Haramaya Inistitute of Technology, School of Graduate Studies

CHAPTER TWO
DESIGN OF STABLE CHANNELS

2.1. Design of Stable Channels

The design of a canal is mainly governed by the quantity of silt in the water and the type
of boundary surface of the channel. Depending upon these factors, channels can be
broadly classified into the following types:

i. Non-alluvial channels
ii. Alluvial channels, and
iii. Rigid boundary (or lined) channels

The non-alluvial channels are excavated in non-alluvial soils such as loam, clay, etc.
Generally, there is no silt problem in these channels and they are relatively stable.
Alluvial channels are excavated in alluvial soils, such as silt as a result of which silt
problems may be present. The silt content may also increase due to scouring of bed and
sides/banks of the channel. Scouring or deposition/silting may occur depending on the
prevailing flow velocity. In rigid-boundary channels, the surface of the channel is lined.
The quantity of silt transported by such channels remains more or less the same as that
has entered the channel at its head.

2.1.1. Design of Non-Alluvial Channels

In non-alluvial channels, the water is relatively clear, and therefore, there is no silt
problem. Non-alluvial soils are clay, hard loam, or soils formed as a result of
disintegration of rocks. Non-alluvial channels are considered stable if they do not have
silt problems. Such channels are designed on the basis of the maximum permissible
velocity which the channel boundary can resist without scouring. Table 2.1 gives some
typical values of the maximum permissible velocity in different types of materials.

Table 2.1 Permissible velocities

Type of material Permissible velocity (m/s)
Lean clay soil or loam 0.38 to 1.37
Clay 0.41 to 1.67
Heavy clay 0.45 to 1.70
Sandy clay 0.52 to 1.83
Gravel 1.20
Boulders 1.50
Soft rock 1.50 to 1.80
Hard rock > 3.00

The side slopes excavated in clay are generally kept 1:1 in cutting and 1.5:1 in filling. For
hard and soft rocks the safe side slopes are taken as 0.25:1 and 0.125:1, respectively. In
hard rocks, the sides may even be kept vertical.

The design of non-alluvial channels is usually done by using Chezy or Manning’s

formula.
1. Chezy’s Equation  V  C RS (2.1)

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Where C is Chezy resistance coefficient. The value of C is usually determined from

Bazin’s equation
87
C (2.2)
K
1
R
Where, Bazin’s coefficient K, depends upon the surface of the channel (see Table 2.2);
R is hydraulic radius; and S is the longitudinal slope.

Table 2.2 Bazin’s Coefficient (K)

Type of surface Bazin’s K
Smooth plaster 0.06
Neat brick work 0.16
Rubble masonry 0.46
Plaster, very smooth earth 0.85
Earth channels in good condition 1.30
Earth channels in poor condition 1.75
1 2 3 12
2. Manning’s Formula  V R S (2.3)
n
Where n is Manning’s coefficient. The value of n depends on the type of surface (See
Table 2.3)

Table 2.3 Manning’s Coefficient (n)

Type of surface Manning’s n

Earth channel, clean straight and uniform 0.016 to 0.020
Earth channels, clean but weathered 0.018 to 0.025
Earth channels, with grass & weeds 0.022 to 0.033
Channels in gravel with stones 0.030 to 0.035
Channels in rock, smooth & uniform 0.025 to 0.040
Channels in rock, rough 0.035 to 0.050

Channels in which silting problems are anticipated should be designed to have some
minimum permissible velocity or the non-silting velocity. However, this velocity is very
uncertain and can be determined only by advanced theories of sediment transport.
Usually, a minimum velocity of 0.5 m/s is taken.

Design Procedure using Manning’s Formula

The discharge (Q), maximum permissible velocity (V), Manning’s n, bed slope (S), and
side slope (k:1) are given or have been assumed.

