Module 1 - Topics

 Stone as building material

 Requirement of good building stones
 Dressing of stones
 Deterioration and Preservation of stone work
 Bricks - Classification
 Manufacturing of clay bricks
 Requirement of good bricks
 Field and laboratory tests on bricks
 Compressive strength,
 water absorption
 Efflorescence
 Dimension and warpage

Stones
 Stone as building material
 Requirement of good building stones
 Dressing of stones
 Deterioration and Preservation of stone work

Stone as building material

Wall and foundation items - Quarry, split and sawn stones from rocks are usedin
foundations of buildings. Piece stones sawn and split from limestone, sandstone,
dolomite andvolcanic tuff are used for walls, piers, abutments, etc.

Facing and Architectural items -Facing slabs and stones, stairs and landings,
parapets etc. Facing slabs of granite, gabbro, basalt, marble, breccia, limestone,
sandstone and volcanic tuff are generally used.

Building elements -Elements of stairs, landings, parapets and guard rails are
manufactured from granite, marble, limestone, tuff, etc.

Road construction - Curbstones—intended to separate roadways from sidewalks;

Paving blocks—used for pavements; Cobble stone—used to reinforce slopes of earth
works and banks of water basins; Crushed stone—a mixture of jagged stone fragments
(< 70 mm); Gravel—( 70 mm) and Sand—loose mass of mineral and rock
particles(0.14–5 mm) obtained from natural stone are used in road construction.

Sreelakshmi G , Department of civil engineering , CMRIT

Underground structures and bridges are built of slabs and stones from igneous and
sedimentary rocks. Tunnels and above-water elements of bridges are built of granite,
diorite, gabbro and basalt.

Heat and chemically resistant Items are manufactured from non-weathered rocks.
For high temperature working conditions, they are made from chromite, basalt, andesite
and tuffs. Limestones, dolomites, marble and magnesite show excellent resistance
against alkalis. When high temperature and chemical attack is expected, crushed stone
and sand for concrete and mortar are used.

Requirements of good stones

1. Appearance- face work it should have fine, compact texture; light-coloured stone
is preferred as dark colours are likely to fade out in due course of time.
2. Structure - It should have a uniform texture, free from cavities, cracks and
patches.
3. Strength – It should be strong enough to withstand the disintegrating action of
weather.
4. Seasoning – stones should be well seasoned.
5. Weathering – Resistance of the stones against wear and tear due to
atmospheric agencies should be high.
6. Specific gravity – It should be between 2.3 to 2.5.
7. Toughness - Tough stones are used where vibratory loads are expected.
8. Hardness - It is an important for floors, pavements and aprons of bridges.
9. Porosity and water absorption – porosity of the stone depends on mineral
constituents, cooling time and structural formation. A porous stone disintegrates
as it absorbs rain water, freezes, expands and causes cracking.
10. Workability – Stones should be such that cutting, dressing and bringing it to
shape and size should not be uneconomical.

Dressing of stones - It is a process in which the surfaces of the stones are

prepared to form, and made to fit for any constructional purpose.

Purposes of Dressing

 To get desired appearance from the stone work.

 To make the transport from quarry easy and economical
 To suit the requirements of stone masonry
 To take advantage of local men near quarry who are trained for such type of
work.

Following are the varieties of finishes obtained by dressing of stones

Sreelakshmi G , Department of civil engineering , CMRIT

  Axed finish
Surfaces of hard stones such as granite are dressed by means of an axe.
 Boasted or droved finish –
In this type of finish, the boaster ( a chisel of width 60 mm ) is used to make non
continuous parallel marks on the surface.

 Dragged or combed finish- This type of finish is done on soft stones. A comb is
driven over the surface of this stone to remove all elevating portions.

 Furrowed Finish-

Sreelakshmi G , Department of civil engineering , CMRIT

In this finish, a margin of about 20mm width is sunk on the edges and central portion is
made to project about 15mm. A number of vertical or horizontal grooves about 10mm
wide are formed in this projected portion.

 Reticulated finish

In this type of work, irregular shaped sinking is made within the center portion of the
stone having a 2 cm wide margin on its sides. This type of finish gives a netlike
appearance.

 Tooled finish – The stone surface is finished by means of a chisel and parallel
continuous marks, either horizontal or inclined or vertical are left on the surface.

