STONE AS ENGINEERING

MATERIALS – ENGINEERING
STONES
Introduction and Selection of Stones
PARAMETERS CONSIDERED IN SELECTION OF A
GOOD CONSTRUCTION STONE

The criteria is based upon the following parameters:

1. Chemical composition of stone

2. Strongness and hardness
3. Durability
4. Resistance to fire
5. Bio-Deterioration
6. Appearance
7. Susceptibility to being quarried in large sizes
 The criteria is based upon the following parameters.

1. Chemical composition of stones

Using/selecting a stone for

construction, its chemical properties
and composition must be tested and
verified because different elements
and compounds in stones have
different properties.
 The criteria is based upon the following parameters.

2. Strongness and hardness

The more compact grained and

heavier a stone, the stronger it is. The
specific gravity of good stone should
be above 2.7. Stones used for road
metal, paving blocks, floor slabs and
railway ballast have to withstand
mainly abrasion or wear and tear.
Strongness and hardness itself depend on some factors:

1. Hardness or softness of the components

2. Proportions of the hard and soft minerals
3. Size and shape of the minerals
4. Cohesion
5. Porosity
6. Density
7. Cementing material
 Strongness and hardness itself depend on some factors

a) Hardness or softness of the components

The composition of the compounds determines its hardness

or softness.

Si, Na,K Mg, Ca, Fe - harder

POOR GOOD

If the stone is composed of soft and unhardened materials

it will result in a soft materials and vice versa.
 Strongness and hardness itself depend on some factors

b) Proportion of hard and soft materials

The amount of soft and hard material

in a specific sample of stone also
matters. Greater the amount of hard
materials more will be the resistance to
weathering.
 Strongness and hardness itself depend on some factors

c) Size and shape of the minerals is stones

Crystalline solids are hard and

compact, thus superior to non-
crystalline. Finer the crystals, stronger
the stones and vice versa, This property
i.e. fineness reduces the pores in the
stone.
 Strongness and hardness itself depend on some factors

d) Cohesion

It is the property of atoms or particles to

attract each other. The fine grains have
more cohesive power than the coarser
grains. Greater the cohesion in stone
causes increase in the hardness,
strongness and toughness of stones. The
property of compactness also depends
deeply on cohesion.
 Strongness and hardness itself depend on some factors

e) Porosity

Stones in wet conditions and having pores in them allow a

lower crushing strength than normal. Porosity can reduce
the strength up to 30 – 40.
Porosity is the property of a substance in which it contains
pores in it. It also reduces the resistance to a concentrated
(point) load.
 Strongness and hardness itself depend on some factors

f) Density

If a stone is compact, dense, it

would also be non-porous and
strong, thus toughness also depends
upon density.

g) Cementing material

Stones with silicates as cementing

material will be resistant to weathering
than those with calcareous or
ferruginous binding material. So,
cementing material also affects the
choice of stone selection.
 The criteria is based upon the following parameters.

3) Resistance to heat

Resistance to heat means that the

stone must have a very low amount
of expansion due to large increase
in temperature.
 The criteria is based upon the following parameters.

4) Bio-deterioration

Certain trees and creepers

thrust their roots in the joints of
stones and have both
mechanical and chemical
adverse effects.

Special microbes can grow on the surface and in

minute fissures, their by-products cause flaking
and discoloration.
 The criteria is based upon the following parameters.

5) Appearance

The aesthetic aspect that is color,

appearance and show of stones
must also be considered when
being used in a project.
Appearance depends on the color
and the ease with which the stone
can be dressed, rubbed or polished.
GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF STONES
Sedimentary stones Metamorphic stones Igneous stones
 Geological classification of stones

Sedimentary Stones

Characteristics:

Sandstone, limestone, dolomite

originally formed mainly in sea
water, or lakes, from the remains of
animals and plants, also from
transportation and deposition of
rock products.

A. Formed at or near the surface

B. Distinctive strata
C. Many fossils have been found in
this type of rock

SHAPES:
A. Rounded
B. Angular
 Sedimentary Stones

Classification:

A. Detrital is made from

disintegrated pre-existing rock.
Detrital – Shale rock Biogenetic – Oolite
B. Biogenetic is made from shells
and other fossilized fragments.

C. Chemical is made from

chemical precipitation.

Chemical – Halite
 Geological classification of stones

Metamorphic Stones
Characteristics:

Marble, serpentine, onyx, slate, quartzite, gneiss are

produced from sedimentary or igneous rocks by the
action of heat and pressure.