Step 1:
Determine the area of cross section from the continuity equation: Q = AV  A = Q/V
Step 2:
Determine the hydraulic radius, R, from the Manning’s formula
3
1 2 1 V n 2
V  R 3S 2  R  1 
n  2 
S 
Step 3: Determine the wetted perimeter from the relation, P = A/R
Step 4: Determine the depth D and bed width B from the values of A and P obtained
above by solving the equations given below (see figure).

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B+2kD

D 1 k2 D
D 1 k2

(B + k D)D = A --------------- (i)

 
B  2 1  k 2 D  P...............(ii )

2.1.2. Design of Alluvial Channels

An alluvial channel is defined as one transporting water as well as sediment, the

sediment transported being of the same nature as that comprising the bed. The stability
of a reach of such a channel requires that the sediment inflow into the reach be equal to
the sediment outflow. Under such equilibrium condition the bed of the channel neither
rises nor falls.
The channel surface consists of alluvial soil which can be easily scoured. Moreover, as
the velocity is kept low, it encourages silting. Therefore, in alluvial channels, both
scouring and silting may occur if the channel is not properly designed. The command of
an irrigation channel decreases if scouring occurs because the full supply level falls. The
discharge capacity is decreased if silting occurs because the cross-section is reduced.
Therefore, alluvial channel should be designed such that neither scouring nor silting
occurs. The velocity at which this condition occurs is called critical velocity. Such an
alluvial channel is called a stable channel.

Various theories have been suggested to study problems of such channels, known as
silt theories. The two most common silt theories are: (1) Kennedy’s silt theory and (2)
Lacey’s silt theory. Apart from these two theories, design of stable channels in alluvial
soils can be done by the tractive force approach.

2.1.2.1. Kennedy’s Theory

Kennedy analyzed data from stable canals of the Upper Bari Doab (in Pakistan) and
found that the non-scouring, non-silting velocity, U0, is related to the depth by the
relation,
U 0  0.55D 0.64 (2.4)
Where D is in meters and the critical velocity, U0 in m/s.

Kennedy also found that the sediment size plays an important role in silt carrying
capacity of the channel and introduced the critical velocity ratio m (defined as U/U0),
which was greater than unity for sands coarser than in Upper Bari Doab system and less
than unity for finer sands (see Table 2.4).
U  0.55mD 0.64

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In the above equation, U is the critical velocity in a channel of any other sediment grade
and U0 is the critical velocity in a channel of the same sediment grade as that of Upper
Bari Doab.

Table 2.4 Values of Critical Velocity Ratio (m)

Silt grade Critical Velocity Ratio (m)
Light sandy silt, as in Upper Bari Doab 1.00
Coarse light sandy soil 1.10
Sandy loam 1.20
Coarse silt 1.30

In the design of a stable alluvial channel, in addition to Kennedy’s equation, the following
two equations are used for the determination of the four unknowns A, V, R and S (if a
trapezoidal shape of known side slope is assumed) for known values of Q, m, and n or
C.
1. Continuity equation
2. Flow equation, such as Manning, Chezy or Kutter’s equation (given below)
 1  0 . 00155  
   23   
n  S 
V    RS (2.5)
 1   23  0 . 00155 / S n / R 
 
 
Because there are only three available equations and four unknowns, the complete
solution is not possible. To obtain the complete solution, either bed slope S or B/D ratio
assumed.

The design procedure depends whether the bed slope S or B/D ratio is given.

1. Design procedure when the bed slope is given (or assumed)

Given: Q, m, n and S
Step 1: Assume a trial value of depth D
Step 2: Calculate the velocity from U = 0.55 m D0.64
Step 3: Determine the cross sectional area, A = Q/V
Step 4: Assume a side slope (say, 0.5:1), and determine the width B from the
relation,
A = BD + k D2 or B = (A – k D2)/D

Step 5: Determine the wetted perimeter from the relation, P  B  2 1  k 2 D 
Step 6: Compute the hydraulic radius R from the relation,
 
R =A/P = (BD + k D2)/ (B  2 1  k 2 D)
Step 7: Calculate the actual mean velocity from Kutter’s equation

If the value of V as found in step (7) is nearly the same as that found in step (2), the
assumed depth is correct. If not, the procedure is repeated after assuming another value
of D till the two values of velocity are approximately equal. If the value of V obtained in
step (2) is less than that in step (7), a greater value of D is assumed for the next trial and
vice versa.

