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STONES AS ENGINEERING MATERIALS- ENGINEERING STONES

Introduction and Selection of Stones

Parameters considered in selection of a good construction stone

Being cheap, hard, durable and naturally good looking, stones are often used in construction but
keeping in view the variable properties of stones of different types, there must be some criteria
for the selection of stones for construction. The criteria is based upon the following parameters.

1. Chemical composition of stone

2. Strongness and hardness
3. Durability
4. Resistance to fire
5. Bio-Deterioration
6. Appearance
7. Susceptibility to being quarried in large sizes

1. Chemical composition of stones:

Using/selecting a stone for construction, its chemical properties and composition must be
tested and verified because different elements and compounds in stones have different properties.
For instance, Magnesium in Limestone causes it to be stronger and is called Dolomite. Feldspar,
in large quantities in stone is a source of weakness because CO2 dissolves Potassium, Sodium,
and even Calcium in the Feldspar leaving pure white clay behind.

Presence of Mica, even less than 2-3% makes stone unsuitable for building purposes.
Stones with silicates as cementing materials are resistant to weathering.

2. Strongness and hardness:

The more compact grained and heavier a stone, the stronger it is. A crystalline stone is
superior to a non-crystalline texture. The specific gravity of good stone should be above 2.7.

Stones used for road metal, paving blocks, floor slabs and railway ballast have to
withstand mainly abrasion or wear and tear. Stone wall subjected to vibrations of machinery and
moving loads should necessarily possess toughness. Strongness and hardness itself depend on
some factors:

Factors affecting strength, hardness and toughness

a. Hardness or softness of the components

b. Proportions of the hard and soft minerals
c. Size and shape of the minerals
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d. Cohesion
e. Porosity
f. Density
g. Cementing material

a) Hardness or softness of the components:

The composition of the compounds determines its hardness or softness. Stones containing
Si, Na, K are poor while that containing Mg, Ca, and Fe are good, as they are harder. If the stone
is composed of soft and unhardened materials it will result in a soft materials and vice versa.

b) Proportion of hard and soft materials:

The amount of soft and hard material in a specific sample of stone also matters. Greater
the amount of hard materials more will be the resistence to weathering.

c) Size and shape of the minerals is stones:

Crystalline solids are hard and compact, thus superioir to non-crystalline. Finer the
crystals, stronger the stones and vice versa, This property i.e fineness reduces the pores in the
stone.

d) Cohesion:

It is the property of atoms or particles to attract each other. The fine grains have more
cohesive power than the coarser grains. Greater the cohesion in stone causes increase in the
hardness, strongness and toughness of stones. The property of compactness also depends deeply
on cohesion.

e) Porosity:

Stones in wet conditions and having pores in them allow a lower crushing strength than
normal. Porosity can reduce the strength up to 30 - 40% e.g limestone and sandstone are affected
by this property. Porosity is the property of a substance in which it contains pores i it. It also
reduces the resistence to a concentrated (point) load.

f) Density:

If a stone is compact, dense, it would also be non-porous and strong, thus toughness also
depends upon density.

g) Cementing material:
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Stones with silicates as cementing material will be resistant to weathering than those with
calcareous or ferruginous binding material. So, cementing material also affects the choice of
stone selection.

3) Resistence to heat:

Resistence to heat means that the stone must have a very low amount of expansion due to
large increase in temperature. Silicious materials are good at areas where resistence to fire is
required.

4) Bio-deterioration:

Certain trees and creepers thrust their roots in the joints of stones and have both
mechanical and chemical adverse effects. Special microbes can grow on the surface and in
minute fissures, their by-products cause flaking and discoloration.

5) Appearance:

The aesthetic aspect that is color, appearance and show of stones must also be considered
when being used in a project. Appearance depends on the color and the ease with which the stone
can be dressed, rubbed or polished.

GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF STONES

Geologically the stones can be classified as follows:

1) Sedimentary stones:

Characteristics:

Sandstone, limestone, dolomite originally formed mainly in sea water, or lakes, from the remains
of animals and plants, also from transportation and deposition of rock products.

