Abstract

In order to make the process of construction easy and to have efficient working and maintenance,
the sewer system requires various additional other structures. These are called as sewer
appurtenances.

Sewer system requires various types of appurtenances for their proper functioning and
maintenance, because simply sewers are laid, the sewage cannot flow in it continuously for
longer time .After some time it will be chocked up and requires cleaning of sewers. If sewerage
system is not properly maintained silt, ashes, grit, oil, fats, etc. will chock the sewer lines.
Therefore, for proper operation and maintenance of sewerage system various devices are
required.

These are the appurtenances are as follows.

 Manhole.
 Catch basin.
 Cleanouts.
 Oil & grease trap.
 Inlets.
 Lampholes..
 Drop manholes.
 Flushing tanks.
 Inverted siphons.
 Sewer ventilators.

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Manholes
A manhole is an opening constructed on the alignment of sewer for facilating a person access to
the sewer for the purpose of inspection, testing, cleaning & removal of obstruction from the
sewer line.

Fig1.

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Object
The following are the objects of the construction of manholes-

 They permit inspection, cleaning, maintenance of sewer line. The obstructions in the
sewage flow are collected in manholes and then they brought to the surface.
 The manholes allow the joining the sewers or changing the direction or alignment or
both.
 A manhole sometimes receives the contribution of sewage from sewers of various sizes
and coming from various directions.
 If manholes covers are perforated, the manholes may allow the escape of undesirable
gases and thus, ventilation of sewers can be achieved.
 The manholes facillate the laying of sewers lines in convenient lengths.

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Location
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Manholes should be built at every change of alignment, gradient and diameter. At the head of all
sewers and branches and at every junction of two or more sewers. On sewers which are to be
cleaned manually which cannot be entered for cleaning or inspection, the maximum distance
between the two manholes should be 30 mt.

Square manhole cover Rectangular manhole cover

Constructional details -

The manholes are constructed directly over the centre line of the sewer. They are circular &
rectangular in shape. Manholes should be of such size as will allow necessary cleaning &
inspection of manholes.

A) Rectangular manholes

These are the manholes of sizes like

1) For the depth of manholes less than 0.90mtr, 900x800mm.

2) For the depth of manholes 0.90 up to 2.5 mtr, 1200x900mm.

B) Arch type manhole

For the depth of 2.5 & above arch type of manhole can be provided and the internal sizes of
chambers between brick faces shall be 1400x900mm.the width of manhole chamber on bends
and junction of pipes with dia. greater than 450mm, should be suitably increased to 900mm or
more so that benching width on either side of channel is at least 200mm.

C) Circular manholes

The circular manholes may be constructed as a alternative to rectangular as well as arch type
manholes. These are the manholes are provided for all the depth starting from 0.90 m. circular
manholes are straight down in lower portion and slanting in top portion so as to narrow down the
top opening equal to dia. of manhole cover. Depending upon the depth of manhole the diameter
of manhole changes. The internal diameter of circular manholes may be kept as following
depths.

 For depth above 0.90m and up to 1.65m, 900mm diameter.

 For depth above 1.65m and up to 2.30m, 1200mm diameter.
 For depth above 2.30m and up to 9.0m, 1500mm diameter.
 For depth above 9m and up to 14m, 1800mm diameter.

If the sewers are constructed in tunnel the manhole should be located at the access of working
shafts and the manhole chamber must be constructed of a size to suit the working shaft or vice-
versa.

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The openings for entry into the manhole (without cover) should be of such minimum dimensions
as to allow workman with a cleaning equipments to access into the manhole without any
difficulty. A circular opening is generally preferred. A minimum clear opening of 60cm is
recommended. Suitable steps usually of cast iron shall be provided at entry.

Access shaft for large sewers

Access shaft shall be circular in shape and shall have a minimum internal dia. of 750mm. Where
the depth of shaft exceeds 3m suitable dimensions shall be provided to facilitate cleaning and
maintenance.

Access shaft where built of brickwork should be controlled on three sides it to the size of the
opening in the cover frame, and to provide easy access on the forth side to step irons or ladder in
determining sizes, the dimension of maintenance equipment likely to be used in the sewers shall
be kept in view.

Where the dia. of sewer is increased, the crown of the entering and leaving pipes shall be fixed at
the same level and necessary slope is given in the invert of the manhole chamber.

A slab, generally of plain cement concrete at least 150mm thick should be provided at the base to
support the walls of the manholes and to prevent the entry of ground water. The thickness of the
base also shall be suitably increased upto 300mm for manholes on large dia. with reinforcement.
in case of large manholes ,the flow in the sewer should be carried in U shaped smooth channel
constructed integrally with the concrete base of manhole. The side of the channel should be equal
to the dia. of largest sewer pipe.

The side walls of the manhole are usually constructed of cement brick work 250mm thick and
corbelled suitably to accommodate the frame of the manhole cover.

Hazards of manhole work

The element of the sewer maintenance ignored very often and which requires careful attention
and protective measures is the manhole work. The staff should be trained for comparatively easy
act of removing a manhole cover, not only to avoid smeshed toes and fingers, but also to prevent
more serious back injuries. In addition, the approaching drivers on the road should be warned
from a distance about the manhole work in progress by the installation of suitable signals or
lights.