Deterioration of stone works

The various natural agents such as rain, heat, etc. and chemicals deteriorate the
stones with time.
Following are the causes of decay of stones:

Sreelakshmi G , Department of civil engineering , CMRIT

 1. Rain water - Rain water acts both physically and chemically on stones.
The physical action is due to the erosive and transportation powers and
the latter due to the decomposition, oxidation and hydration of the
minerals present in the stones.
2. Wind – It carries fine particles of dust , when it blows at high speed
particles will strike against the stone surface and thus stone will decayed.
The wind allows rain water to enter pores of stones with force. Such water
on freezing, expands and splits the stones.
3. Vegetable growth – The creepers and certain trees develop on the stone
surfaces with their roots penetrating in stones joints. Such roots attract
moisture and keep the surface damp. At the same time, they may try to
expand also, resulting in stone decay.
4. Alternate wetness and drying – Stones are made wet by various agencies
such as rain, frost, dew etc. It is found that stones subjected to such
alternate wetness and drying wear out quickly.
5. Living organisms – Some living organisms like worms and bacteria act
upon stones and deteriorate them.
6. Nature of mortar – The nature of mortar used as a binding material may
react chemically with any one of the constituents of stones and thus lead
to disintegration of stones.

Preservation of stones

Preservation of stone is essential to prevent its decay. Different types of stones require
different treatments.

Preservatives, which are commonly adopted to preserve the stones, are

 Coal tar – If it is applied on stone surface , it preserves stone. But colour

produces objectionable appearance and absorbs heat of sun. Hence it is not
adopted generally since it spoils beauty of stones.

Sreelakshmi G , Department of civil engineering , CMRIT

  Linseed oil – It is used as raw or boiled linseed oil. Raw linseed oil does not
disturb original shade, but requires frequent renewal whereas boiled oil makes
stone surface dark.
 Paint – It preserves the stone but changes original colour.
 Paraffin – It may be used alone or along with dissolved neptha and then applied
on stone surface.
 Solution of alum and soap- They are mixed in one litre of water in 40:60
proportions.

Module 1 - Bricks
 Bricks - Classification
 Manufacturing of clay bricks
 Requirement of good bricks
 Field and laboratory tests on bricks
 Compressive strength,
 water absorption
 Efflorescence
 Dimension and warpage

Classification of bricks
Class I Class II Class III Class IV
Table mounted Ground mounted Ground mounted Over burnt
Burnt in Kiln Burnt in Clamp Burnt in Clamp Burnt in Clamp
Regular in size and Hair line cracks Irregular& Distorted Dark colour
shape Edge
Water absorption Water absorption Water absorption Water absorption
not greater than not greater than not greater than not greater than
20% by weight 22% by weight 25% by weight 25% by weight
Superior work Used where plaster Temporary work Used as an
coat is given aggregate for
foundations and
floors

Sreelakshmi G , Department of civil engineering , CMRIT

Classification of bricks according to strength and requirements
Class Compressive strength Requirements
( Not less than )
10 10N/mm2 Surface must be smooth,
corners should be sharp ,
ringing sound.
Dimensional tolerance - +
3%
7.5 7.5N/mm2 Permitted to have slight
distortion but it should not
cause difficulty in laying +
8%
5 5N/mm2 + 8%
2
3.5 3.5N/mm + 8%

Manufacturing of clay bricks

BRICK

 Unsoiling - The soil used for making building bricks should be free of gravel,
coarse sand (practical size more than 2 mm), lime and kankar particles,
organic matter, etc. About 20 cm of the top layer of the earth, normally
containing stones, pebbles, gravel, roots, etc., is removed after clearing the
trees and vegetation.
 Digging- After removing the top layer of the earth, proportions of additives
such as fly ash, sandy loam, rice husk ash, stone dust, etc. should be spread
over the plane ground surface on volume basis. The soil mass is then
manually excavated, puddled, watered and left over for weathering and
subsequent processing. The digging operation should be done before rains.