A. Formed at or near the surface

B. Distinctive strata
C. Many fossils have been found in this type of rock

Grain shape
A. Rounded
B. Angular
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Classification:

A. Detrital is made from disintegrated pre-existing rock.

B. Biogenetic is made from shells and other fossilized fragments.
C. Chemical is made from chemical precipitation.

2) Metamorphic stones:

Characteristics:

Marble, serpentine, onyx, slate, quartzite, gneiss are produced from sedimentary or igneous rocks
by the action of heat and pressure.

A. No pressure - fossils survive

B. Low pressure - fossils distorted or destroyed
C. Moderate pressure - Grains form moderately
D. High pressure - Active fluids may circulate
E. Heat alone, Metamorphic Aureole surrounding a deep plutonic intrusions, possibly with active
fluids
F. Dynamic Meta - Large scale movement phenomena
G. Crushing actions produce Xylonite Meta rock from powder
H. Low angle thrust fault: Plate pressure coupled with subsidence
I. Thrust movement, plate movement

Classification:

1. Structure
A. Contact type is crystalline
B. Regional type is usually foliated

2. Grain size
A. +0 Big grain, High pressure
B. 00 Med grain, Med pressure
C. -o Small grain, Low pressure

3) Igneous stones:

These stones are formed when the magma from the earth cools inside the earth or on the
earth surface.
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Characteristics:

A. Intrusive - subsurface crystallization

B. Extrusive- above surface crystallization
*note Temperature and time has alot of effect on crystal sizes i.e.: Heat + time = Larger crystal
Igneous form occurrence below ground presents itself in 2 basic ways:
Intrusive basic dike, which is like having layers of cardboard over your head and punching your
fist up into it. Plutonic, this is like a huge hot ball of stone burning its way around deep below the
surface and it usually has "hot arms" that reach out from its main mass. Crystal habit can
successfully delineate a Igneous stones origin, usually. Dikes are cooler thus forming smaller
crystals and Plutons are hotter thus forming larger crystals.
C. Mineral content
D. Grain size, Plutonic >3/16" coarse. Extrusive 1/64" - 3/16" Medium and < 1/64" fine
E. Crystal shape
F. Texture % A, %B, crystal angle.
G. Color

Classification:

A. Acid rocks > 65% Si + > 10% Modal Quartz

B. Intermediate rocks 55% - 65% Si
C. Basic rocks 45% - 55% Si < 10% Modal Quartz
D. Ultra-Basic < 45% Si.

STONES PROPERTIES AND TESTS

Properties of stones

Strength & Durability:

The more compact grained and heavier a stone the harder it is. Due to alternate wetting
and drying the resulting crushing strength can be reduced even up to 30-40%. Being dry stones
allow more crushing strength than when wet.

Stone Weight in lb/cu. ft Ultimate strength to resist

crushing lbs./sq. in

Granite 165 13000

Basalt or Trap 185 12000
Limestone 160 7500
Sandstone (stray) 140 5000
Slate 175 10000
Marble 170 7500
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Table showing the relationship between weights and crushing strength.

It is the ability of a stone to endure and maintain its essential and distinctive
characteristics i.e. resistance to decay, strength and appearance. Physical properties such as
density, compressive strength and porosity are measured in order to determine its durability.
Durability is based upon the stones natural physical properties, characteristics and the
environmental conditions to which it will be or is subjected too. Another factor of stones
durability is its Aesthetic Durability or Dimensional Stability. Cosmetic changes may occur. This
has to do with the Color Stability of certain stones. These changes can take place in two ways.

SUNLIGHT:

When some stones are used in exterior applications and exposed to direct sunlight they
fade or change color. Dark colored stones and those that contain organic matter will generally
fade to a much lighter color. The Coral stone being of a biogenic origin contains organic material
that will be affected by ultraviolet exposure.