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2. Design procedure when the B/D ratio is given

Given: Q, m, n and B/D ratio

Step 1: Calculate area A in terms of D as follows: A = BD +k D2 = D2(B/D + k)
Step 2: Write continuity equation and substitute Kennedy’s equation for the
velocity; thus Q = AV = D2(B/D + k)x(0.55 m D0.64)
Step 3: Calculate the value of D from step 2
Step 4: Determine the bed width, B = xD.

Step 5: Compute the hydraulic radius, R = A/P = (BD + k D2)/ (B  2 1  k 2 D) 
Step 6: Determine the velocity from the relation, U = 0.55 m D0.64
Step 7: Compute the slope from Kutter’s equation – this is obtained by trial-and-
error. For the first trial, the term 0.00155/S may be neglected, and an
approximate value of S is found. Different values of S are then assumed
close to that approximate value till the equation is satisfied.

2.1.2.2. Lacey’s Regime Theory

The regime concept of channels states that “When artificial channel is used to carry silty
water, both the bed and banks scour or fill, change depth, gradient & width, until a state
of balance is attained, at which the channel is said to be in regime.

Lacey performed a systematic analysis of the available stable channel data in an attempt
to improve Kennedy’s equation. He pointed out that the non-scouring, non-silting velocity
should be related to the hydraulic radius instead of the depth. He also took into account
the effect of sediment size on the relationship for the velocity. In a channel constructed
in alluvium to carry a certain discharge, there will be scouring or silting and the width,
depth and slope will undergo modifications, till equilibrium is reached by the channel.
The channel is then said to have become a regime channel (or a stable channel).

Lacey found that the silt is kept in suspension by the vertical components of eddies from
the bed and sides of the channel. Therefore, Lacey considered the hydraulic radius R as
the characteristic parameter rather than the depth of flow D considered by Kennedy.

Lacey, therefore, gave four basic equations given below.

(i) Silt factor: Introduced as a measure of silt grade. It is similar to the critical
velocity ratio (m) introduced by Kennedy. The value of the silt factor was taken equal to
unity for the silt of the channels of Upper Bari Doab canal system (standard). The value
of silt factor is greater than unity for silts with particles larger than that in Upper Bari
Doab, and less than unity for silts for particles smaller than that size. Lacey, considering
average size of the channel boundary material and density (about 2.65), gave the
following relation for silt factor
f  1.76 mr (2.5)
Where mr is the average particle size (or diameter) in mm; it is usually taken as D50size.
For Upper Bari Doab, mr = 0.33 mm and therefore f  1.76 0.33 ≈ 1.00. Values of f for
different types of silt can be obtained from Table 2.5.

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Table 2.5 Values of silt factor, f

Type of soil Average particle size Value of f
Fine silt 0.120 0.60
Medium silt 0.158 0.70
Standard silt 0.323 1.00
Medium sand 0.502 1.23
Coarse sand 0.725 1.50

(ii) Relationship between the mean velocity (V) and hydraulic radius (R): Lacey
selected the hydraulic radius R for correlation with the mean velocity V, because the
vertical components of the eddies occur all along the perimeter of the channel. He
obtained the following relationship between V and R:
2
V  f R (2.6)
5
Where V is in (m/s) and R is in (m).
(iii) Relationship between the cross-sectional area and mean velocity
A f 2  140V 5 (2.7)
This relationship, in addition to equation (2.6), is necessary for the determination of the
dimensions B and D of the channel.
(iv) Flow equation: By plotting a large number of data from different sources, Lacey
gave the following flow equation.
2 1
V  10.8 R 3 S 2
(2.8)
Where S is the bed slope. Equation (2.8) is also known as the regime flow equation.

