CE 402-

ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING II
MODULE 2

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Sewer appurtenances-Man holes, Catch basin, flushing devices,
Inverted siphon.
Ventilation of sewers.
Sewage, Sewerage, Systems of sewerage
Sewage characteristics- Physical, chemical and biological
parameters
Biological oxygen demand, first stage BOD, Chemical oxygen
demand
Relative stability, Population equivalent.

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 SEWER APPURTENANCES
Sewer appurtenances are such devices of the sewerage system which are necessary to assist in
the efficient operation of the system (OR) Those structures which are constructed at suitable
intervals along a sewerage system, and help in its efficient operation and maintenance. These
include:
◦ Manholes and drop manholes
◦ Lamp holes
◦ Clean-outs
◦ Street inlets called Gullies
◦ Catch basins
◦ Flushing tanks
◦ Grease and oil traps
◦ Inverted Siphons
◦ Storm regulators

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 MANHOLES
◦ Manholes are masonry or R.C.C chambers, constructed on lines of sewers or
drains in order to enable men to enter or leave the sewers. The objectives are:
Inspection, cleaning and other maintenance-operation in connection with sewers.
The openings are fitted with suitable covers called manhole-covers. If the
manhole covers are perforated. They may also assist in ventilating the sewers.
◦ Location: The manholes are provided at every bend, junction, change of gradient,
or change of sewer diameter.
◦ The sewer line between two manholes is generally laid straight with even gradient
even when the sewer line runs straight, the man holes are provided at regular
Intervals.
◦ The larger is the diameter of the sewer, the greater will be the spacing between the
manholes.

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 Size of the sewer Recommended Spacing of Manholes on straight
reach of Sewer line per IS 1742-1960
Diameter up to 0.3m 45m

Diameter up to 0.6m 75m

Diameter up to 0.9m 90m

Diameter up to 1.2m 120m

Diameter up to 1.5m 250m

Diameter greater than 1.5m 300m

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CLASSIFICATION OF MANHOLES
Depending on their depth, the manholes may be classified as:
◦ Shallow manholes
◦ Normal manholes
◦ Deep manholes

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◦ Shallow manholes: le is about 0.7 to 0,9 m in depth, and its constructed
at the start of branch of a sewer or at places, which are not subjected to
heavy traffic. Such a manhole is provided with a light cover at its top, and
is called an Inspection chamber.
◦ Normal or medium manholes: It is about 15 m in depth and is
constructed either square or rectangular in cross-section. Such a
manhole is provided with a heavy cover at its top
◦ Deep manhole: it is having a depth more than 1.5m. Steps, etc. are
provided in such a manhole for facilitating descending into the manhole,
and to enable the workers to go up to its bottom. Such a manhole is
provided with heavy cover at Its top.

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 CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
A man hole may be considered co be made of three parts:
◦ Manhole-cover resting on a heavy frame.
◦ Access shaft
◦ Working chamber.
Manhole-cover: The manhole is provided with a cast iron cover and a cast Iron frame at is
top. The size of a rectangular cover is about 0.6 m x 0.45 m, and that of a circular cover
being 0.5 to 0.6m in diameter. The lighter cover is adopted to carry lighter traffic, and heavier
one is adopted to carry heavier traffic.
Access shaft: The upper portion of a deep manhole Is called access shaft Its minimum size
for a rectangular manhole Is about 0.75x0.6 m; and for a circular manhole, the minimum
diameter is about 0.6 to 0.75m. The upper portion is expanded in the lower portion by
providing an offset by providing R.C.C. slab or by arching, etc.
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◦ Working chamber: The lower portion of the manhole is known as the working
chamber as it provides a working space for inspecting and cleaning operations.
Its minimum size for a rectangular manhole is about 1.2mx 0.9m; and for a
circular manhole, the minimum diameter is about 1.2m. The height of this
chamber should generally be not less than 1.8m or so.

◦ The manhole is built on a concrete bed 15cm-30cm thick, the concrete floor of the
chamber slopes at I in 6 towards the center to form benching and is so
constructed that the sewage flows in a half round or U-shaped channel of same
diameter as that of the sewer, having sides extending vertically above the
horizontal diameter and with top edges suitably rounded off. This enables the
floor of the chamber to be easily drained of any undesirable water or backed up
sewage flow.