MOISTURE:

Some stones have moisture sensitive mineral contents that will cause the stone to develop
rust spots, or other color variations, or contain moisture sensitive substances that will cause
blotchy and streaking discolorations. Certain lime stones contain bituminous materials that are
soluble when exposed to moisture. Some marbles are also moisture sensitive when in high
moisture areas, showers and those with steam features; these stones have a tendency to develop
dark botches.

Porosity & Permeability:

Porosity is the ratio of pores (micro-voids) in the stone, to its total solid volume. Pores
and the capillary structure develop differently in each of the three stone groups. Dense and
compact stones have very few or no pores in them. An important feature of sedimentary rocks is
their porosity. Pores are natural holes in the stones which allow fluids like rainwater to enter and
leave the fabric. Some free fluid flow through a rock is necessary to maintain the rock's
durability, and it is not always advisable to block such flow by using incorrect mortar mixes or
by injecting unsuitable synthetic fluids.

Very high porosities, however, may allow excessive volumes of corrosive fluids such as
acid rainwater to enter and cause severe damage to the rock. Thin section rock analysis can
identify where such problems are likely to occur. Most durable sedimentary building stones
commonly have moderate porosity.

Associated with stones porosity is its permeability. This is the extent to which the pores
and capillary structures are interconnected throughout the stone. These networks, their size,
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structure and orientation affect the degree and depth to which moisture, vapors and liquids can be
absorb into the interior of the stone or migrate from the substrate by capillary action through the
stone.

Permeability is increased when a stone is highly fractured or the veining material is soft
or grainy. A particular variety of stone may be highly permeable (a well defined interconnected
network of pores), although its porosity is low (a low percentage of voids).

The size and shapes of pores and the capillary structure differs in stones and is an
important factor in relation to stone decay.

Water absorption and frost resistance:

Moisture from rain, snow or other environmental conditions penetrates the wall leading
to cracks, efflorescence, rust staining, wood rotting, paint peeling, darkening of masonry and
spalling. The perfect sealing of a masonry wall surface is almost impossible since fine cracks and
joints will allow the passage of water into the wall.

Absorbency:

It is the result of these two properties (permeability and porosity). Absorbency is an

important determining factor in stones sensitivity to stains. The size of the pores, their
orientation, how well they are networked and the type of finish the stone has are important
contributing factors to a stones overall absorbency. In relation to clean ability this factor is more
important than how porous a stone is. Honed and textured surfaces are more susceptible to
soiling and staining due to the fact that there are more open pores at the surface than a highly
polished finish.

The polishing process has a tendency to close off pore leaving fewer ones exposed,
resulting in a low absorbent surface. However, some varieties of stone have large pores and
capillary structures and even when these stones are polished they still remain very absorbent.
Most common oils can be easily absorbed into all types of stone.

Frost action or commonly called freeze/thaw cycles occur when water within the pore
structure or cracks freezes to ice. It has been estimated when water freezes it expands between 8
to 11 percent, with a force of 2,000 pounds per square inch to 150 tons per square foot. This
increase of internal pressure combined with repeated freeze/thaw cycles produces micro-fissures,
cracks, flaking and spalling.
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Tests on Stones

Once a stone has been selected on aesthetic basis, it is important than to ensure whether it
exhibits the necessary physical properties and durability to remain in working condition for a
long time. Fixing method adopted for the construction of stones also affects the type of stones
selected. Physical properties such as density, compressive strength and porosity are measured in
order to determine its durability.

Hardness & weathering:

Hardness is the property of a material to avoid and resist scratching. It is determined by

comparison with the standard minerals of the Moh’s scale. The objective of the MOH Scale is to
measure stones resistance to hardness.

Measurement of Hardness:

1. Talc
2. Gypsum
3. Calcite (Most Marbles)
4. Fluorite
5. Apatite
6. Feldspar (Granite)
7. Quartz (Granite)
8. Topaz
9. Corundum
10. Diamond

Weathering

It is a complex interaction of physical, chemical and biological processes that alters the
stone in some general or specific way. The physical properties of stone differs widely between
stone groups and even within the same stone type.