A. No pressure - fossils survive

B. Low pressure - fossils distorted or destroyed
C. Moderate pressure - Grains form moderately
D. High pressure - Active fluids may circulate
E. Heat alone, Metamorphic Aureole surrounding a deep
plutonic intrusions, possibly with active fluids
F. Dynamic Meta - Large scale movement phenomena
G. Crushing actions produce Xylonite Meta rock from
powder
H. Low angle thrust fault: Plate pressure coupled with
subsidence
I. Thrust movement, plate movement
 Metamorphic Stones

Classification:

1. According to Structure
A. Contact type is crystalline
B. Regional type is usually foliated
Contact – Quartzite Regional – Schist
2. According to Grain size
A. +0 Big grain, High pressure
B. 00 Med grain, Med pressure
C. -0 Small grain, Low pressure

Big Grain – Amphibolite Medium Grain – Schist Small Grain – Slate

 Geological classification of stones

Igneous Stones

Characteristics:

A. Intrusive - subsurface crystallization

B. Extrusive- above surface crystallization
C. Mineral content
D. Grain size, Plutonic >3/16" coarse. Extrusive 1/64" - 3/16" Medium and < 1/64" fine
E. Crystal shape
F. Texture % A, %B, crystal angle.
G. Color
Igneous form occurrence below ground presents itself in 2 basic
ways:
Intrusive basic dike, which is like having layers of cardboard over
your head and punching your fist up into it. Plutonic, this is like a
huge hot ball of stone burning its way around deep below the
surface and it usually has "hot arms" that reach out from its main
mass.
 Igneous Stones

Classification:

A. Acid rocks > 65% Si + > 10%

Modal Quartz

Acid – Granite B. Intermediate rocks 55% - 65% Si Basic – Dacite

C. Basic rocks 45% - 55% Si < 10%

Modal Quartz

D. Ultra-Basic < 45% Si.

Intermediate –Diorite
Ultra-basic –Peroditite
STONE PROPERTIES AND TESTS
Properties of Stones
 Stone properties and tests

Strength & Durability

The more compact grained and heavier a stone the

harder it is. Due to alternate wetting and drying the
resulting crushing strength can be reduced even up
to 30-40%. Being dry stones allow more crushing
strength than when wet.
 Stone properties and tests

Relationship between Weights and Crushing Strength

Stone Weight in lb/cu. ft Ultimate strength to resist crushing

lbs./sq. in

Granite 165 13000

Basalt or Trap 185 12000

Limestone 160 7500

Sandstone (stray) 140 5000

Slate 175 10000

Marble 170 7500

Durability is the ability of a stone to endure and maintain its essential and distinctive
characteristics i.e. resistance to decay, strength and appearance. Physical properties such
as density, compressive strength and porosity are measured in order to determine its
durability. Another factor of stones durability is its Aesthetic Durability or Dimensional Stability.
Cosmetic changes may occur. This has to do with the Color Stability of certain stones.

These changes can take place in two ways.

SUNLIGHT MOISTURE

Some stones have moisture sensitive

When some stones are used in
mineral contents that will cause the
exterior applications and exposed to
stone to develop rust spots, or other
direct sunlight they fade or change
color variations, or contain moisture
color. Dark colored stones and those
sensitive substances that will cause
that contain organic matter will
blotchy and streaking discolorations.
generally fade to a much lighter color.
Certain lime stones contain bituminous
materials that are soluble when exposed
to moisture.
 Stone properties and tests

Porosity and Permeability

Porosity is the ratio of pores (micro-voids) in the stone, to its total

solid volume. Pores are natural holes in the stones which allow
fluids like rainwater to enter and leave the fabric. Some free fluid
flow through a rock is necessary to maintain the rock's durability,
and it is not always advisable to block such flow by using
incorrect mortar mixes or by injecting unsuitable synthetic fluids.

Very high porosities may allow excessive volumes of corrosive

fluids such as acid rainwater to enter and cause severe damage
to the rock.
 Stone properties and tests

Porosity and Permeability

Permeability is increased when a stone is highly fractured or the

veining material is soft or grainy. A particular variety of stone may
be highly permeable although its porosity is low.

The size and shapes of pores and the capillary structure differs in
stones and is an important factor in relation to stone decay.
 Stone properties and tests

Water absorption and frost resistance

Moisture from rain, snow or other environmental conditions

penetrates the wall leading to cracks, efflorescence, rust staining,
wood rotting, paint peeling, darkening of masonry and spalling.