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 LAMP HOLES
Lamp holes are the small openings on sewers to permit the Insertion of lamp into the
sewer. The lamp light is then viewed from the upstream as well as the downstream
manholes. The obstructed light confirms the obstructions in the sewer. But however, lamp
holes are rarely used these days and have become obsolete.
Lamp holes are found suitable for use under the following situations
1. Where It becomes necessary to Insert bends In sewer
2. Where manholes can be constructed with difficulty
3. Where the straight length between manholes is to be
considerably more than the usual spacing of manholes.

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 DROP MANHOLES
◦ When the branch sewers enters a manhole by more than 0.5 to 0.6m above the main sewers
◦ The sewage is not allowed to fall directly into the manhole, but its brought into It through a
down pipe taken from the branch sewer to the bottom of the manhole.
◦ This is done to avoid chances of sewage splashing on a man working Inside the manhole
chamber.
◦ The manhole In which a vertical pipe Is used is called a drop manhole, whereas the one
using an Inclined pipe is called a ramp.
◦ A plug is provided at the point where branch sewer, if taken straight, intersects the wall of
the manhole.
◦ The length of the branch sewer between the vertical pipe and the plug Is known as
Inspection arm and can be used for inspecting and cleaning the branch sewer after opening
the plug
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 STREET INLETS, CALLED GULLIES
◦ Inlets are gullies or openings on the road surface at the lowest point for draining
rain water from roads, and admitting le Into the underground storm sewer.
◦ These inlets are located along the road side on straight roads at an interval of
30m to 60m.
◦ The inlets are connected to the nearby manholes by pipe lines (branches).
◦ Inlets are located usually at street intersection near low places so as not to
flood the cross-walks or cause interference to the traffic.
◦ Street inlet is a simple concrete box having gradings or openings in vertical or
horizontal direction.
◦ The inlets having vertical opening is known as the vertical inlet or the curb inlet,
and the Inlet having the horizontal openings is known as the horizontal Inlet.
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CATCH BASINS OR CATCH PITS
◦ Catch basins are the street Inlets provided with additional small settling
basins.
◦ Grit, sand, debris, etc, gets settled in these basins, and their entry into the
sewer is prevented
◦ In addition to this, a hood is also provided which prevents the escape of
foul gases, which may find its way through the sewer line.
◦ Catch basins need periodical cleaning, as otherwise the settled organic
matter may decompose, producing foul odors, and may also become a
breeding place for mosquitoes.

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 FLUSHING TANKS
◦ Devices that hold/store sewage/water and throw out or discharge into the sewer at
Intervals for the sewer flushing.
◦ Provided in the sewer sections where flow Is never sufficient to generate self-
cleansing velocity.
◦ These devices store water temporarily and throw it into the sewer for the purpose
of flushing and cleaning the sewer. Such devices are called flushing tanks.
◦ Two types of flushing operations are normally used
 Flushing operations using automatic flushing tank.
 Hand operated flushing operation
◦ The automatic type of flushing tanks are being used more commonly in modern
days.

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 AUTOMATIC FLUSHING TANKS
◦ The flushing operation is carried out automatically at regular
interval.
◦ The entry of water is so regulated as to fill the tank up to the
discharge point in a period equal to the flushing Interval.
◦ An overflow pipe is also provided to drain away water in case the
tank fails to discharge and thereby overflows.