A large number of equations can be derived from the four basic equations given by
Lacey. Some of the commonly used equations derived from the preceding ones are
given below.

(a) Velocity equation: Relationship between the discharge Q and velocity V.

Af2 =140V5
Multiplying both sides by V, (AV) f2=140 V6  Q f2=140 V6
V = (Q f2/140)1/6 (2.9)

(b) Wetted perimeter equation: The relationship between wetted perimeter P and the
discharge Q is given by (again deriving from previous equations).
P  4.75 Q (2.10)
This equation indicates that, for a regime channel, the wetted perimeter depends on the
discharge Q.

(c) Normal Scour depth equation: In a similar fashion the relation for R is derived and
obtained to be
R  0.47Q f 
1
3 (2.11)
This equation is commonly used for the determination of the normal scour depth of
rivers. For wide channels, such as rivers in alluvial soils, the hydraulic radius R is
approximately equal to the depth of flow. During floods, the depth of flow in a river is also
equal to the normal scour depth. It should be noted that the scour depth is measured
from the high flood level to the scoured bed of the river.

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(d) Slope equation: The equation for the regime slope can also be derived; which is
given below.
3
2
0.0002 f
S 1
(2.12)
2
R
This equation is used to determine the regime slope if the hydraulic radius is known. An
alternative equation for the regime slope can also derived and obtained in terms of the
discharge Q.
5 5
3 3
f 0.0003 f
S 1
 1
(2.13)
6 6
3340 Q Q
In terms of specific discharge, q, the above equation will be
5
3
0.000172 f
S 1
(2.14)
3
q

Design of Channels by Lacey Theory

The channel section and bed slope are unique for a given discharge and silt factor. The
following procedure is used for the design of channels.

Given: Discharge Q and silt factor f; if the silt factor is not known, it can be determined
from average size of the particles and equation (2.5).
Step 1: Determine the velocity from equation (2.9), V = (Q f2/140)1/6

Step 2: Calculate the area from A = Q/V

Step 3: Compute the wetted perimeter from equation (2.10), P  4.75 Q

Step 4: Knowing the area of flow, A, and the wetted perimeter, P, determine the depth D
and width B from the geometric relations given below.
A  BD  kD 2 and P  B  2 D k 2  1
5 5
3 3
f 0.0003 f
Step 5: Determine the bed slope from equation (2.13), S  1
 1
6 6
3340 Q Q
BD  kD 2
Check: Compute R from B and D using the relation R 
B  2D k 2  1
5V2
Compare it with the value obtained from equation (2.6), R 
2 f
Both values of R should be approximately equal.

The design of channels can also be carried out by the Lacey design diagrams, which
provide a graphical solution of the various equations.

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Examples:
3
1. Design an irrigation channel for the following data: Q = 20 m /s, silt factor, f = 1.00.
2 1/6 1/6
From eq. (2.9), V = (Q f /140) = (20 x1/140) = 0.72 m/s
2
Now A = Q/V = 20/0.72 = 27.78 m
From eq. (2.10), P  4.75 Q = 4.75 20 = 21.24 m
Taking k = 0.5, A  BD  kD 2 = BD + 0.5 D2 = 27.78 (a)
and P  B  2 D k  1 = B  D 5 = 21.24
2
(b)
From equations (a) and (b) above, by substituting one in the other, we have
D = 1.49 m and B = 17.91 m
5
3
f 1
From equation (2.13), S 1
= 1
= 0.0001817 = 1/5503
6 6
3340 Q 3340 x( 20 )

Check:
2 2
A = 17.91 x 1.49 + 0.5 (1.49) = 27.80 m
0.5
P = 17.91 + 1.49 (5) = 21.24 m
R = A/P = 27.80/ 21.24 = 1.31 m  V = Q/A = 20/ 27.80 = 0.72 m/s
2
From equation (2.6), V  f R  R = 2.5 V2/ f = 2.5 x (0.72)2/1.0 = 1.30 m (OK)
5

2. The bed slope of a regime channel is 1 in 5800. Determine the channel section and
discharge. The average particle size is 0.323 mm.