The most serious hazard of manhole work are however flammable gas and oxygen deficiency.
The staff should be thoroughly trained to carry out simple tests on every manhole before entry
for oxygen deficiency, combustible, carbon monoxide or hydrogen sulphide.

If however an emergency demands to enter a gas-filled manhole or one where oxygen may be
lacking, the worker should wear a self contained air breathing mask and a safety harness with

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lifetime. The extra two other employees should be stationed at the manhole opening because one
individual cannot life an unconscious person out of a manhole.

Manhole safety
 Use safety harness & life line before entering into the sewer line. The two persons should
stand at the top and they should give the signals to the person in manholes.
 Test for the hazardous gases before entering into the manhole.
 The manhole should be opened before one hour of the work. The care should be taken
that it should be fenced to prevent any person, children in to the manholes. The dummy
covers should be provided.
 Use the mask when man have to into the sewer line.
 No material should be kept near to the manhole as it can fall into the manhole which
cause the accident.
 Test the ladders of manhole before entering into the manholes.
 The lighting material should be fire proof.
 Lower all the tools into the manhole through buckets only.

Drop manhole
When a sewer connects with another sewer, where the difference in level between water lines of
main line and the invert level of branch line is more than 600mm or a drop of more than 600mm
is required to be given in the same sewer line and it is uneconomical and impracticable to

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arrange the connection with in 600mm, a drop connection shall be provided for which a manhole
may be built incorporating a vertical or near vertical drop pipe from the higher sewer to lower
sewer. This pipe may be outside the shaft and encased in concrete or supported on brackets
inside the shafts. which should be suitably enlarged. If the drop pipe is outside the shaft the
continuation of sewers should be built through the shaft wall to form a rodding and inspection
eye. Which should be provided with a half blank flange. If the drop pipe is inside the shaft, it
should be in cast iron and it would be advantageous to provide adequate means for rodding and
water cushion of 150mm depth should also be provided. The diameter of the back drop should be
atleast as large as that of incoming pipe.

The drop pipe should terminate at its lower end with a plain or duck foot turned so as to
discharge its flow at 45 degrees or less to the direction of the flow in main sewer and the pipe
unless of cast iron, should be surrounded with 150mm of concrete.

In case of sewers over 450mm in diameter the drop in level may be

accomplished by one of the following methods

a) A cascade-
This is a steep ramp composed of steps over which the flow is broken up and retarded. A pipe
connecting the two levels is often concreted under the steps to allow small flows to pass without
trickling over the steps. The cascade steps may be made of heavy duty bricks of class I quality
cement concrete with granolithic finish or dressed granite.

b) A ramp
A ramp may be formed by increasing the grade of the last length of the upper sewer to about 45
degree or by constructing a steeply graded channel or culvert leading from the high level to the
low level. In order to break up the flow down the ramp and minimise the turbulence in the main
sewer. The floor of culvert ramp should be obstructed by raised transverse ribs of either brick or
concrete at 1.15 m intervals and a stilling pool provided at the bottom of the ramp.

c) By drops in previous successive manholes

Instead of providing the total drop required at the junction manhole , the same may be achieved
by giving smaller drops in successive manholes preceding the junction manhole. Thus, for

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example, if a total drop of 2.4 m is required to be given, 0.6 m drop may be given in each of the
previous three manholes and the last 0.6m may be given at the junction manhole.

CONCLUSION
Various gases are produced in the sewers due to decomposition of organic materials of sewage.
These gases are foul in nature, cause harm to human health and corrode the sewers reducing their
life. The gases so produced are highly explosive and in high concentration may cause fatal
accidents to the maintenance people on duty due to their explosive and poisonous characters.
Due to the above difficulties, ventilation is provided to the sewers lines at every 80-100 meters
which will provide fresh air to the workers working in the manholes.

It may be of RCC or cast iron 15 to 23 cm in diameter with a cowl provided at the top. The
ventilating shaft is generally connected to the manholes by 15 cm in diameter pipe. In open
areas, the manhole covers may provided with vent pipes, but in crowed areas they should be air
tight and connected with ventilating shaft.

In modern, well designed sewerage system, there is no need to provide ventilation on such
elaborate scale considered necessary in the past specially with the present day to omit
intercepting traps in house connections. The ventilating columns are not necessary where
intercepting traps are not provided. It is necessary however to make provision for the escape of
air to take care of the exigencies of full flow and also to keep the sewage as fresh as possible
espically in outfall sewers. In storm water this can be done by providing ventilating manhole
covers.

REFERENCES
i. Soil engineering in theory and practice volume-3 by Alam Singh.

ii. Foundation analysis and design by Joseph.E.Bowles.

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iii. Foundation design by Nainan.P.Kurian.

iv. IS 15284(part 1)-2003 design and construction for ground improvement- Guidelines (Part 1) -
Stone columns.

v. IS 13094-1992 Ground improvement-techniques on weak soil.

vi. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhole

vii. https://www.seminarsonly.com/Civil_Engineering/sewer-appurtenances-seminar-ppt.php

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