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HAND OPERATED FLUSHING OPERATIONS
◦ The flushing and cleaning of sewers can be carried out at suitable Intervals by
mean of manual labor. It may be carried out in the following ways:
a) In one method, the outlet end of the manhole is closed by a sluice valve, etc.
The sewage entering the manhole from the Inlet end will then start collecting
in the manhole. When sufficient quantity of sewage gets accumulated the
outlet end of the manhole is suddenly opened, and the sewage is thus
allowed to enter the sewer, Causing flushing operation
b) In other method, the inlet end as well as the outlet end of the manhole are
closed by sluice valves, etc. The water from outside Is now made to enter
into the manhole. Flushing of sewer can then be carried out by opening the
outlet and the Inlet ends.
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 GREASE AND OIL TRAPS
Grease and oil traps are those trap chambers which are constructed In a sewerage system
to remove oil and grease from the sewage before It enters Into the sewer line.
Such traps are located near the sources contributing grease and oil to the sewage such as
workshops, garages, kitchens of hotels, oil and grease industries, etc.
The grease and oil should be removed from the sewage because:
◦ The grease and oil, if allowed to enter the sewer will stick to the sower sides thereby
reducing the sewer capacity.
◦ Due to the sticky nature of the grease and oil, the suspended matter will also stick to the
sides of the sewer.
◦ The presence of oil and grease in sewage adds to the possibilities of explosions In the
sewers.
◦ The presence of oil and grease makes the sewage treatment difficult.
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Principle: The grease and oil being lighter in weight, float on the top surface
of the sewage.
If an outlet draws the sewage from lower level, grease and oil will get
excluded.
Based on this principle, the grease and all crap chambers are designed in
such a way that the outer level is located near the bottom of the chamber,
and the inlet level is kept near the top of the chamber.
If sand is desired to be excluded from the sewage, dead space should be
also kept at the bottom of the chamber for sand to be deposited.
These traps should be cleaned periodically, as they would not function
property and sewage will not flow freely.
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 INVERTED SIPHONS
◦ Generally provided when the sewer pipe needs to be dropped beneath a
valley, a road, a railway, a stream, etc.
◦ The sewage through such pipe line will not flow under gravity, but will be
flowing under pressure.
◦ An inverted siphon is thus a sewer section constructed lower than the
adjacent sewer section, and it runs full under gravity with pressure greater
than the atmosphere.
◦ An Inverted siphon Is usually made of siphon tubers or pipes made of cast
Iron or concrete.

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 VENTILATION IN SEWERS
◦ Various gases are produced in the sewers due to decomposition of organic
materials of sewage.
◦ These gases are foul in nature, cause harm to human health and corrode
the sewers reducing their life.
◦ The gases so produced are highly explosive and in high concentration may
cause fatal accidents to the maintenance people on duty due to their
explosive and poisonous characters.
◦ Due to the above difficulties, ventilation is provided to the sewers lines at
every 80-100 meters which will provide fresh air to the workers working in
the manholes.
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Sewers are property ventilated to fulfill the following purposes:
i. Continuous flow : Ventilation relieves air pressure above or below
atmospheric caused due to sudden rise or fall of sewage. Due to this, air
locks will not be formed and continuous flow of sewage inside the sewer will
be ensured.
ii. Disposal of sewer gases : Ventilation prevents accumulation of explosive,
corrosive or poisonous gases and vapors. The Sewer gases Include
ammonia, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane (CH4), nitrogen,
sulphurated hydrogen (H2S), petrol vapor etc. Methane gas, being explosive,
may even blow off the manhole Covers, if it is not removed by proper
ventilation. These gases also interfere with the natural flow of sewage.
iii. Prevention of unpleasant odors : Ventilation prevents unpleasant odors.

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 METHODS OF VENTILATION
Ventilation may be done by adopting the following methods.
1. Man holes with gratings
2. Ventilating columns or shaft
3. Proper design and construction of sewer
4. Proper house drainage system
5. Unobstructed outlets
6. Use of mechanical devices

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 SEWAGE, SEWERAGE, SYSTEMS OF
SEWERAGE
◦ Sewage is the diluted mixture of wastes. It includes sullage, domestic WW, industrial WW,
etc
◦ Sewerage is the infrastructure that conveys sewage or surface runoff (stormwater, meltwater,
rainwater) using sewers. It encompasses components such as receiving drains, manholes,
pumping stations, storm overflows, and screening chambers of the combined sewer or
sanitary sewer.
◦ Sewerage systems are network of pipes, pumps, and force mains for the collection of
wastewater, or sewage, from a community.
◦ Modern sewerage systems fall under two categories: domestic and industrial sewers and
storm sewers.
◦ Sometimes a combined system provides only one network of pipes, mains, and outfall
sewers for all types of sewage and runoff.

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 SEWERAGE SYSTEMS TYPES
◦ It is the system and infrastructure of collecting, treating and disposal of
sewage.
There are three sewerage systems types:
1. Separate System
2. Partially Separate System
3. Combined System

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SEPARATE SYSTEM

◦ In this system two separate sets of sewer are installed, one for
collection and conveyance of sanitary sewage and other for storm
water.
◦ As storm water is carried separately, it is not foul in nature and normally
disposed off to natural water course without any treatment.
◦ Where as the sanitary sewage is taken to treatment plant separately
and after requires treatment it is disposed off

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ADVANTAGES
◦ Size of sewer is less.
◦ Since the sanitary sewage and storm water flows in separate pipes, the
quantity of sewage to be treated is less.
◦ As the sewers are smaller in section, they can be easily ventilated.
◦ During disposal if the sewage is to be pumped, the separate system is
cheaper,
◦ Rain water can be discharged in to steams without any treatment.