From equation (2.5), f  1.76 mr = 1.76 0.323 = 1.00

5
3
f 1 1
From equation (2.13), S 1
=   Q = 27.67 m /s
3

3340 Q 6 5800 3340Q 16

Now that the discharge and the silt factor are known, the section can be designed as usual.
2 1/6 1/6
From eq. (2.9), V = (Q f /140) = (27.67 x1/140) = 0.76 m/s
2
Now A = Q/V = 27.67/0.76 = 36.41 m
From eq. (2.10), P  4.75 Q = 4.75 27.67 = 24.99 m
Taking k = 0.5, A  BD  kD 2 = BD + 0.5 D2 = 36.41 (a)
and P  B  2 D k  1 = B  D 5 = 24.99
2
(b)
From equations (a) and (b) above, by substituting one in the other, we have
D = 1.64 m and B = 21.32 m

2.1.3. Tractive Force Approach

The tractive force approach is an improvement over the silt theories. The design of
alluvial channels using tractive force approach is based on the following principles.

The movement of the sediments at bed is caused by a force exerted on its grains by the
flowing water. This force is known as the tractive force and is equal to the component of
the weight of water in the direction of flow. For uniform flow, the mean tractive force per
unit area (or the shear stress) is given by
 R S (2.15)

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Where τ is the tractive force per unit area (kN/m2), γ is unit weight of water (kN/m3), R is
the hydraulic radius (m), and S is the bed slope.

The permissible tractive stress or the critical tractive stress (τc) is defined as the
maximum tractive stress that will not cause movement of the material forming the
channel bed on a level surface. When the tractive stress exceeds the critical tractive
stress, the particles start moving. The critical tractive stress is a function of the sediment
concentration and the average particle size of the bed material in the case of soils in
sandy soils.

Among the several expressions for critical tractive stress, some of the commonly used
are given below.

(a) Shields equation: According to Shields, the critical tractive stress (τc) is
proportional to the grain size (diameter) and the submerged unit weight of the sediment,
and is given by
 c  0.06  G  1d (2.16)
2 3
Where τc is the critical shear stress (kN/m ), γ is unit weight of water (kN/m ), G is the
specific gravity of sediment, and d is the grain diameter (m).
Taking G = 2.65 and γ =9.81 kN/m3, equation (2.16) becomes
 c  0.98 d (2.17)

(b) White equation: According to White,

 c  0.180 d (2.18)

(c) Lane’s equation: Lane gave the following equation

 c  0.78 d (2.19)
All the above equations are for a fully-developed turbulent flow. The values may be
reduced by 10% for slightly sinuous channels, by 25% for moderately sinuous channels,
and by 40% for sinuous channels.

The critical tractive stress on a sloping surface is less than that on a level surface. The
ratio (τs/ τl) can be determined from the relation,
s tan 2 
 cos  1 
l tan 2 
Where τs is the critical tractive stress on the sloping surface, τl is that on the level
surface,  is the angle of the sloping surface with the horizontal, and  is the angle of
repose.

Examples:
1. Design an unlined channel in alluvial soil by the tractive force approach for a discharge of 50
3
m /s from the following data.
(i) Bed slope = 1/5000
(ii) Side slopes = 0.5:1
(iii) Manning’s n = 0.0225
2
(iv) Permissible tractive stress = 0.0025 kN/m

From equation (2.15),  c     R S = 9.81 x R x 1 / 5000  0.0025  R = 1.27 m

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1 2 3 12 1 2 1
From Manning’s formula V R S = ( 1.27 ) 3 ( 1 / 5000 ) 2 = 0.737 m/s
n 0.0225
2
Therefore, A = Q/V = 50/0.737 = 67.82 m and P = A/R = 67.82/1.27 = 53.40 m
2
BD + 0.5 D = 67.82 (a)
B  D 5 = 53.40 (b)
From equations (a) and (b), substituting one into the other, we get
D = 1.33 m, and B = 50.43 m

2.1.4. Design of lined channels

A lined canal is a rigid boundary channel. It can withstand much higher velocity as
compared to an unlined channel. The design is similar to that of non-alluvial channels.
However, the maximum permissible velocity is relatively high. Table 2.6 gives the values
of the maximum permissible velocity adopted in practice.