The mineral composition, textural differences, varying degrees of hardness and

pore/capillary structure are the main reasons why stone nor all the surface of the same stone
shows signs of alteration the same and evenly. These minerals can be broken down, dissolved or
converted to new minerals by a variety of processes which are grouped as Mechanical and
Chemical. Intensity and duration are two key elements that govern to what extent weathering
reactions will have on stone.
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APPLICATIONS & USES OF STONES

Uses of stones:

 Sandstone is a popular stone with sculptors.

 Good and durable construction material
 Thresholds and steps in manor houses
 War memorials in the 19th and 20th centuries
 Limestone for burning lime and also for manufacture of cement
 Limestone as a flux in blast furnaces
 Insulators in electrical appliances

Building Stones:

 Millions of tons of crushed rock are needed annually for road base, paving, ready-mixed
concrete and asphalt.
 Sandstone which is not so hard-wearing or beautifully patterned is used for garden walls
and paths in landscaping.
 Basalt: It is quarried and crushed as "Blue Metal" which is used as a road-base, and in
reinforced concrete as aggregate.
 Although wood, straw and mud is used for houses in some parts of the world, most
buildings are preferred to be built of stones.
 Building wells.
 Material for foundation and walling of buildings, dams, bridges, etc.
 Aggregate
 Stone walls
 Roof tile in the form of slates
 Murram for covering and flooring of road surface
 Limestone for burning lime and for the manufacture of Portland cement
 Shale is a component of bricks and may also be used in manufacturing of cement.
 Nite, another stone type is used for architectural construction, ornamental stones and
monuments.
 Marble is widely used in construction industry, for aesthetic purposes, beautification and
strength

Stone being so important in the light of the above uses still is not widely used in
construction. The reasons are:

Stones are replaced by the increased use of RCC. Dressing of stones is time consuming
Stones are not cheaply and conveniently available in plain areas.
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APPLICATIONS AND USES OF AGGREGATES

Aggregates are the most mined material in the world. Construction aggregate is a broad
category of granular raw material of different sizes (sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled
concrete etc) used in construction.

Uses of Aggregate

Aggregate can be used in a number of ways in construction. In roads and railway ballast
the aggregates are used to resist the overall (static as well as dynamic) load, to distribute the load
properly to the supporting ground and to drain the water off the surface. In concrete the
aggregate is used for economy, reduce shrinkage and crakes and to strengthen the structure. They
are also used in water filtration and sewage treatment processes. The uses of aggregates can be
summarized in to the following three categories

 As a Load Bearing Material

 As a Filling Material
 As an Infiltrating Material

Uses of Aggregate in Concrete

Aggregate is an essential ingredient of concrete. The purpose of aggregates in concrete is:
 To provide a rigid structure
 To reduce the shrinkage and cracking
 Concrete aggregate is used in many structures and substructures e.g. different elements of
a Building, bridges, foundations
 The smaller the aggregate size the greater its surface area and the more binding material
(cement) will be required, resulting in a higher cost
 The greater the aggregate size the larger will be the voids, resulting in wastage of binding
material(cement)

Hence a mixture of coarse and fine aggregate is used in concrete to avoid both these problems.

Uses of Aggregate in Railway Ballast

Properties of aggregate used in railway ballast are very different from those used in roads.

 A fully loaded train weighs in thousands of tons. To avoid damage to the rails, ground
and other nearby structures a very tough aggregate is needed not only to support this high
weight but also to distribute and transfer it properly to the ground.
 Railway ballast generally consists of a tough igneous rock (crushed), such as granite,
with a larger diameter varying between 30mm to 50mm. Particles finer than this diameter
in higher proportion will reduce its drainage properties. While a higher proportion of
larger particles result in the load on the ties being distributed improperly.

Since the angular stones interlock with each other, therefore, they are used to resist any
movement of the rails and ties.