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DISADVANTAGES
◦ Since the sewers are smaller size, it is difficult to clean them.
◦ They are likely to get chocked.
◦ Initial cost is high, when two separate sets are used.
◦ Maintenance cost of sewer is also high.
◦ Generally self cleaning velocity is not available due to small quantity of
sewage therefore, flushing is required at various point.

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PARTIALLY SEPARATE SYSTEM
◦ Partially separate- A part of drainage (originating from roofs
and paved courtyards ) is admitted into sewers
OR
◦ Domestic sewage from residences and institutions admitted
into drain

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ADVANTAGES
◦ The sewer are of reasonable size. Their cleaning is therefore
not difficult.
◦ It combines the advantages of both the separate as well as
the combined systems.
◦ The work of house plumbing is reduced, because the rain
water from roof, sullage from baths and kitchen, etc. can be
taken in the pipe carrying the discharge from the water closet.

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DISADVANTAGES
◦ During dry weather deposition takes place in sewer.
◦ As initial storm water is included the cost of pumping and size of
disposal units increase.
◦ The storm water increases the load on treatment units.
◦ There are possibilities of over flow, requiring the construction of storm
water overflow.

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COMBINED SYSTEM
◦ When both sanitary sewage and storm water are carried in a single
sewer, it is called a combined sewer system.
◦ When the flow in a combined sewer consists of only domestic sewage
and industrial waste without storm water, flow is called 'DRY WEATHER
FLOW”

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ADVANTAGES
◦ Both domestic sewage and storm water are carried in a single sewer,
so construction cost is less.
◦ The strength of domestic sewage is reduced because of dilution of
storm water.
◦ The sewers are of large size, and therefore the chances of their
chocking are rare. It is easy to clean them.
◦ In town with narrow street, this systems is preferred.

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DISADVANTAGES
◦ Initial cost is high because of large dimensions of sewers.
◦ Because of large size of sewer, their handling and transportation is
difficult.
◦ Due to the inclusion of storm water, the load on the treatment plant
increase.
◦ During heavy rain the sewer may be overflow and may thus create
unhygienic conditions.
◦ If the whole sewage is to be disposed off by pumping it is uneconomical.

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SEWAGE CHARACTERISTICS
◦ Physical parameters:-Specific Conductivity, Temperature of Water,
odour Colour, Turbidity
◦ Chemical parameters:-Total Solids and Suspended Solids, pH, chloride
content, nitrogen content, presence of fats, oil and greases, dissolved
oxygen, COD,BOD, Sulphides, Sulphates, H2S
◦ Bacteriological parameters

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PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
◦ Colour : Color is due to the suspended and other matters found in wastewater.
If sewage is fresh it has a soap solution color i.e grey-brown and decomposed
sewage has dark grey color.
◦ Odour: Fresh sewage is of soapy or oily odour but stale sewage has
offensive odour due to H2S, CH4
◦ Temperature: Generally sewage has slightly higher temperature than the water
which increases the biological activities.
◦ Turbidity : It is very turbid than water due to the presence of high suspended
and other impurities

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CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
◦ Solids : 350-1200 mg/L
• Though sewage typically contains zero to 0.1 % solids, the remainder being water(99.9%),
still the nuisance caused by the solids cannot be unnoted, as these solids are extremely
degradable and so need correct disposal.
• The sewage solids could also be classified into dissolved solids, suspended solids and
settleable solids.
• Data of the volatile or organic fraction of solid, that decomposes, becomes necessary, as
this constitutes the load on biological treatment units or resources of a stream once
sewage is disposed off by dilution.
• The estimation of suspended solids, each organic and inorganic, provides a general image
of the load on deposit and grit removal system throughout sewage treatment. Dissolved
inorganic fraction is to be thought-about once sewage is employed for land irrigation or the
other utilizations are planned.

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CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
◦ pH
 The hydrogen ion concentration expressed as –log [H+], could be a
valuable parameter within the operation of biological units.
 The pH of fresh sewage is slightly alkaline. However, decomposition of
organic matter might lower the pH. The pH scale of raw sewage vary
from 5 to 8.0.

