metals in contact.
Should
 not catch fire easily.
Shouldn’t give bad smell


Should
 not be injurious to workmen.
Some common wood products
Veneer
Veneer refers to thin slices of wood, usually thinner than 3 mm
(1/8 inch), that are typically glued onto core panels (typically,
wood, particle board or medium density fiberboard) to produce
flat panels such as doors, tops and panels for cabinets, parquet
floors and parts
of furniture
 Plywood Uses of Plywood
Plywood is a type of engineered •Floors, walls and roofs
wood made from thin sheets of in house constructions
wood, called plies or wood •Wind bracing panels
veneers. The layers are glued •Vehicle internal body
together so that adjacent plies work
have their grain at right angles •Packages and boxes
to •Hoarding
each other for greater strength
•Fencing
Plywood is specified by both
faces, two letters; the first
being the face veneer quality
and the second the back veneer
quality
Fibre board
Fiberboard
 is a type of engineered wood product that is made out of wood
fibers. Types of fiberboard (in order of increasing density) include particle

board, medium-density fiberboard, and hardboard


Uses
 of Fibreboard

sound

proofing/deadening
structural sheathing

low‐slope roofing

sound deadening

flooring underlayment
Industrial
 Engineered wood
composite wood, man-made wood or manufactured
board

plywood, composite panels, 
laminated veneer lumber (LVL)
chipboard, hardboard,
medium-density fiberboard (MDF).