The perfect sealing of a masonry wall surface is almost impossible

since fine cracks and joints will allow the passage of water into
the wall.
 Stone properties and tests

Water absorption and frost resistance

Absorbency it is the result of these two properties (permeability

and porosity). Absorbency is an important determining factor in
stones sensitivity to stains.
 Stone properties and tests

Tests on Stones

Once a stone has been selected on aesthetic basis, it is important

than to ensure whether it exhibits the necessary physical
properties and durability to remain in working condition for a long
time. Fixing method adopted for the construction of stones also
affects the type of stones selected. Physical properties such as
density, compressive strength and porosity are measured in order
to determine its durability.
 Stone properties and tests

Water absorption and frost resistance

Moisture from rain, snow or other environmental conditions

penetrates the wall leading to cracks, efflorescence, rust staining,
wood rotting, paint peeling, darkening of masonry and spalling

The perfect sealing of a masonry wall surface is almost impossible

since fine cracks and joints will allow the passage of water into
the wall.
 Stone properties and tests

Hardness & weathering

Hardness is the property of a material to avoid and resist
scratching. It is determined by comparison with the standard
minerals of the Moh’s scale. The objective of the MOH Scale is to
measure stones resistance to hardness.

Measurement of Hardness

1. Talc
6. Feldspar (Granite)
2. Gypsum
7. Quartz (Granite)
3. Calcite (Most Marbles)
8. Topaz
4. Fluorite
9. Corundum
5. Apatite
10. Diamond
 Stone properties and tests

Hardness & weathering

Weathering is a complex interaction of physical, chemical and
biological processes that alters the stone in some general or
specific way. The physical properties of stone differs widely
between stone groups and even within the same stone type.

The mineral composition, textural differences, varying degrees of

hardness and pore/capillary structure are the main reasons why
stone nor all the surface of the same stone shows signs of
alteration the same and evenly.
APPLICATIONS AND USES OF STONES
 Applications and uses of stones

Uses of stones

1. Sandstone is a popular stone with sculptors.

2. Good and durable construction material
3. Thresholds and steps in manor houses
4. War memorials in the 19th and 20th centuries
5. Limestone for burning lime and also for manufacture of cement
6. Limestone as a flux in blast furnaces
7. Insulators in electrical appliances
 Building Stones

 Millions of tons of crushed rock are needed annually for road base, paving,
ready-mixed concrete and asphalt.
 Sandstone which is not so hard-wearing or beautifully patterned is used for
garden walls and paths in landscaping.
 Basalt: It is quarried and crushed as "Blue Metal" which is used as a road-base,
and in reinforced concrete as aggregate.
 Although wood, straw and mud is used for houses in some parts of the world,
most buildings are preferred to be built of stones.
 Building wells.
 Material for foundation and walling of buildings, dams, bridges, etc.
 Building Stones

 Aggregate
 Stone walls
 Roof tile in the form of slates
 Murram for covering and flooring of road surface
 Limestone for burning lime and for the manufacture of Portland
cement
 Shale is a component of bricks and may also be used in
manufacturing of cement.
 Nite, another stone type is used for architectural construction,
ornamental stones and monuments.
 Marble is widely used in construction industry, for aesthetic
purposes, beautification and strength
APPLICATIONS AND USES OF AGGREGATES
Aggregates are the most mined material in the world. Construction
aggregate is a broad category of granular raw material of different sizes
used in construction.
 Applications and uses of aggregates

Uses of Aggregate

Aggregate can be used in a number of ways in construction. In roads

and railway ballast the aggregates are used to resist the load, to
distribute the load properly to the supporting ground and to drain the
water off the surface. In concrete the aggregate is used for economy,
reduce shrinkage and crakes and to strengthen the structure. They are
also used in water filtration and sewage treatment processes.

The uses of aggregates can be summarized in to the following three

categories:

1. As a Load Bearing Material

2. As a Filling Material
3. As an Infiltrating Material
 Applications and uses of aggregates

Uses of Aggregate in Concrete

Aggregate is an essential ingredient of concrete.

The purpose of aggregates in concrete is:

1. To provide a rigid structure

2. To reduce the shrinkage and cracking
3. Concrete aggregate is used in many structures and substructures
e.g. different elements of a Building, bridges, foundations
4. The smaller the aggregate size the greater its surface area and the
more binding material (cement) will be required, resulting in a
higher cost
5. The greater the aggregate size the larger will be the voids, resulting
in wastage of binding material (cement)
 Applications and uses of aggregates

Uses of Aggregate in Railway Ballast

Properties of aggregate used in railway ballast are very different from those
used in roads.

1. A fully loaded train weighs in thousands of tons. To avoid damage to the

rails, ground and other nearby structures a very tough aggregate is
needed not only to support this high weight but also to distribute and
transfer it properly to the ground.
2. Railway ballast generally consists of a tough igneous rock (crushed), such
as granite, with a larger diameter varying between 30mm to 50mm.
Particles finer than this diameter in higher proportion will reduce its
drainage properties. While a higher proportion of larger particles result in
the load on the ties being distributed improperly.