Sreelakshmi G , Department of civil engineering , CMRIT

  Weathering - Stones, gravels, pebbles, roots, etc. are removed from the dug
earth and the soil is heaped on level ground in layers of 60–120 cm. The soil
is left in heaps and exposed to weather for at least one month in cases where
such weathering is considered necessary for the soil. This is done to develop
homogeneity in the mass of soil, particularly if they are from different sources,
and also to eliminate the impurities which get oxidized. The soil should be
turned over at least twice and it should be ensured that the entire soil is wet
throughout the period of weathering. In order to keep it wet, water may be
sprayed as often as necessary. The plasticity and strength of the clay are
improved by exposing the clay to weather.
 Blending - The earth is then mixed with sandy-earth and calcareous-earth in
suitable proportions to modify the composition of soil. Moderate amount of
water is mixed so as to obtain the right consistency for moulding. The mass is
then mixed uniformly with spades. Addition of water to the soil at the dumps is
necessary for the easy mixing and workability, but the addition of water
should be controlled in such a way that it may not create a problem in
moulding and drying. Excessive moisture content may effect the size and
shape of the finished brick.
 Tempering - Tempering consists of kneading the earth with feet so as to
make the mass stiff and plastics (by plasticity, we mean the property which
wet clay has of being permanently deformed without cracking). It should
preferably be carried out by storing the soil in a cool place in layers of about
30 cm thickness for not less than 36 hours. This will ensure homogeneity in
the mass of clay for subsequent processing. For manufacturing good brick,
tempering is done in pug mills and the operation is called pugging. Pug mill
consists of a conical iron tube as shown in Figure.

Sreelakshmi G , Department of civil engineering , CMRIT

 Pug mill
The mill is sunk 60 cm into the earth. A vertical shaft, with a number of
horizontal arms fitted with knives, is provided at the centre of the tube. This
central shaft is rotated with the help of bullocks yoked at the end of long arms.
However, steam, diesel or electric power may be used for this purpose.
Blended earth along with required water is fed into the pug mill from the top.
The knives cut through the clay and break all the clods or lump-clays when
the shaft rotates. The thoroughly pugged clay is then taken out from opening
provided in the side near the bottom. The yield from a pug mill is about 1500
bricks.

Sreelakshmi G , Department of civil engineering , CMRIT

  Moulding - It is a process of giving a required shape to the brick from the
prepared brick earth. Moulding may be carried out by hand or by machines.

Details of the mould

Hand moulding may be ground mounted and table mounted. In Ground moulding , the
ground is levelled and sand is sprinkled on it. The moulded bricks are left on the ground
for drying. The moulder then gives blows with his fists and presses the earth properly in
the corners of the mould with his thumb. The surplus clay on the top surface is removed
with a sharp edge metal plate called strike (as shown in Figure) or with a thin wire
stretched over the mould. After this the mould is given a gentle slope and is lifted
leaving the brick on the ground to dry.

Sreelakshmi G , Department of civil engineering , CMRIT

  Table mounted bricks - The bricks are moulded on stock boards nailed on the
moulding table of size 1mX2m. Stock boards have the projection for forming
the frog.

The process of filling clay in the mould is the same as explained above. After
this, a thin board called pallet is placed over the mould. The mould containing
the brick is then smartly lifted off the stock board and inverted so that the
moulded clay along with the mould rests on the pallet. Then the brick is
carried to the drying site.

Machine Moulding - The pugged, stiffer clay is forced through a rectangular

opening of brick size by means of an auger. Clay comes out of the opening in
the form of a bar. The bricks are cut from the bar by a frame consisting of
several wires at a distance of brick size as shown in Fig. This is a quick and
economical process.

Sreelakshmi G , Department of civil engineering , CMRIT

 Dry pressed method - The moist, powdered clay is fed into the mould on a
mechanically operated press, where it is subjected to high pressure and the
clay in the mould takes the shape of bricks.
 Drying –
Clay products can be dried in open air driers or in artificial driers. The artificial
driers are of two types, the hot floor drier and the tunnel drier. In the former,
heat is applied by a furnance placed at one end of the drier or by exhaust
steam from the engine used to furnish power and is used for fire bricks, clay
pipes and terracotta. Tunnel driers are heated by fuels underneath, by steam
pipes, or by hot air from cooling kilns. They are more economical than floor
driers. In artificial driers, temperature rarely exceeds 120°C. The time varies
from one to three days. In developing countries, bricks are normally dried in
natural open air . They are stacked on raised ground and are protected from
bad weather and direct sunlight. A gap of about 1.0 m is left in the adjacent
layers of the stacks so as to allow free movement for the workers.
 Burning –
It is important to burn the bricks to remove water accumulated by
crystallization and to activate chemical reactions in clay ingredients. At a
temperature of 6500C organic matter get oxidized and water evaporises. At
atemperature of 11100C, alumina and silica bind together by fusion. This
process imparts hardness, strength and durability.

Bricks are burnt in Clamps and in Kilns.

Fig below shows the clamp burning.