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◦ DO (Dissolved Oxygen)
It is the amount of oxygen dissolved in wastewater. Presence of it indicates the
sewage is fresh or oxidation has occurred after treatment. It is necessary to
ensure at least 4 ppm of DO in stream in which treated wastewater is disposed
otherwise fish are likely to be killed. Found by Winkler’s method

◦ BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand)

BOD is defined as the amount of oxygen required for the bacteria to oxidize the
organic matter present in the sewage. BOD of water during 5
days at 200C is known as the standard demand and is 68% of total or
ultimate demand.
BOD5= DO consumed* dilution factor
1% diluted sample means 1 ml diluted to 100 ml

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 BOD
The Biochemical (or Biological) oxygen demand (BOD) is a measure of the amount of dissolved oxygen
required to break down the organic material in a given volume of water through aerobic biological activity. (
By Micro-organism)
Types of BOD
1.Carbonaceous stage or first stage BOD
2.Nitrogenous stage or second stage BOD
BOD curve
Derivation for first stage BOD

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Expression for BOD ( first stage)
dLt/dt=-kLt k= deoxygenation constant/ BOD rate constant, L=
organic matter at t=0, Lt= Organic matter at “t”
dLt/Lt=-kdt
ln Lt=-kt+C
t=0,Lt=L C=lnL
lnLt=-kt+lnL
In(Lt/L)=-kt
Lt/L=e-kt
Yt=L-Lt=L(1-e-kt ) OR Yt=L(1-10-kDt) (kD=k/2.3) Yt= organic matter
oxidised or BODt
k(T)= k20o(1.047)T-20 50
◦ COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand)
It is defined as the amount of oxygen required for chemical oxidation of
organic matters to CO and water
2

COD is expressed in terms of amount of oxygen required to chemically oxidize

organic matter using a strong oxidizing agent like potassium dichromate under
acidic condition.
BOD/COD <1 and approach 1 with decreasing Non biodegradable organics
BOD ultimate is not measured but BOD is measured. BOD /COD= BOD/
5 5

COD and BOD =68% of BOD Ultimate.

5

BOD /COD for fully biodegradable will be 0.92 * 0.68=0.63 to 1* 0.68=

5

0.68 ( BOD to COD ratio for fully biodegradable waste is 0.92 to 1)

TOC- Total organic carbon- Another method of expressing organic content in terms
of carbon content

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Chloride content
◦ Kitchen waste. Human faeces, urinary discharges, industries, seawater intrusion
◦ Permissible 250 mg/l
Nitrogen Content
Form of
Ammonia- indicates first stage of decomposition of organic matter
Albuminoid Nitrogen_ Organic nitrogen- quantity of nitrogen before decomposition
Ammonia + albuminoid N2=Kjedahl nitrogen
Nitrites-Partly decomposed
Nitrates- Fully oxididised-stable

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Fats, oil and greases
◦ Kitchens and from animal and vegetable matter
◦ Form scum in sedimentation tank and clog voids in filters
◦ Evaporating sewage and mixing solids residual solids with ether-
evaporated- Fats, oil and grease left as residue
◦ Sulphide, Sulhate and H2S
◦ Aerobic decomposition Sulphur and compounds form sulphides and then
to sulphate
◦ Anaerobic- Sulphides with evolution of H2S

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BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
◦ Biological characteristic of sewage is related to the presence of these
microorganisms. Presence of bacteria and other microorganisms like
algae, fungi and protozoa. Most of them non pathogenic, which are
helpful in oxidation and decomposition of sewage. Some are
pathogenic. Bacteriological tests are not performed in raw sewage due
to high concentration of bacteria

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 RELATIVE STABILITY
Relative stability of a treated sewage effluent may be defined as the ratio
of oxygen available in the effluent (as DO, nitrite or nitrate) to the total
oxygen required to satisfy its first stage BOD demand.
◦ It is expressed as a percentage of the total oxygen required.
S = 100 [1- (0.794) t 20 ] or S = 100 [1- (0.630) t37 ]
S = Relative stability
t 20 and t 37 represent the time in days for a sewage sample to
decolourise a standard volume of methylene blue solution, when incubated
at 20 ˚C or 37 ˚C respectively

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 POPULATION EQUIVALENT

Industrial wastewaters are generally compared with per capita domestic

sewage, through the concept of Population equivalent using per capita
BOD value as the basis.
◦ Population equivalent = Total BOD5 of the industrial wastewater (kg/day)
/ BOD5 value(kg) per capita per day
◦ The average standard BOD5 of domestic sewage is worked out to be
0.08 kg/day/person.

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THANK YOU

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