Table 2.6 Maximum permissible velocity

Type of lining Maximum permissible velocity (m/s)
Boulder lining 1.5
Brick tile lining 1.8
Cement concrete lining 2.7

The design of lined channel is usually done by Manning’s formula and Manning’s n
depends on the type of lining; the higher values being for relatively rough surfaces and
the lower for smooth surfaces (See table 2.7).

Table 2.7 Manning’s n

Type of lining Manning’s n
Cement concrete lining 0.013 – 0.022
Brick tile lining 0.014 – 0.017
Asphalt lining 0.013 – 0.016
Concrete lined excavated rock 0.017 – 0.027

For the most economical section, the hydraulic radius should be a maximum.
Theoretically, a semi-circular section is the best hydraulic section for open channel.
However, it is not practicable to adopt this section. From the practical considerations, a
channel of trapezoidal or triangular section is usually selected.
Figure () shows triangular section. In triangular channels, as the lining rests only on the
side slopes, it cannot resist the earth pressure. It is, therefore, necessary to select the
side slopes equal to or less than the angle of repose of the natural soil. Table 3.8 gives
the suitable side slopes for channels excavated in different types of materials.

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Figure () Triangular Section

Table 2.8 Suitable side slopes

Type of material Side slope (H:V)
Loose sandy soil 2:1
Firm clay 1.5:1
Rock 0.125:1 to near vertical

Referring to Figure (), the geometric properties of the section are given as follows:
  
A  D 2 2 / 2   2 1 / 2 D 2 cot  
A  D   cot 
2

P  2D2 / 2   2 D cot 
P  2 D  cot 
Where  is in radians.

For large discharges, trapezoidal section is adopted (See Figure). The radius of the
corners is made equal to the depth D. The geometric properties of the section are given
below:

  
A  BD  D 2 2 / 2   2 1 / 2 D 2 cot  
A  BD  D   cot 
2

P  B  2 D  cot 
Given bed slope (S), side slope, Manning’s n and limiting velocity, the following steps
may be used to design a trapezoidal channel.
- Determine the flow area, A = Q/V
- Determine the hydraulic radius, R = (V n/S0.5)3/2
- Determine the wetted perimeter, P = A/R
- Determine B and D from the computed values of A and P by utilizing the
geometric properties given above.
Alternatively, the section can be designed, if instead of the limiting velocity, the B/D ratio
is given.

Figure () Trapezoidal Section

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Lining of canals is necessary: (1) to minimize the seepage loss in canal, (2) to increase
the discharge in canal section by increasing velocity, (3) to prevent erosion of bed and
sides due to high velocities, and (4) to reduce maintenance of canal. Although lining of
canals has the above advantages, it requires heavy initial investment.

Some of the important types of linings used for canals are: (1) Hard surface type lining –
concrete lining, precast concrete lining, brick lining, stone blocks or undressed stone
lining, and asphalt lining; (2) Earth type lining – soil-cement lining, clay lining, etc; (3)
Buried and protected membrane type lining – prefabricated light membrane lining.

The thickness of the canal lining being small, in most of the cases it is unable to
withstand any water pressure from the back of the lining. It is, therefore, necessary to
provide some kind of drainage and pressure release arrangement. Some of these
arrangements are:
- Weep hole – can be provided in canal lining and are covered at the back by
graded filter.
- Longitudinal and transverse drains – perforated open jointed pipes encased in
graded filter. These can be provided in side slopes and in the bed of the canal.

Reservoir Planning & Sedimentation (EngH 611) Lecture Note 12