Sreelakshmi G , Department of civil engineering , CMRIT

The bricks and fuel are placed in alternate layers. The amount of fuel is reduced
successively in the top layers. Each brick tier consists of 4–5 layers of bricks. Some
space is left between bricks for free circulation of hot gasses. After 30 per cent loading
of the clamp, the fuel in the lowest layer is fired and the remaining loading of bricks and
fuel is carried out . The top and sides of the clamp are plastered with mud. Then a coat
of cowdung is given, which prevents the escape of heat. The production of bricks is 2–3
lacs and the process is completed in six months. This process yields about 60 per cent
first class bricks.

Kiln Burning - The kiln used for burning bricks may be underground, e.g. Bull’s trench
kiln or over-ground, e.g. Hoffman’s kiln. These may be rectangular, circular or oval in
shape. When the process of burning bricks is continuous, the kiln is known as
continuous kiln,( In a continuous kiln, bricks are stacked in various chambers wherein
the bricks undergo different treatments at the same time.) e.g. Bull’s trench and
Hoffman’s kilns. On the other hand if the process of burning bricks is discontinuous, the
kiln is known as intermittent kiln(After loading the kiln, it is fired, cooled and unloaded
and then the next loading is done).

Sreelakshmi G , Department of civil engineering , CMRIT

 Intermittent Kiln

Requirements of Good Brick

1. Size and shape - The bricks should have uniform size and plane, rectangular
surfaces with parallel sides and sharp straight edges.
2. Colour - The brick should have a uniform and bright colour.
3. Sound – It should give a metallic sound when stuck with a hammer.
4. Water absorption – It should not exceed 20% of its dry weight when immersed in
water for 24hours.
5. Hardness – It should be so hard that when scratched with finger it should not
leave any impression.
6. Texture – It should have a fine , uniform and dense texture. A fractured surface
should not show fissures, cavities, loose grit or unburnt lime.
7. Fire resistant
8. Thermal resistant
9. Crushing strength not be less than 10N/mm2
10. Efflorescence - It should not show white patches when soaked in water.

Sreelakshmi G , Department of civil engineering , CMRIT

Field and laboratory tests on bricks

Field tests on bricks

Laboratory tests on bricks

Compressive strength
 Five bricks is taken at random and dimensions are measured.
 It is immersed in water for 24hours ( 25 to 290C).
 The surplus moisture is removed is allowed to drain and is filled with 1:3 ratio
cement mortar.
 It is kept in an wet jute bag for a day and then immersed again in water for 3
days.
 At the time of testing, it is taken , wiped and made dry. It is placed on
compression testing machine in between plywood sheets of 3mm thick. Load is
applied at a rate of 140kg/cm2 till the failure of the specimen.
 Average compressive strength of five bricks was determined.
 Compressive strength = Load at failure/ Area of brick
Water absorption Test

 Five bricks is taken at random and allowed to dry in an oven at 110 to 115 0C
for 48 hours.
 It is allowed to cool at room temperature around 4 to 6 hours and weight W 1 is
taken.
 Then they are kept in water for 24 hours at 27 0C and then wiped dry with a damp
cloth and weight is measured as W 2
 Percentage absorption = W 2 - W 1 X 100

W1
Efflorescence

 The ends of the brick are kept in a 150 mm diameter porcelain or glass dish
containing 25 mm depth of water at room temperature (20°–30°C) till the entire
water is absorbed or evaporated.

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  The water is again filled to 25 mm depth in the dish and allowed to be absorbed
by the brick or evaporated.

Presence of Efflorescence

1. Nil — When the deposit of efflorescence is imperceptible.

2. Slight — When the deposit of efflorescence does not cover more than 10 per cent of
the exposed area of the brick.

3. Moderate — When the deposit of efflorescence is more than 10 per cent but less
than 50% of the exposed area of the brick.

4. Heavy — When the deposit of efflorescence is more than 50 per cent but the
deposits do not powder or flake away the brick surface.

5. Serious — When the deposits are heavy and powder or flake away the brick surface.

Dimensions and warpage

Minimum tolerance in dimensions allowed 3% for Class I bricks and 8% for Class II
bricks.

Concave warpage - The flat surface of the brick is placed along the surface to be
measured selecting the location that gives the greatest deviation from straightness.

The greatest distance of brick surface from the edge of straightness is measured by a
steel ruler or wedge.

Convex warpage - The brick is place on the plane surface with the convex surface in
contact with the flat surface and the distances of four corners of brick are measured
from the flat surface. The largest distance is reported as warpage.

The higher of the distance measured in concave and convex warpage tests is reported
as warpage.

Sreelakshmi G , Department of civil engineering , CMRIT